Journal of Homosexuality, 56:738756, 2009 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0091-8369 print/1540-3602 online DOI:

: 10.1080/00918360903054210

Journal 1540-3602 0091-8369 Homosexuality WJHM of Homosexuality, Vol. 56, No. 6, June 2009: pp. 130

The Boy Who Would Be Queen: Hints and Closets on Childrens Television
JEFFERY P. DENNIS, PhD
Department of Sociology, SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, New York, USA

J. P. Dennis The Boy Who Would Be Queen

Although American television programs targeted at children and adolescents posit universal heterosexuality and never openly allude to LGBT persons, a content analysis of 102 episodes of 25 contemporary childrens programs revealed many examples of resistance to the heteronormative ideology: intimate same-sex friendships; inclusive statements or stage business; scenes that hint at the existence of same-sex desire; gender-transgressive or otherwise gay-stereotyped characters; and jokes and references that require a knowledge of gay culture. The impact of this resistance on viewers is analyzed through fan fiction and artwork, and potential explanations are examined. KEYWORDS adolescence, children, gay men, heteronormativity, homosexuality, mass media, stereotypes, television, youth

During the last two decades, gay men and lesbians have become increasingly common across the spectrum of television programming (Capsuto, 2000; Raley & Lucas, 2006; Smith, 1991). Home makeover programs target same-sex couples nearly as often as malefemale couples; gay or lesbian contestants regularly win reality show competitions; even staid network sitcoms occasionally feature gay or lesbian stereotypes. However, programs targeted to children and adolescents remain utterly silent about gay potential, either because the writers, directors, and actors believe that children must not be aware that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered (LGBT) people exist, or because they fear public disapprobation. In 2005, the rumor that a video starring undersea denizen Spongebob Squarepants would include a plea for tolerance of gay people prompted hysterical protests from

Address correspondence to Jeffery P. Dennis, Department of Sociology, SUNY Oneonta, Oneonta, NY 13820. E-mail: dennisjp@oneonta.edu 738

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watchdog groups and aghast denials from producers. Any hour of evening programming on the three major childrens networks, Nickelodeon, the Disney Channel, and Cartoon Network, will portray boys and girls of every age, from toddlers to teenagers, swooning over persons of the other sex, having boyfriends and girlfriends, going steady, falling in and out of love, but never a word suggesting that heterosexual experience is not universal human experience. Yet, in that same hour of evening programming, there will be a dozen hints and signals, references that make no sense without an awareness of gay culture, jokes that subtly acknowledge same-sex desire or practice, intimate friendships that would be instantly ravaged by watchdog groups if they used the word gay, and exhortations that nobody can tell you who to love. Queering, locating undertows of same-sex desire between putatively heterosexual characters (Doty, 1993), is actually easier in programs targeted to children and adolescents than those targeted to adults. Several scholars have analyzed the potential of childrens television, particularly the animated cartoon, to both maintain and disrupt dominant ideologies (Davies, 1995; Dennis, 2003; Dines, 1995), but few have commented on apparent paradox of staunch heteronormativity (Warner, 1993) coexisting with winking asides; indeed, most fail to acknowledge the existence of LGBT people at all (e.g., Bryant, 2006; Buckingham, 1996; Gunther, 1997; Lemish, 2006). This study will investigate the disruptions of heteronormativity in a sample of current television programs aimed at children and adolescents, and argue that they are used by LGBT viewers to actively resist the ideological attempt to erase their desires and practices from conscious thought.

METHOD
For this study, the population of television programs was limited to three childrens networks available in most basic cable packages in the United States and via satellite in other countries: the Cartoon Network, the Disney Channel, and Nickelodeon. To avoid the adult-oriented Nick at Nite on Nickelodeon and Adult Swim on the Cartoon Network, the population was further narrowed to include only programs airing during the early evening hours, between 6:00 and 9:00 p.m. Eastern time. Only programs produced in the United States or Canada were included to avoid the cultural difficulties of deciphering same-sex desire in Japanese anime. Finally, programs featuring only nonhumans, such as Spongebob Squarepants and Camp Lazlo, were excluded. Twenty-five programs remained, eight on the Cartoon Network, nine on the Disney Channel, and eight on Nickelodeon. During March and April 2007, a total of 102 episodes were analyzed, including a systematic sample of between one and five episodes per

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program, depending on the network rotation (Lafayette, 2004; Schmuckler, 2006), plus a purposive sample of additional episodes of series judged particularly likely to disrupt heteronormativity. Viewer responses were analyzed through the forums on tv.com and Nickelodeon.com, fan fiction uploaded to the Web site FanFiction.net, and fan artwork uploaded to FanArtCentral.net and DeviantArt.com. Three independent variables were measured: format, live action or animation; age, child or adolescent protagonists; and fantasy, the degree to which the program departed from film conventions for staging mundane reality. Fifteen of the programs, slightly more than half, were animated; 12 of these featured children in primary roles, and only 3 featured adolescents (American Dragon: Jake Long, The Emperors New School, Kim Possible). Eight of the 10 live-action programs featured adolescents, usually in middle school or the first year of high school; only 2 (The Naked Brothers Band, The Suite Life of Zack and Cody) featured children (see Appendix 1). No doubt this pattern reflects the intended audiences: animation is directed primarily at older children (912 years old), and live-action is directed primarily at younger teenagers (1215 years old), though both types of programs draw viewers from other age groups, including a significant number of adults. The live action programs targeted at younger teenagers, like programs targeted to older teenagers and adults (M. White, 1992; Wilson, 1993), tended to be strictly naturalistic, depicting a stereotypic normal life with a minimum of science fiction or paranormal conventions, although a few, such as Neds Declassified School Survival Guide, had surreal elements. The animated series tended to have an equally naturalistic frame: The children live in nuclear families, in stereotypical American suburbs, attend school, and are concerned with homework, tests, sports, and bullies. However, animated stories always moved beyond the everyday: On Fairly Oddparents, misapplied wishes send Timmy Turner and his fairy godparents into a bewildering array of alternative universes, while The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy might involve a tour of the underworld or an encounter with Eris, the Goddess of Discord. Six dependent variables were measured. Intimate friendships were same-sex friendships of particular intensity and intimacy, which could be read (or misread) as depictions of homoerotic bonds. Inclusivity appeared in statements that failed to universalize heterosexual desire (When you like someone rather than When a boy and a girl like each other), as well as stage business that failed to universalize heterosexual practice (a male teen idol has fans of both sexes rather than only girls). Hints, suggestions that same-sex desire or practice exists, were measured through explicit same-sex practices (dancing, dating, kissing), even if presented as a mistake or a joke. Stereotypes included gender-transgressive interests or activities (a boy who studies ballet, a girl in shop class), even if presented as unremarkable or

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praiseworthy; transvestism, even if presented as a mistake or a joke; and male characters with feminine affect, or female characters with masculine affect. References were jokes, statements, titles, or character names that demonstrate an awareness of gay culture. Finally, physicality referred to depictions of masculine beauty, which might subvert the heterosexual male gaze and provide a space for awareness of male same-sex attraction; such depictions could be adolescents or adults, or preteen boys subjected to magical transformations (e.g., in the introductory montage of Fairly Oddparents, Timmy Turner wishes for and receives a buff bod). Female physicality was not measured because it was ubiquitous.

INTIMATE FRIENDSHIPS
Many same-sex friendships in mass media texts are sufficiently intense and intimate to be queered, read or misread as tacit validations of same-sex experience. However, the childrens programs examined for this study seem almost deliberately designed to forestall queering. In 12 shows, the primary relationship was a boygirl pair, either platonic friends or brother and sister, and in 7, friends came in trios or groups, so no special same-sex intimacy could be distinguished. Six programs did feature same-sex pairs in primary roles, but the possibility that the characters might have an unstated homoerotic bond was minimized by making them brothers (The Suite Life of Zack and Cody) or foster brothers (Drake and Josh), or by making one of the partners nonhuman, a sort of sentient pet (Fosters Home for Imaginary Friends, My Gym Partners a Monkey, Squirrel Boy). Two episodes depicted primary characters developing an instant, intense crush on someone of the same sex, but these bonds were only temporary. On Hannah Montana, teenage Jackson (Jason Earles) meets celebrity hanger-on Stavros (Daniel Booko), who leers at him, says awesome in appreciation of his beauty, and bluntly asks him out. A subsequent montage shows the boys delighted in each others company and ignoring pop star Hannah; but Stavros turns out to be shallow and drops Jackson when a better opportunity arises. On The Suite Life of Zack and Cody, visiting teen idol Jesse McCarthy, playing himself, ignores the girls fawning over him and eagerly courts Zack (Dylan Sprouse); his enthusiasm surprises everyone and suggests an emotional investment that cannot easily be explained as male bonding. Although primary characters were forever forming intimate bonds with the other sex, secondary characters often came in male same-sex pairs. Chester and A.J. on Fairly Oddparents do everything together, including dance together at parties; when A.J. expresses a temporary interest in a girl, Chester yells Ive lost him! On Drake and Josh, the nerds Eric (Scott Halberstadt) and Craig (Alec Medlock) bicker, finish each others sentences,

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make in-jokes, and refer to long-past experiences, precisely like a romantic couple. They are distraught over losing the photos from their trip to Niagara Falls, a stereotypic honeymoon destination; they dance together at a friends wedding; Craig reaches out as if to take Erics hand (but the camera shifts upward, obscuring the gesture). In one episode, they break up, realize how much they care for each other, and reconcile (while Drake sings Beautiful Dreamer). On Neds Declassified School Survival Guide, the bully Loomer (Kyle Swann) and his sidekick Crony (Teo Olivares) hang on each other in a manner that would elsewhere signify romantic attachment and high-five each other obsessively, for any reason and for no reason at all except that it allows them to momentarily clasp hands. In one episode, Crony struggles to come out to the other students about his gender-transgressive interest in fashion design, a veiled metaphor for coming out as gay; he is particularly apprehensive about telling Loomer for fear that the revelation might destroy their friendship.

INCLUSIVITY
Television nearly always reproduces an ideology of heteronormativity, where gender and sexual desire are inextricably linked, so boys by definition like girls, and girls by definition like boys (Briggs, 2006; C. White & Preston, 2005). Childrens programming is no exception: When a boy is interested in someone, he is invariably asked Whats her name?, and a girl is invariably asked if she has begun to notice boys, as if heterosexual interest were an inevitable part of growing up. On Ed, Edd, and Eddy, all five male characters swoon in unison when an attractive girl passes. On Fairly Oddparents, disgruntled teacher Mr. Crocker and wisecracking genie Norm join forces to get revenge on their enemy, Timmy Turner. Norm ridicules each of Crockers elaborate schemes through reference to failed heterosexual practice: I bet that works on the ladies every time!; Hunchback of NeverDated-a-Dame!; Seriously, have you ever even talked to a girl? His jibes would make no sense if Crockeror any manmight be gay, but in his world, every male, human, fairy, or genie, can be judged on his proficiency at talking to girls. Among live-action programs, only Neds Declassified was inclusive in nearly every episode, regularly advising viewers, When you like someone, not When a boy likes a girl, and depicting a school dance full of groups and trios rather than boygirl couples. The Suite Life also depicted a dance full of groups and trios, as well as two boys quite obviously dancing together, without female partners. On Drake and Josh, when the nerd Eric suddenly becomes popular, he is surrounded by new friends of both sexes, and he goes out to dinner with one girl and three boys.

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Two animated series displayed inclusivity, but on Fairy Oddparents, it appeared sporadically, at the whim of the animator. Teen idol Chip Skylark has only female fans in one episode, fans of both sexes in another. When space alien Mark Chang enrolls in Timmy Turners school, disguised as a dreamy Earth boy, he rejects displays of affection as inappropriate for his macho, warlike culture. In one episode, only girls are trying to hug him, and in another, boys and girls both. The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy expressed inclusivity more often, but more subtly, through depiction of unconventional heterosexual romance. Irwins mother turns out to be a decaying, 5,000-year-old Egyptian mummy; his father advises that no one can tell you who to fall in love with. Santa Claus turns out to be married to a female vampire, who has bitten him several times over the years. You cant control who you love, he explains. Although these relationships both pair male and female creatures, they tacitly validate same-sex bonds, which certainly would be far more conventional.

HINTS
Every live action program, without exception, depicted every central character as obsessed with heterosexual practice. In 100% of the live action episodes analyzed, a boy expressed an interest in the honeys, or a girl tried to get a dreamy boy to notice her. Being preteen was no excuse: On The Suite Life of Zack and Cody, the 12-year old twins dated girls in three of the episodes analyzed and expressed hetero-horniness in all of the others. On The Naked Brothers Band, a 10-year old rock star was assigned to kiss a girl in his new music video, and bragged about the many times he had gotten busy previously. However, hints of same-sex practice, usually male, were relatively common. On Zoey 101, a boy is mistakenly paired with another boy for a school dance. On Cory in the House, Cory believes that he is being asked out by another boy, and responds Youre not my type. On The Suite Life, Zack asks Cody to come along on his date with a popular girl, but Cody believes that he has an ulterior motive: Im not dating her creepy sister, or her brotheror her dog. The pause before dog and the subsequent laughter suggest that it is the punchline, the only absurdity, that Zack might indeed expect Cody to date a boy. Neds Declassified devoted an entire episode to a very blatant hint. Jennifer (Lindsey Shaw) has a crush on school hunk Seth (Alex Black), and begs her buddy Ned (Devon Werkheiser) to ask him out for her. Seth believes that Ned wants the date, and replies Sure, but just as friends. I like you, Ned, but not in that way. The statement rather boldly implies that being gay is unremarkable at Polk Middle School; Seth could only misinterpret

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Neds intentand respond so nonchalantlyif he is familiar with the phenomenon of same-sex dating. Seth does eventually agree to a date with Jennifer, but he spends the episode behaving as if he does indeed like Ned in that way, grinning at him, hugging him, and accidentally sabotaging his attempt to get a date with a girl. In the last scene he tells Ned, Ill pick you up around seven tonight. Well catch a flick and get a corn dog. Ned starts to protest, but when Jennifer assures him that she doesnt mind, he shrugs and acquiesces: a date is a date. The scene fades with the three friends walking away, Seth trying to put his arm around a squirming Ned. In another episode, Ned tries to cheer up a depressed boy, Marc Downer (Ronald Patrick). Reasoning that opposites attract, he introduces Downer to the cheerful Martin Qwerly (Tylor Chase). They fail to hit it off, so Ned tries again, this time with a Goth girl. The two downers fall in love instantly and walk away, happily discussing the meaninglessness of life. Although a heterosexual relationship was effective, Ned tried matching Downer with a boy first and obviously considers same-sex relationships equally valid. Animated series did not depict universal heterosexual desire in such rapacious excess, but still, boys swooned over girls, or girls over boys, in most of the episodes analyzed, and dating, dancing, crushes, and kisses were standard plot devices. Each of the main characters on The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy, the sinister Mandy, the dopey Billy, and the Grim Reaper, had at least one heterosexual crush during the episodes analyzed. On Fosters Home for Imaginary Friends, both 8-year old Mac and his imaginary friend Bloo became interested in Frankie, the female manager of the foster home. Only Ben 10 was excused entirely from expressions of heterosexual desire. In spite of the heteronormative background, hints were common in animated series, and particularly in the series with a high degree of fantasy. Fairly Oddparents hinted in nearly every episode, but always as offhand comments, never essential to the plots. When Timmy Turner morphs into a muscular teenager, his friends Chester and A.J. both swoon over him. When Timmys father wins the Miss Dimmesdale beauty contest, judge Catman (Adam West) wants to date him, even after discovering that he is a man. Fairy Godparent Cosmo sees two attractive, popular boys and muses Maybe I should date them. When they are watching a film, Timmys pal Sanjay enthusiastically describes the stars muscular, oiled chest; his friends stare at him in surprise, and he protests, What? Am I the only one who noticed? Fosters Home frequently used romantic imagery and language to describe the relationship between imaginary friends and their creators. In one episode, Mac accepts a date with a dreamy boy, even though he must skip his regular afterschool visit to Bloo. The date turns out to be a

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dudthe boy doesnt want to do anything fun, like climb rocks or draw with chalkso Mac returns to Bloo, who may not be attractive but is always up for a good time. In another episode, Mac becomes infatuated with the superhero Imaginary Man, who asks him to become his sidekick by kneeling and proffering a jewelry box, as if he is proposing marriage. The jealous Bloo becomes a super-villain, Uniscorn (because Mac has scorned him), and wears a broken-heart pendant. Hints occur in three of nine episodes of My Gym Partners a Monkey, about a human boy, Adam Lyon, mistakenly enrolled in a middle school for animals. In Kerry to Dance, Jake Spidermonkey asks Adam to the school dance. Adam refuses; he wants to bring a girl. Jake fumes with jealousy and tries to sabotage the date, so they can spend at least part of the evening together. They end up fighting; the principal thinks they are dancing and cautions No touching your partner!, again implying that same-sex dates are perfectly ordinary. Later, the two boys are photographed as a couple, and Adam looks dismayed as Jakes long tale curves into the shape of a heart. A more subtle hint occurs when a secondary character named Lupe Toucan mistakes the nonsentient parrot Orlandos chirp of Pretty bird for a compliment, and becomes his girlfriend. Later Lupe hears Orlando saying Pretty bird from inside the boys restroom and concludes that he has dropped her for another bird! He is actually addressing a mirror, but since no girl would be in the boys restroom, Lupe obviously finds it unremarkable that a boy would want to date another boy. The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy hinted regularly, in 7 of the 10 episodes analyzed. When Billy gets a girlfriend, his father yells to his mother, Hey, Gladys, Billy is in lovewith a girl! You owe me five dollars!, suggesting that there has been some good-natured speculation in the household about the boys sexuality. In a Lord of the Rings parody, a fey elf is overcome with lust as he praises a dwarfs thick, sinewy muscles, and bulging, compact thighs, and a scene at the end of the episode shows tables full of same-sex elf-dwarf couples listening to Billy sing. Two episodes go even farther, to an open display of same-sex practice. In a Harry Potter parody set at a sorcery academy modeled on Hogwarts, a misdirected potion makes Dean Toadblatt (John Vernon) fall in love with one of the male teachers, the human-sized Squid Hat (Weird Al Yankovic), who eagerly returns his interest. In the next scene, they graphically kiss, then ride away on a broom decorated with tin cans and a Just Married banner, while the students cheer. In another episode, the same-sex practice is essential to the plot. The secondary character Nergal, Jr. rejects a girls offer to walk him home from school, suggesting a lack of interest in preteen heterosexual practice; but he is delighted to befriend Irwin. Later he agrees to ask Mandy out for Irwin, and of course ends up with the date, whereupon Irwin angrily breaks off

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the friendship. Nergal is heartbroken, and he doesnt like Mandy that way in the first place, but he cant call off the date and disappoint his unaccountably enthusiastic father (perhaps Nergals parents have been speculating about his sexual identity, like Billys parents, but with less nonchalance). At the dance, Nergal and Irwin fight, and Mandy rejects them both. They look at each other. Nergal says So this is what love is? Irwin nods. They begin to slow dance, holding each other closely as the camera pans out. Nergal was never interested in Mandy, or in any girl, so his statement makes no sense unless he is referring to Irwin. The dance may be intended as a humorous depiction of the two boys consoling each other, but it drops a strong hint that they are in love.

STEREOTYPES
Gender-transgressive interests and activity appeared frequently in live action programs, usually as unremarkable parts of lifeboys cook, girls play football; on The Suite Life, Zack and Cody become partners for a ballroom dance competition, with no eyebrows raised. However, sometimes the gender-transgression is associated with hints of same-sex interest, intensifying the potential for locating homoerotic desire beneath same-sex friendships. On Neds Declassified, the possibility that Loomer and Crony are more than friends is intensified by Cronys interest in fashion design. On My Gym Partners A Monkey, Jake dotes on a female teen idol, is an expert at cheerleading, and completes a parenting assignment by becoming a stereotypic housewife, thus adding intensity to the episodes in which he appears to express a romantic interest in Adam. Nearly every program, live action or animated, had a gay or lesbian stereotype teaching drama or gym, but no child or adolescent character was consistently portrayed with stereotypic mannerisms. Transvestism occurred frequently as a disguise to allow boys and girls to participate in each others activities (e.g., a girl dons a motorcycle jacket so she can use the boys restroom), with few negative reactions; in fact, when Cookie on Neds Declassified is beat up while in drag, his assailant carefully explains that the drag is not the reason. However, it appeared in connection with same-sex practice only once in the episodes analyzed. On Drake and Josh, Josh is selected to appear on a room-makeover program; in his excitement, he grabs and kisses the nearest girl. She says Congratulations, man, in a deep voice, both the voice and the vocabulary signifying maleness. As she walks away, Josh exclaims in horror, I wasnt chewing gum! In animated program, transvestism was fairly common, particularly on Fairly Oddparents, but usually used for humiliation or shock. Timmy Turner is forced to do housework in drag; he is physically transformed into a girl; he sees a picture of his teacher, Mr. Crocker, in drag on the Internet (his

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father angrily tells him, Youre not supposed to be looking at that kind of Web site!). When lemonade spiked with fairy juice, begins to grant everyones unconscious wishes, a fat, hairy man is shown in a bikini, while a sound effect shrieks its disgust.

GAY REFERENCES
Titles of episodes may simply describe the plot (Eric Hits Drake), but in animated series, they often involve puns on the titles of movies or television programs (My Fair Mandy; Guess Whats Coming for Dinner; The Two Jakes). Usually there is some thematic connection between the episode and the mass media object referenced, but several episodes disrupt the association and make no sense without a comprehension of gay culture. On Fairly Oddparents, the episode in which Timmy Turner becomes a girl is entitled The Boy Who Would Be Queen. There is no connection with the movie The Man Who Would Be King; the pun requires the association of queen, gender-transgression, and gay. Several male characters express an attraction to teen idol Chip Skylark in an episode entitled The Boy in the Band; the plot has no connection to the movie The Boys in the Band, other than that it depicted gay men. On The Grim Adventures, Billys parents speculate about his sexual identity in The Love That Dare Not Speak Its Name, a well-known euphemism for same-sex love. Dad Day Afternoon, a play on Dog Day Afternoon, has nothing to do with bank robbery, but the plot about Grim hiding his grim-reaper career from his father for many years might be read as a parable for a closeted gay identity, like that of the primary pair in the movie. Two character names referenced gay culture. On Neds Declassified, life-science teacher Mr. Monroe is played by Jim J. Bullock, the gay actor who played a gay-vague adolescent named Monroe on the 1980s sitcom Too Close for Comfort. On Fosters Home, a minor imaginary friend is named Sunset Junction, after the gay neighborhood and pride festival in Los Angeles, for no discernable reason except a desire to include a gay reference. Other references to gay culture were rare, but when they appeared, they were surprisingly blatant. On Fosters Home, Mac finds two imaginary friends hiding in a closet and convinces them to reject the tyranny of the closet and acknowledge their true identity. On The Suite Life, the episode Kept Man has Zack being courted by a rich boy, who tries to buy his affection; in some gay circles, the term Kept Boy refers to a young man who receives gifts and money in exchange for sex. On Hannah Montana, the episode in which Jackson pretends to date the pop star Hannah includes several echoes of gay celebrities pretending to be involved in heterosexual relationships. In one scene, Jackson appears on a talk show and proclaims I love Hannah! while jumping on a couch, parodying Tom

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Cruises well-publicized exploit on the Oprah Winfrey Show, and inviting the same speculation about his sexual identity. Later, Jackson fuels the speculation further by admitting that he loves Hannah, but like a sister.

PHYSICALITY
In live-action series, physicality was rare. Although the main afterschool hangout for Hannah Montana and her friends is on the beach, no one is ever shown in a swimsuit. In one episode of Neds Declassified, Seth briefly wears a Tarzan-style loincloth, and in one episode of Drake and Josh, Drake emerges from a hot tub wearing Speedos, but otherwise male (and female) actors were fully clothed throughout. Zoey 101 displayed the male physique in most of the episodes analyzed, but only with one character, the selfabsorbed Logan (Matthew Underwood). Animated series were far more likely to depict male beauty, even though it required the animators to transgress their usual humorous drawing style. On My Gym Partners a Monkey, Adam and Jake morph into muscular teenagers in their underwear; on Grim Adventures, both Irwin and Nergal Jr. develop bodybuilders physiques. Fairly Oddparents seemed obsessed with beefcake images. Schwarzenegger-parody Jorgen Von Strangle rarely wears a shirt. Fabio-parody Juandissimo is always flexing his sexy muscles. Timmy and other child characters constantly morph into muscular, shirtless adults, and superheroes appear frequently out of uniform. When all of the variables were measured, 4 of the 10 live-action programs were found to disrupt heteronormative ideology, Drake and Josh and Neds Declassified School Survival Guide regularly, and Hannah Montana and The Suite Life of Zack and Cody occasionally. Five of the 15 animated series were found to disrupt heteronormative ideology, Fairly Oddparents and The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy regularly and Ben 10, Fosters Home for Imaginary Friends, and My Gym Partners a Monkey occasionally.

VIEWER REACTION
Most of the fans who wrote into the message boards on tv.com and nickelodeon.com ignored the disruptions, or explained them: Josh didnt really kiss a transvestite (Lots of girls have deep voices), and Dean Toadblatt didnt really marry a male teacher (How do you know that the Squid Hat is male?). When a fan asked if Jake of My Gym Partner is into Adam, he was summarily dismissed: Its just a cartoongrow up! When a fan asked if Jackson of Hannah Montana might be gay, he was all but crucified on the spot.

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However, these are the responses of only a few fansheterosexual and probably homophobic. What about those who do not write in to fan boards, to avoid being dismissed or shouted down? What about the LGBT viewers? The question of whether they catch the hints, inclusivity, and references may be too simplistic: Viewers are not passive recipients of media ideology; they create their own meanings through interacting with the texts and with each other, misreading, queering, ignoring some elements and fixating on others (Fiske, 1992; Jenkins, 1992). However, a correlation between the gay imagery and the programs popularity among gay fans may suggest an response to the disruptions. For instance, on the teenage Web site myspace.com, over 10% of the profiles that list Fairly Oddparents among their interests identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual, but virtually none of the profiles that list Zoey 101 do so. Fan investment into the fictional worlds is also measurable through fan fiction, produced without payment and without the producers permission, and published only for other fans, in newsletters or more recently on Web sites. A number of scholars have investigated slash, fictional depictions of homoerotic romances between media characters, usually male, who are not officially identified as gay (Falzone, 2005; Scodari, 2003). The scholars usually presume that the writers are women (e.g., heterosexual women), envisioning a fantasy of two men together without female competition; however, the profiles on fanfiction.net reveal that one third or more are male, probably gay male adolescents or young adults, envisioning a homoerotic fantasy without heterosexual intrusion. Whatever their sexual identity or motive in writing, presumably the hints, intimacies, and references provide inspiration, so those programs with the highest degree of disruption of heteronormativity should inspire the largest percentage of slash stories. On fanfiction.net, live action programs were noticeably lacking in slash: A keyword search revealed that same-sex romance accounted for only about 2% of 3,336 romance stories written about characters in the liveaction programs (see Appendix 2); there were probably more, since some homoerotic stories do not use the slash keyword. As expected, the programs that regularly disrupted heteronormativity were better represented. Less than 1% of 688 Zoey 101 romances paired two of the boys or two of the girls, in spite of Matthew Underwoods beefcake shots; of the 522 Phil of the Future romances, not one paired Phil with another boy. However, 22% of the 99 Drake and Josh romances involved the stepbrothers falling in love with each other or with other male characters, and 16% of the 61 Neds Declassified romances paired Ned with Seth, his date in Asking Someone Out, or Jennifer with a female character. 3% of 460 The Suite Life romances paired a teenage Zack and another boy, sometimes even Cody, though the relationship would be incestuous. The only anomaly was Hannah Montana, where less than 1% of 996 romances paired Jackson with a boy, and none paired Hannah and her best friend Lily.

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Of the 3,537 romance stories inspired by the animated programs in the study, about 8% involved same-sex relationships (with child characters aged into late adolescence or adulthood), suggesting that heteronormativity is more easily rejected in venues far from the everyday experiences of the viewers. Again, the programs that failed to disrupt heteronormativity were underrepresented (2% of 203 Jake Long stories, less than 1% of 652 Jimmy Neutron stories), and those that disrupted most, overrepresented: 14% of 36 Ben 10 romances, usually pairing Ben with Kevin 11, his occasional antagonist; 13% of 109 Fosters Home romances, pairing a teenage Mac with his imaginary friend Bloo or with a human boy; 8% of 248 Fairly Oddparents romances, pairing Timmy Turner with a bewildering assortment of other boys: Chester, A.J., his Fairy Godparent Cosmo, his antagonist Nega-Timmy, the fairy Juandissimo, even characters from other series. There were several anomalies, however: only 1% of 70 Grim Adventure romances involved slash. Also, two programs not found disruptive nevertheless inspired many slash stories: 3% of the 1,244 Kim Possible romances paired the teenage secret agent with her female antagonist, Sheego, or sidekick Ron with a male character; and an amazing 53% of the 121 Ed, Edd, & Eddy romances, uploaded by several different authors, paired two of the Eds or other characters. Another difficulty in stories related to both live-action and animated programs was the near-total absence of slash related to existing intimate friends. No slash stories paired Loomer and Crony from Neds Declassified, or Irwin and Nergal, Jr. from The Grim Adventures; only one paired Chester and A.J. from Fairly Oddparents, and another had a teenage Chester selfidentifying as gay but then, to his surprise, falling in love with a girl. This may indicate a lack of ability or desire to locate homoerotic subtexts, or it may simply indicate that minor characters are of little interest to slash writers. When they stray from the stars of the show (Drake/Josh, Mac/Bloo), they prefer to pair antagonists, who can provide an emotional heat as they grudgingly begin to recognize their attraction. Fan art was available only for the animated programs, but again, a substantial level of disruption led to more depictions of same-sex pairings. On Fanartcentral.net, none of the 230 images inspired by Ed, Edd, and Eddy, and less than 1% of 224 images inspired by Code Name: Kids Next Door depicted same-sex couples, but 15% of 526 images inspired by Fairly Oddparents put Timmy Turner into the arms of Cosmo, Mark Chang, Chester, or Juandissimo, all transformed into muscular adults or the teenage pretty boys of Japanese yaoi. The only anomalies were Fosters Home, with only 1% of 559 images pairing Mac and Bloo (both transformed into muscular adults); and American Dragon: Jake Long, where 7% of 171 images, by a single artist, paired Jake with Ron from Kim Possible. DeviantArt.com contained too many images to count (10,474 inspired by Kim Possible alone), but an analysis of the most recent 48 for each program revealed a preference for disruptive programs in same-sex pairings: 27% of

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the Ben 10 images, 15% of the Fairly Oddparents, 10% of the Fosters Home, and 6% of the My Gym Partner, but none of the Jimmy Neutron or Code Name: Kids Next Door. Again, same-sex pairings were absent from The Grim Adventures, though many images paired the Grim Reaper with a grown-up, nightgown-clad Mandy.

DISCUSSION
It has been established that heteronormativity is disrupted with some frequency in childrens programming, somewhat more often in the animated than in the live-action programs, and that viewers, at least those who produce fan fiction and fan art, select homoerotic themes and images to a great extent on the disruption of heteronormativity that they find on screen. However, the question still remains, why do depictions of same-sex desire and practice occur at all, particularly in a political climate where the slightest accusation of intentional portrayal would result in howls of outrage and probable cancellation? One possibility is that the writers, directors, or actors are introducing the homoerotic themes deliberately, as a subtle political strategy. Fan boards have occasionally speculated that some of the stars of the live-action series, especially Jason Earles of Hannah Montana and Devon Werkheiser of Neds Declassified, might be gay; but even if the speculations are true (no public statements have appeared), teenage actors surely do not have the authority to incorporate hints about gay identity into the scripts. Most of the creators of the programs appear to be in conventional heterosexual marriages, though Maxwell Atoms, creator of The Grim Adventures, complains on his Internet blog that his grandmother believes him to be gay. However, it is no doubt significant that Teo Olivares played gay on both Neds Declassified and Zoey 101, and that Scott Fellows was head writer for Fairly Oddparents as well as the creator of Neds Declassified. Proactive straight people, called gay allies, can often work behind the scenes more effectively than LGBT people themselves, ensuring that Ned is nonchalant about same-sex dating, or that Mark Chang is beset-upon by both male and female admirers, or that Craig and Eric are almostbut not quite shown holding hands. Another explanation is that the homoerotic themes are deliberate, but not political strategies; they are jokes for adult viewers, never meant to be understood by children or adolescents. Many of the programs feature nods at adult viewers. Ten-year old are unlikely to catch the references to H. P. Lovecrafts Cthulhu Mythos on The Grim Adventures, parodies of comedians Billy Crystal and Jerry Seinfeld on Fairly Oddparents, or the in-joke of Mr. Monroe on Neds Declassified being played by Monroe of Too Close for Comfort. However, even adult heterosexuals are unlikely to tease out the

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references to kept boys and Sunset Junction, and children as well as adults can easily comprehend boys asking each other out or dancing together at parties. A third explanation is that the disruption is, as the producers would no doubt claim, purely unintentional: the intimate friendships are a simple misreading, and the inclusivity the result of writers trying to come up with new ways to discuss boys and girls liking each other, never intending to suggest any validity to same-sex pairings, or even the possibility that such pairings exist. However, many of the stereotypes, hints, and references suggest conscious design, and after all authorial intention is not required for viewers to create meanings from mass media texts. Whatever the explanation, this study demonstrates that gay potential appears in the most arid of heterosexist wastelandsprogramming targeting children and adolescents. It does not appear in every program or in every episode of the programs where it exists, but it appears often enough for some viewers, especially LGBT viewers, to notice, and to find a momentary escape from the tyranny of everyday heterosexism.

REFERENCES
Briggs, M. (2006). Beyond the audience. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 9(4), 441460. Bryant, J. A. (Ed.). (2006). The childrens television community. New York: Erlbaum, 2006. Buckingham, D. (1996). Moving images: Understanding childrens responses to television. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Capsuto, S. (2000). Alternate Channels: The uncensored stow of gay and lesbian images on radio and television, 1930s to the present. New York: Ballantine. Davies, L. J. (1995). The multidimensional language of the cartoon: A Study in aesthetics, popular culture, and symbolic interaction. Semiotica, 104(12), 165211. Dennis, J. P. (2003). The same thing we do every night: Signifying same-sex desire in television cartoons. Journal of Popular Film and Television, 31(1), 132140. Dines, G. (1995). Toward a critical sociological analysis of cartoons. Humor, 8(3), 237255. Doty, A. (1993). Making things perfectly queer: Interpreting mass culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Gunther, B. (1997). Children and television. New York: Routledge. Falzone, P. J. (2005). The final frontier is queer: Aberrancy, archetype and audience generated folklore in K/S slashfiction. Western Folklore, 64.(34), 243261. Fiske, J. (1992). The cultural economy of fandom. In L. Lewis (Ed.), The adoring audience (pp. 3049). New York: Routledge. Jenkins, H. (1992). Textual poachers: Television fans and participatory culture. New York: Routledge.

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Lafayette, J. (2004). What kids watch. Television Week, 23(15), 5860. Lemish, D. (2006). Children and television: A global perspective. London: Blackwell. Raley, A. B., & Lucas, J. L. (2006). Stereotype or success? Prime-time televisions portrayals of gay male, lesbian, and bisexual characters. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(2), 1938. Schmuckler, E. (2006). Three way split. MediaWeek, 16(19), 2226. Scodari, C. (2003). Resistance re-examined: Gender, fan practices, and science fiction television. Popular Communication, 1(2), 111130. Smith, C. (1991). Sex and genre on prime time. Journal of Homosexuality, 21(12), 119138. Warner, M. (1993). Introduction. In M. Warner (Ed.), Fear of a queer planet: Queer politics and social theory (pp. viixxxi). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. White, C., & Preston, E. H. (2005). The spaces of childrens programming. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 22(3), 239255. White, M. (1992). Ideological analysis and television. In R. Allen (Ed.), Channels of discourse, reassembled (pp. 160202). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Wilson, T. (1993). Watching television: Hermeneutics, recognition, and popular culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity.

APPENDIX 1 Episodes Analyzed Program Episode Original air date 9/9/06 3/10/07 2/17/07 2/24/07 3/10/07 4/07/07 12/15/06 8/06/06 1/26/07 3/23/07 4/13/07 1/18/04 9/26/04 10/24/04 6/11/05 11/26/06 1/21/07 2/11/07 2/18/07 2/13/04 11/05/04 4/13/07 (Continued)

American Dragon: Jake Long A Befuddled Mind Homecoming Ben 10 Benwolf Game Over Under Wraps The Return Class of 3000 Devil and Lil D Code Name: Kids Next Door Operation: E.N.G.L.A.N.D. Corey in the House Everybody Loves Meena Beat the Press Mall of Confusion Drake and Josh Dune Buggy Mean Teacher Drew & Jerry Helens Surgery I Love Sushi Tree House Josh is Done Eric Punches Drake Ed Edd & Eddy Run for Your Ed/Hand Me Down Ed Take This Ed and Shove It All Edds Are Off/Smile for the Ed

754 APPENDIX 1 (Continued) Program The Emperors New School Fairly Oddparents

J. P. Dennis

Episode

Original air date 7/15/06 6/07/02 9/13/02 11/07/03 11/21/03 4/02/04 11/27/04 1/17/05 2/15/05 10/04/05 10/05/05 9/10/04 9/17/04 3/18/05 5/06/05 7/01/05 4/28/06 7/27/06 8/01/06 11/17/06 7/23/04 10/15/04 11/12/04 7/29/05 8/05/05 12/02/05 1/20/06 6/05/06 3/09/07 4/09/07 8/18/06 9/8/06 1/7/07 1/07/07 1/19/07 3/30/07 1/25/06 3/18/07 2/10/07 3/17/07 4/14/07 1/22/06 5/26/06 6/19/06 8/08/06 8/21/06 8/31/06 11/17/06 1/12/07 1/26/07 2/09/07

Kronk Moves In Foul Balled/The Boy Who Would Be Queen Fairy Fairy Quite Contrary/Nectar of the Odds Miss Dimmsdale/Mind over Magic Chip Off the Old Chip/Snow Bound Blondas Have More Fun/Five Days of F.L.A.R.G. Fairy Friends & Neighbors/Just the Two of Us Back to Norm/Teeth for Two Nega-Timmy/Love at First Height Oh, Brother/Whats the Difference Smart Attack/Operation F.U.N Fosters Home/Imaginary Dinner is Swerved World Wide Wabbit Frankie My Dear Mac Daddy Bye-Bye, Nerdy Challenge of the Superfriends I Only Have Surprise for You Bus the Two of Us Make Believe or Not Grim Adventures/Billy & Mandy Billy Boogie/Here Thar Be Dwarves Attack of the Clowns/Complete & Utter Chaos Thats My Mummy/Toys will be Toys My Fair Mandy One Crazy Summoner/Guess Whats Coming Billy & Mandy Save Christmas The Love That Dares Not Speak Its Name Dad Day Afternoon/Scary Poppins Nergals Pizza/Hey, Water You Doing? Most Greatest Love Story Ever Told Hannah Montana New Kid in School More Than a Zombie to Me We Are Family My Boyfriends Jackson School Bully Bad Moose Rising Jimmy Neutron The Trouble with Clones Just Jordan Fists of Funny Kim Possible The Cupid Effect Clothes Minded Fashion Victim Life with Derek Male Code Blue My Gym Partners a Monkey Kerry to Dance? Cheer Pressure/Basic Jake Leaf of Absence/The Poop Scoop Aint Too Proud to Egg/The Two Jakes Lupe in Love/Jakes Day Off Pranks for the Memories/Talking Teddy Sick Day/The Cuddlemuffins Diplomatic Insanity/Sidekicked Gorilla My Dreams/Prince and the Pooper

(Continued)

The Boy Who Would Be Queen APPENDIX 1 (Continued) Program Naked Brothers Band Neds Declassified School Episode First Kiss Cheaters/Bullies The New Semester/Electives Dares/Bad Habits Asking Someone Out/Recycling Dismissal/The School Play The Bus/Bad Hair Days Positives & Negatives/Parties Back to the Future Boyzrog/Ball Hogs Islands in the Street Stranger than Friction/Dont Cross Here Rock Star in the House Kept Man The Suite Smell of Excess Going for the Gold Have a Nice Trip Lost in Translation Loosely Ballroom Scary Movie Club Twin Miniature Golf The Perfect Couple The Play School Dance Little Beach Party Time Capsule The Election Girls Will Be Boys Wrestling Chases Grandma

755

Original air date 4/07/07 2/12/05 10/01/05 1/14/06 3/04/06 10/22/06 11/26/06 4/08/07 8/18/06 4/08/07 8/18/06 4/13/07 9/18/05 5/19/06 6/2/06 6/10/06 7/07/06 8/19/06 9/22/06 10/13/06 1/07/07 3/2/07 1/22/06 2/20/05 4/17/05 5/1/05 9/18/05 10/9/05 1/29/06 3/04/07 3/18/07

Phil of the Future The Replacements Squirrel Boy Suite Life of Zack and Cody

Unfabulous Zoey 101

APPENDIX 2 Slash in Fan Fiction Program Ben 10 Code Name Drake & Josh Ed, Edd, & Eddy Fairly Oddparents Fosters Home Grim Adventures Hannah Montana Jake Long Jimmy Neutron Kim Possible Life with Derek Type Animated Animated Live Animated Animated Animated Animated Live Animated Animated Animated Live Romance 36 854 99 121 248 109 70 996 203 652 1244 510 Slash 5 21 21 64 22 14 1 6 4 4 38 8 % 13.9% 2.5% 21.2% 52.9% 8.5% 12.8% 1.4% 0.6% 2.0% 0.6% 3.1% 1.6% (Continued)

756 APPENDIX 2 (Continued) Program My Gym Partner Neds Declassified Phil of the Future Suite Life Unfabulous Zoey 101 Type Animated Live Live Live Live Live

J. P. Dennis

Romance 0 61 522 460 0 688

Slash 10 0 14 3

% 16.0% 0.0% 3.0% 0.4%