RAIN-WATER HARVESTING

In the present scenario management and distribution of water has become centralized. People depend on government system, which has resulted in disruption of community participation in water management and collapse of traditional water harvesting system. As the water crisis continues to become severe, there is a dire need of reform in water management system and revival of traditional systems. Scientific and technological studies needs to be carried out to assess present status so as to suggest suitable mitigative measures for the revival to traditional system/wisdom. Revival process should necessarily be backed by people's initiative and active public participation Rain is the ultimate source of fresh water. With the ground area around houses and buildings being cemented, particularly in cities and towns, rainwater, which runs off from terraces and roofs, was draining into low-lying areas and not percolating into the soil. Thereby, precious rainwater is squandered. NEED FOR RAIN-WATER HARVESTING Major parts of our country have been facing continuous failure of monsoon and consequent deficit of rainfall over the last few years. Also , due to ever increasing population of India, the use of ground water has increased drastically leading to constant depletion of ground water level causing the wells and tube wells to dry up. In some places, excessive heat waves during summer create a situation similar to drought. It is imperative to take adequate measures to meet the drinking water needs of the people in the country besides irrigation and domestic needs. APPLICATION AREAS

Rainwater harvesting systems can be installed in both new and existing buildings and harvested rainwater used for different applications that do not require drinking water quality such as toilet flushing, garden watering, irrigation, cleaning and laundry washing. Harvested rainwater is also used in many parts of the world as a drinking water source. As rainwater is very soft there is also less consumption of washing and cleaning powder. With rainwater harvesting, the savings in potable water could amount up to 50% of the total household consumption.
VARIOUS METHODS EMPLOYED Rainwater can be harvested in a variety of ways: 1. Surface runoff harvesting i. Monsoon run off and water in swollen streams during the Monsoon and storing it in underground tanks. ii. Water from flooded rivers can be stored in small ponds. Rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.When rainwater harvesting is mainly considered for irrigation, several factors should be taken into consideration. These include: rainfall amounts, intensities, and evapo-transpiration rates soil infiltration rate, water holding capacity, fertility and depth of soil crop characteristics such as water requirement and length of growing period hydrogeology of the site

 socio-economic factors such as population density, labour, costs of materials and regulations governing water resources use.

2. Roof top rainwater harvesting (RTRWH): It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the area. In domestic Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Systems rainwater from the house roof is collected in a storage vessel or tank for use during the periods of scarcity. Usually these systems are designed to support the drinking and cooking needs of the family at the doorstep. Such a system usually comprises a roof, a storage tank and guttering to transport the water fromthe roof to the storage tank. In addition, a first flush system to divert the dirty water which contains roof debris collected on the roof during non-rainy periods and a filter unit to remove debris and contaminants before water enters the storage tank are also provided. COMPONENTS OF A RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM A rainwater harvesting system comprises components of various stages - transporting rainwater through pipes or drains, filtration, and storage in tanks for reuse or recharge. The common components of a rainwater harvesting system involved in these stages are illustrated here. Roof catchment . Coarse mesh Gutters Conduits . First flushing Filter unit Storage tank 1.Roof Catchments: The catchment of a water harvesting system is the surface which directly receives the rainfall and provides water to the system. It can be a paved area like a terrace or courtyard of a building, or an unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. A roof made of reinforced cement concrete (RCC), galvanised iron or corrugated sheets can also be used for water harvesting. 2. Coarse mesh at the roof to prevent the passage of debris 3.Gutters: Channels all around the edge of a sloping roof to collect and transport rainwater to the storage tank. Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular and could be made using:

Source: A water harvesting manual for urban areas

Locally available material such as plain galvanised iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge), folded to required shapes.

Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be readily prepared by cutting those pipes into two equal semi-circular channels. Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.

The size of the gutter should be according to the flow during the highest intensity rain. It is advisable to make them 10 to 15 per cent oversize. Gutters need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off when loaded with water. The way in which gutters are fixed depends on the construction of the house; it is possible to fix iron or timber brackets into the walls, but for houses having wider eaves, some method of attachment to the rafters is necessary.

4.Conduits Conduits or Down pipe is the pipe, which carries the rainwater from the gutters to the storage tank. Down pipe is joined with the gutters at one end, and the other end is connected to the filter unit of the storage tank . Conduits can be of any material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or galvanized iron (GI), materials that are commonly available. Select a reference of a roof drain size with hourly rainfall together with the roof area square footage you have estimated and then determine from the chart above how many roof drains you require. Example: Each 4" drain size in a 6" hourly rainfall area will accommodate drainage of 3,070 sq. ft. of roof area. Therefore, the 100,000 sq. ft. area roof will require 100,000 3070 = 32.5 or 33 roof drains for ideal drainage.

The following table gives an idea about the diameter of pipe required for draining out rainwater based on rainfall intensity and roof area:

OUTLET SIZE
PIPE SIZE (in incjes) 2 3 4 5 6 8 OPEN AREA (sq.inches) 3.14 7.06 12.56 19.60 28.30 50.25 8,880 18,400 34,600 54,000 116,000 5,860 12,700 23,050 36,000 77,400 4,440 9,200 1 1.5 2

HOURLY RAINFALL (in inches)

2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8

ROOF AREA SQUARE FOOTAGE

2,880 1,920 1,440 1,150 960 720 575 480 410 360

3,520 7,360 13,840 21,600 46,400

2,930 6,130 11,530 18,000 38,660

2,220 4,600 8,650 13,500 29,000

1,760 3,680 6,920 10,800 23,200

1,470 3,070 5,765 9,000 19,315

1,260 2,630 4,945 7,715 16,570

1,100 2,300 4,325 6,750 14,500

17,300 27,000 58,000

Note: When determining the number roof drains required recognize that the smaller the roof drain outlet diameter the more drains you will need. Conversely, the larger the drain outlet diameter the fewer you will need.

5.First-flushing A first flush device is a valve that ensures that runoff from the first spell of rain is flushed out and does not enter the system. The first shower of rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable water by the probable contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It will also help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited on roof during dry seasons Provisions of first rain separator should be made at outlet of each drainpipe.

6.Filter Unit. The filter unit is a container or chamber filled with filter media such as coarse sand, charcoal, coconut fiber, pebbles and gravels to remove the debris and dirt from water that enters the tank. The container is provided with a perforated bottom to allow the passage of water. Filters are used fro treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, colour and microorganisms. After first flushing of rainfall, water should pass through filters. The filter unit is placed over the storage tank. Commonly used filters are of two types. One is a ferro-cement filter unit, which is comparatively heavy and the other is made of either aluminium or plastic bucket. The latter is readily available in market and has the advantage of ease in removing, cleaning and replacing. Sand filters Sand filters have commonly available sand as filter media. Sand filters are easy and

inexpensive to construct. These filters can be employed for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity (suspended particles like silt and clay), colour and microorganisms. In a simple sand filter that can be constructed domestically, the top layer comprises coarse sand followed by a 5-10 mm layer of gravel followed by another 5-25 cm layer of gravel and boulders.

Charcoal water filter A simple charcoal filter can be made in a drum or an earthen pot. The filter is made of gravel, sand and charcoal, all of which are easily available. Each layer should be separated by with a wire mesh.

PVC- Pipe filter This filter can be made by PVC pipe of 1 to 1.20 m length; Diameter of pipe depends on the area of roof. Six inches dia. pipe is enough for a 1500 Sq. Ft. roof and 8 inches dia. pipe should be used for roofs more then 1500 Sq. Ft. Pipe is divided into three compartments by wire mesh. Each component should be filled with gravel and sand alternatively as shown in the figure. A layer of charcoal could also be inserted between two layers. Both ends of filter should have reduce of required size to connect inlet and outlet. This filter could be placed horizontally or vertically in the system.

Sponge Filter It is a simple filter made from PVC drum having a layer of sponge in the middle of drum. It is the easiest and cheapest form filter, suitable for residential units.

7.Storage Tank Storage tank is used to store the water that is collected form the Rooftops. There are unlimited number of options for the construction of these tanks with respect to the shape (cylindrical, rectangular and square),the size(Capacity from 1,000 lt. to 15,000 lt. or even higher) and the material of construction (brickwork, stonework, cement bricks, ferrocement, plain cement concrete and reinforced cement concrete) The choice of material depends on local availability and affordability... For domestic water needs, taking the economy and durability of tanks into consideration, ferrocement tanks of cylindrical shape in capacities ranging between 4,000 lt. and 15,000 lt. are most suitable. Plain cement concrete and reinforced cement concrete are used for tank capacities usually more than 50,000 lt. Brick, stone, cement brick may be used for capacities ranging between 15,000 lt. to 50,000 lt. The ferrocement tanks are usually constructed above ground level because of the following advantages :

a) ease in finding structural problems/leaks. b) easy to maintain and clean and c) easy to draw water. It is difficult to detect the leaks and take corrective measures in case of under ground tanks. Water from under ground tanks cannot be drawn by gravity. Some kind of manual or power lifting devices need to be used for drawing the water. Further, in coastal areas, under ground tanks are prone to water contamination due to fluctuation in groundwater table and leakage of stored water.

Design of storage tanks The volume of the storage tank can be determined by the following factors:

Number of persons in the household: The greater the number of persons, the greater the storage capacity required to achieve the same efficiency of fewer people under the same roof area. Per capita water requirement: This varies from household to household based on habits and also from season to season. Consumption rate has an impact on the storage systems design as well as the duration to which stored rainwater can last. Average annual rainfall Period of water scarcity: Apart from the total rainfall, the pattern of rainfall -whether evenly distributed through the year or concentrated in certain periods will determine the storage requirement. The more distributed the pattern, the lesser the size. Type and size of the catchment:Type of roofing material determines the selection of the runoff coefficient for designs. Size could be assessed by measuring the area covered by the catchment i.e., the length and horizontal width. Larger the catchment, larger the size of the required cistern (tank).

Dry season demand versus supply approach In this approach there are three options for determining the volume of storage: 1. Matching the capacity of the tank to the area of the roof 2. Matching the capacity of the tank to the quantity of water required by its users 3. Choosing a tank size that is appropriate in terms of costs, resources and construction methods. In practice the costs, resources and the construction methods tend to limit the tanks to smaller capacities than would otherwise be justified by roof areas or likely needs of consumers. For this reason elaborate calculations aimed at matching tank capacity to roof area is usually unnecessary. However a simplified calculation based on the following factors can give a rough idea of the potential for rainwater colection. Illustration Suppose the system has to be designed for meeting drinking water requirement of a fivemember family living in a building with a rooftop area of 100 sq. m. The average annual rainfall in the region is 600 mm (average annual rainfall in Delhi is 611 mm). Daily drinking

water requirement per person (drinking and cooking) is 10 litres.

Design procedure: Following details are available: Area of the catchment (A) = 100 sq. m. Average annual rainfall (R) = 611 mm (0.61 m) Runoff coefficient (C) = 0.85 1. Calculate the maximum amount of rainfall that can be harvested from the rooftop: Annual water harvesting potential = 100 x 0.6 x 0.85 = 51 cu. m. (51,000 litres) 2. Determine the tank capacity: This is based on the dry period, i.e., the period between the two consecutive rainy seasons. For example, with a monsoon extending over four months, the dry season is of 245 days. 3. Calculate drinking water requirement for the family for the dry season = 245 x 5 x 10 = 12,250 litres As a safety factor, the tank should be built 20 per cent larger than required, i.e., 14,700 litres. This tank can meet the basic drinking water requirement of a 5-member family for the dry period. A typical size of a rectangular tank constructed in the basement will be about 4.0 m x 4.0 m x 1.0 m Types of rainwater use Rainwater systems can be classified according to their reliability, yielding four types of user regimes: Occasional - water is stored for only a few days in a small container. This is suitable when there is a uniform rainfall pattern with very few days without rain and when a reliable alternative water source is available. Intermittent - in situations with one long rainy season when all water demands are met by rainwater. During the dry season, water is collected from other sources. Partial - rainwater is used throughout the year but the 'harvest' is not sufficient for all domestic demands. For example, rainwater is used for drinking and cooking, while for other domestic uses (e.g. bathing and laundry) water from other sources is used. Full - for the whole year, all water for all domestic purposes comes from rainwater. In such cases, there is usually no alternative water source other than rainwater, and the available water should be well managed, with enough storage to bridge the dry period. Which of the user regimes to be followed depends on many variables including rainfall quantity and pattern, available surface area and storage capacity, daily consumption rate, number of users, cost and affordability, and the presence of alternative water sources. Benefits of rainwater harvesting Rainwater harvesting in urban and rural areas offers several benefits including provision of supplemental water, increasing soil moisture levels for urban greenery, increasing the

groundwater table via artificial recharge, mitigating urban flooding and improving the quality of groundwater. In homes and buildings, collected rainwater can be used for irrigation, toilet flushing and laundry. With proper filtration and treatment, harvested rainwater can also be used for showering, bathing, or drinking. The major benefits of rainwater harvesting are summarised below: rainwater is a relatively clean and free source of water rainwater harvesting provides a source of water at the point where it is needed it is owner-operated and managed it is socially acceptable and environmentally responsible it promotes self-sufficiency and conserves water resources rainwater is friendly to landscape plants and gardens it reduces stormwater runoff and non-point source pollution it uses simple, flexible technologies that are easy to maintain offers potential cost savings especially with rising water costs provides safe water for human consumption after proper treatment low running costs construction, operation and maintenance are not labour-intensive.

Maintenance Maintenance is generally limited to the annual cleaning of the tank and regular inspection and cleaning of gutters and down-pipes. Maintenance typically consists of the removal of dirt, leaves and other accumulated material. Cleaning should take place annually before the start of the major rainfall season. Filters in the inlet should be inspected every about three months. Cracks in storage tanks can create major problems and should be repaired immediately.

Do's and Donts It is most important to ensure that the rainwater caught is free from pollutants. Following precautionary measures should be taken while harvesting rainwater:

Roof or terraces uses for harvesting should be clean, free from dust, algal plants etc. Roof should not be painted since most paints contain toxic substances and may peel off. Do not store chemicals, rusting iron, manure or detergent on the roof. Nesting of birds on the roof should be prevented. Terraces should not be used for toilets either by human beings or by pets. Provide gratings at mouth of each drainpipe on terraces to trap leaves debris and floating materials. Provision of first rain separator should be made to flush off first rains. Do not use polluted water to recharge ground water. Ground water should only be recharged by rainwater.

Before recharging, suitable arrangements of filtering should be provided. Filter media should be cleaned before every monsoon season. During rainy season, the whole system (roof catchment, pipes, screens, first flush, filters, tanks) should be checked before and after each rain and preferably cleaned after every dry period exceeding a month. At the end of the dry season and just before the first shower of rain is anticipated, the storage tank should be scrubbed and flushed off all sediments and debris.