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Chapter 7

Earth materials
Earth materials is a general term that includes minerals, rocks, soil and water. These are the naturally occurring materials found on Earth that constitute the raw materials upon which our global society exists. Earth materials are vital resources that provide the basic components for life, agriculture and industry. Earth materials can also include metals and precious rocks

Minerals close-up
A pile of minerals This image shows some of the most common minerals you'll find in rocks. This pile containsplagioclase feldspar, potassium feldspar,quartz, muscovite mica, biotite mica,amphibole, olivine, and calcite. Can you identify any of them? Click on any mineral for a close up view. Quartz Quartz is one of the most common minerals in the Earth's crust. It is made up of silicon dioxide (SiO2), otherwise known as silica. White sand is primarily made from quartz. Click here to find out more.

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Plagioclase feldspar Plagioclase is a member of the feldspar mineral family. Plagioclase feldspars are yet another silicate that contains considerable sodium or calcium. Feldspar crystals are stubby prisms, generally white to gray and a glassy luster. This variety of plagioclase, called albite, is rich in sodium.

Potassium feldspar Potassium feldspar is another member of the feldsparmineral family. Like plagioclase feldspar, potassium feldspars are silicate minerals that contain a considerable amount of -you guessed itpotassium. Feldspar crystals are stubby prisms, often pink to white. Some potassium feldspars, such as the one shown to the left have a streaky appearance (see closeup) called perthitic texture. Mica Micas are another group of silicate minerals composed of varying amounts of potassium, magnesium, iron as well as aluminum, silicon and water. Biotite All micas form flat, book-like crystals that peal apart into individual sheets on cleavage planes. Crystals cleave into smooth flakes. Biotite is dark, black or brown mica; muscovite, shown here, is light-colored or clear mica. Mica is so soft that you can scratch it with a fingernail.

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Amphibole The amphiboles are a family of silicate minerals that form prism or needlelike crystals. Amphibole minerals generally contain iron, magnesium, calcium and aluminum in varying amounts along with silicon, oxygen, and water. Hornblende, shown in this image, is a common dark green to black variety of amphibole; it is a component in many igneous andmetamorphic rocks. Olivine Olivine is another silicate mineral containing iron and magnesium. It is a green, glassy mineral that forms at high temperature. It is common in basalt and in ultramaficrocks. Gem-quality olivine is called peridote. A rock made up entirely of olivine is called dunite.

Calcite Calcite is made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Generally white to clear, it is easily scratched with knife. Most seashells are made of calcite or related minerals. This is the 'lime' oflimestone.

Physical properties of minerals

Classifying minerals can range from simple to very difficult. A mineral can be identified by several physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation. In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more complex optical, chemical or X-ray diffraction analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming. Physical properties commonly used are:
[1]

Crystal structure and habit: See the above discussion of crystal structure. A mineral may show good crystal habit or form, or it may be massive, granular or compact with only microscopically visible crystals.

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Talc

Rough diamond.

Hardness: the physical hardness of a mineral is usually measured according to the Mohs scale. This scale is relative and goes from 1 to 10. Minerals with a given Mohs hardness can scratch the surface of any mineral that has a lower hardness than itself. Mohs hardness scale:
[25]

1. Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 2. Gypsum CaSO42H2O 3. Calcite CaCO3 4. Fluorite CaF2 5. Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH,Cl,F) 6. Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 7. Quartz SiO2 8. Topaz Al2SiO4(OH,F)2 9. Corundum Al2O3 10. Diamond C (pure carbon) Luster indicates the way a mineral's surface interacts with light and can range from dull to glassy (vitreous). Metallic high reflectivity like metal: galena and pyrite Sub-metallic slightly less than metallic reflectivity: magnetite Non-metallic lusters: Adamantine brilliant, the luster of diamond also cerussite and anglesite Vitreous the luster of a broken glass: quartz Pearly iridescent and pearl-like: talc and apophyllite Resinous the luster of resin: sphalerite and sulfur Silky a soft light shown by fibrous materials: gypsum and chrysotile Dull/earthy shown by finely crystallized minerals: the kidney ore variety of hematite

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Diaphaneity describes how well light passes through a mineral; there are three basic degrees of transparency: Transparent objects can be seen through a transparent mineral, such as a clear quartz crystal Translucent light passes through the mineral but no objects can be seen Opaque no light passes through the mineral Many minerals range from transparent to translucent or translucent to opaque. Calcite, for instance, can be translucent or opaque. Some minerals that are naturally translucent become opaque with weathering. Color indicates the appearance of the mineral in reflected light or transmitted light for translucent minerals (i.e. what it looks like to the naked eye). Iridescence the play of colors due to surface or internal interference. Labradorite exhibits internal iridescence whereas hematite and sphalerite often show the surface effect. Streak refers to the color of the powder a mineral leaves after rubbing it on an unglazed porcelain streak plate. Note that this is not always the same color as the original mineral. Cleavage describes the way a mineral may split apart along various planes. In thin sections, cleavage is visible as thin parallel lines across a mineral. Fracture describes how a mineral breaks when broken contrary to its natural cleavage planes. Chonchoidal fracture is a smooth curved fracture with concentric ridges of the type shown by glass. Hackley is jagged fracture with sharp edges. Fibrous Irregular

Specific gravity relates the mineral mass to the mass of an equal volume of water, namely the density of the material. While most minerals, including all the common rock-forming minerals, have a specific gravity of 2.53.5, a few are noticeably more or less dense, e.g. several sulfide minerals have high specific gravity compared to the common rock-forming minerals. Other properties: fluorescence (response to ultraviolet light), magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and reactivity to dilute acids.

Chemical properties of minerals

Minerals may be classified according to chemical composition. They are here categorized by anion group. The list below is in approximate order of their abundance in the Earth's crust. The [1][26] list follows the Dana classification system which closely parallels the Strunz classification.

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Silicate class

Quartz

The largest group of minerals by far are the silicates (most rocks are 95% silicates), which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions such as aluminium, magnesium, iron, and calcium. Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars, quartz,olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas.

Carbonate class
The carbonate minerals consist of those minerals containing the anion (CO3) and include calcite and aragonite (both calcium carbonate),dolomite (magnesium/calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate). Carbonates are commonly deposited in marine settings when the shells of dead planktonic life settle and accumulate on the sea floor. Carbonates are also found in evaporitic settings (e.g. the Great Salt Lake, Utah) and also in karst regions, where the dissolution and reprecipitation of carbonates leads to the formation of caves, stalactites and stalagmites. The carbonate class also includes the nitrate and borate minerals.
2

Sulfate class

Hanksite, Na22K(SO4)9(CO3)2Cl, one of the few minerals that is considered a carbonate and a sulfate

Sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion, SO4 . Sulfates commonly form in evaporitic settings where highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides at the water-sediment interface. Sulfates also occur in hydrothermal vein

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systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore minerals. Another occurrence is as secondary oxidation products of original sulfide minerals. Common sulfates include anhydrite (calcium sulfate), celestine (strontium sulfate), barite (barium sulfate), and gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate). The sulfate class also includes the chromate, molybdate, selenate, sulfite, tellurate, and tungstate minerals.

Halide class

Halite

The halide minerals are the group of minerals forming the natural salts and include fluorite (calcium fluoride), halite (sodium chloride), sylvite(potassium chloride), and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Halides, like sulfates, are commonly found in evaporite settings such as salt lakes and landlocked seas such as the Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake. The halide class includes the fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodideminerals.

Oxide class
Oxide minerals are extremely important in mining as they form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted. They also carry the best record of changes in the Earth's magnetic field. They commonly occur as precipitates close to the Earth's surface, oxidation products of other minerals in the near surface weathering zone, and as accessory minerals in igneous rocks of the crust and mantle. Common oxides include hematite (iron oxide), magnetite (iron oxide), chromite (iron chromium oxide), spinel (magnesium aluminium oxide a common component of the mantle), ilmenite (iron titanium oxide), rutile (titanium dioxide), and ice (hydrogen oxide). The oxide class includes the oxide and the hydroxide minerals.

Sulfide class
Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores. Common sulfides include pyrite (iron sulfide commonly known as fools' gold), chalcopyrite (copper iron sulfide), pentlandite (nickel iron sulfide), and galena (lead sulfide). The sulfide class also includes the selenides, the tellurides, the arsenides, the antimonides, the bismuthinides, and the sulfosalts (sulfur and a second anion such as arsenic).

Phosphate class
The phosphate mineral group actually includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit AO4 where A can be phosphorus, antimony, arsenic orvanadium. By far the most common phosphate

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is apatite which is an important biological mineral found in teeth and bones of many animals. The phosphate class includes the phosphate, arsenate, vanadate, and antimonate minerals.

Element class
The elemental group includes native metals and intermetallic elements (gold, silver, copper), semi-metals and non-metals (antimony, bismuth, graphite, sulfur). This group also includes natural alloys, such as electrum (a natural alloy of gold and silver), phosphides, silicides, nitrides and carbides (which are usually only found naturally in a few rare meteorites).

Organic class
The organic mineral class includes biogenic substances in which geological processes have been [2] a part of the genesis or origin of the existing compound. Minerals of the organic class include various oxalates, mellitates, citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates, hydrocarbons and other [5] miscellaneous species. Examples include whewellite, moolooite, mellite, fichtelite,carpathite, evenkite and abelsonite.

rocks
There are three kinds of rocks that can be found on Earth. These rocks are the Igneous, the Sedimentary and the Metamorphic rocks. These kinds ofrocks differ from their origin. The Igneous rock is formed from the cooling and hardening of the moltenmaterials that are found in the crust, either closer to the surface or near a volcano. This kind of rock is the most abundant rock on the planet, comprising about 65% of allthe rocks. Igneous is hard and tough, this rock are further divided into two groups; the extrusive igneous rock and the intrusive igneous rock. The common igneous rocks are the Diorite, the Andesite, the Granite, the Gabbro, the Obsidian and the Basalt. Diorite is a coarse-grained and generally light-colored rock. It is a kind of intrusive rock that cools very slowly. Andesite is a fine-grained and light-colored extrusive rock and it is formed in the lava flows. Granite is a light-colored usually in gray or in pink and coarse-grained rock and made up of several kinds of crystals. The Gabbro is a kind of a coarse-grained rock and it is often called as the black granite. The Obsidian is a darkglassy this rock has no crystals. The Basalt is a dark and fine-grained rock that is formed from the lava or magma near the surface of the Earth. The extrusive igneous rock is formed when the magma reach thesurface and hardens. It is generally dark in color and heavy. This is because the extrusive igneous rock is reach in magnesium as well as in iron. The intrusive igneous rock is formed when the magma finds its way to the crust but does not reach the surface. It cools slowly and takes thousands or millions of years to harden. The intrusive igneous rock is generally light-colored; it is rich in silica and it has a large crystals. The igneous rock that has a big crystals are described as coarse-grained; while the igneous rock that has small crystals are described as fine-grained.

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The Sedimentary rock is formed from the other rocks and was deposited by the water and air. It is considered as the third in numbers among the three kinds of rocks which comprise about 8% of all the rocks. This rock is exposed to the air, to the water, to the sunlight and to some acids in the environment. Some of this rock may contain the remains or traces of some living things such as fishes, the shells, plants or mammals. These remains of the living organisms that can be found on the sedimentary rocks are called as fossils. The sedimentary rock is in different types. The most common of these are the conglomerate, the sandstone, the shale, the limestone and the gypsum. The conglomerate is consists of pebbles or by pieces of gravel that are cemented together. This type of igneous rock is usually formed in the riverbeds, in the foot of the mountain or along the beaches. The sandstone is formed when the layers of sand grains are deposited by the water or by the wind. This will eventually packed and become cemented together. The shale is considered as the most common type of sedimentary rock; it makes 50% of rock that are exposed on Earth. The shale is hardened clay. The limestone is a kind of sedimentary rock that is mostly composed of calcium carbonate. Limestone is formed from the actions of the plants and animals in the bottom of the lakes and the oceans. The gypsum is the kind of sedimentary rock that is formed when the hydrated calcium sulfate in the seawater settles. The Metamorphic rock is formed when the igneous rock or the sedimentary rock change in color in texture and on its crystal structure because of a great pressure as well as temperature. This kind of rock is considered as the second most abundant rock comprising about 27% of all the rocks. The most common types of the metamorphic rocks are the marble, the gneiss and the quartzite. The marble is considered as the most widely known among the metamorphic rocks. It is formed from the limestone but it is denser and harder. The gneiss rock is formed from the conglomerate or granite while the quartzite rock is formed from the sandstone; it is heavy, hard and nonporous. It has also a grainy texture.

rock,

in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals. Such

aggregates constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is comprised and typically form recognizable and mappable volumes. Rocks are commonly divided into three major classes according to the processes that resulted in their formation. These classes are (1) igneous rocks, which have solidified from molten material called magma; (2) sedimentary rocks, those consisting of fragments derived from preexisting rocks or of materials precipitated from solutions; and (3) metamorphic rocks, which have been derived from either igneous or

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sedimentary rocks under conditions that caused changes in mineralogical composition, texture, and internal structure. These three classes, in turn, are subdivided into numerous groups and types on the basis of various factors, the most important of which are chemical, mineralogical, and textural attributes.

General considerations
Rock types
Igneous rocks

are those that solidify from

magma,

a molten mixture of rock-

forming minerals and usually volatiles such as gases and steam. Since their constituent minerals are crystallized from molten material, igneous rocks are formed at high temperatures. They originate from processes deep within the Earthtypically at depths of about 50 to 200 kilometres (30 to 120 miles)in the mid- to lower-crust or in the upper mantle. Igneous rocks are subdivided into two categories: intrusive (emplaced in the crust), and extrusive (extruded onto the surface of the land or ocean bottom), in which case the cooling molten material is called lava.
Sedimentary rocks

are those that are deposited and lithified (compacted and cemented

together) at the Earths surface, with the assistance of running water, wind, ice, or living organisms. Most are deposited from the land surface to the bottoms of lakes, rivers, and oceans. Sedimentary rocks are generally stratifiedi.e., they have layering. Layers may be distinguished by differences in colour, particle size, type of cement, or internal arrangement.
Metamorphic rocks

are those formed by changes in preexisting rocks under the

influence of high temperature, pressure, and chemically active solutions. The changes can be chemical (compositional) and physical (textural) in character. Metamorphic rocks are often formed by processes deep within the Earth that produce new minerals, textures, and crystal structures. The recrystallization that takes place does so essentially in the solid state, rather than by complete remelting, and can be aided by ductile deformation and the presence ofinterstitial fluids such as water. Metamorphism often produces apparent layering, or banding, because of the segregation of minerals into separate bands. Metamorphic processescan also occur at the Earths surface due to meteorite impact events and pyrometamorphism taking place near burning coal seams ignited by lightning strikes.

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Rock cycle

Geologic materialsmineral crystals and their host rock typesare cycled through various forms. The process depends on temperature, pressure, time, and changes in environmental conditions in theEarths crust and at its surface. The

rock cycle illustrated in

Figure 1 reflects the basic relationships among

Erosion

igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

includes weathering

(the physical and chemical breakdown of minerals) and transportation to a site of deposition. Diagenesis is, as previously explained, the process of forming sedimentary
rock

by compaction and natural cementation of grains, orcrystallization from water or

sediment

solutions, or recrystallization. The conversion of

to rock is termed lithification.

Abundance of rock types

An estimate of the distribution of rock types in large structural units of the terrestrial crust is given in the Table. The relative abundance of main rock types andminerals in the crust is shown in the Table.

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Texture

The texture of a rock is the size, shape, and arrangement of the grains (for sedimentary rocks) or crystals (for igneous and metamorphic rocks). Also of importance are the rocks extent of homogeneity (i.e., uniformity of composition throughout) and the degree of
isotropy.

The latter is the extent to which the

bulkstructure and composition are the same in all directions in the rock. Analysis of texture can yield information about the rocks source material, conditions and environment of deposition (for sedimentary rock) or crystallization and recrystallization (for igneous and metamorphic rock, respectively), and subsequent geologic history and change.

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Classification by grain or crystal size

The common textural terms used for rock types with respect to the size of the grains

or crystals, are given in the

Table. The particle-size categories are

derived from the Udden-Wentworth scale developed for sediment. For igneous and metamorphic rocks, the terms are generally used as modifierse.g., mediumgrainedgranite. Aphanitic is a descriptive term for small crystals, and phaneritic for larger ones. Very coarse crystals (those larger than 3 centimetres, or 1.2 inches) are termed pegmatitic. For sedimentary rocks, the broad categories of sediment size are coarse (greater than 2 millimetres, or 0.08 inch), medium (between 2 and 1/16 millimetres), and fine (under 1/16 millimetre). The latter includes silt and clay, which both have a size indistinguishable by the human eye and are also termed dust. Most shales (the lithified version of clay) contain some silt. Pyroclastic rocks are those formed from clastic (from the Greek word for broken) material ejected from volcanoes. broken from solid rock, while bombs are molten when ejected.
Porosity
Blocks

are fragments

The term rock refers to the bulk volume of the material, including the grains or crystals as well as the contained void space. The volumetric portion of bulk rock that is not occupied by grains, crystals, or natural cementing material is termed
porosity.

That is to say, porosity is the ratio of void volume to the bulk volume (grains plus void space). This void space consists of pore space between grains or crystals, in addition to crack space. In sedimentary rocks, the amount of pore space depends on the degree of compaction of the sediment (with compaction generally increasing with depth of burial), on the packing arrangement and shape of grains, on the amount of cementation, and on the degree of sorting. Typical cements are siliceous, calcareous or carbonate, or iron-bearing minerals. Sorting is the tendency of sedimentary rocks to have grains that are similarly sized

i.e., to have a narrow range of sizes (see

Figure 2). Poorly sorted

sediment displays a wide range of grain sizes and hence has decreased porosity. Well-sorted indicates a grain size distribution that is fairly uniform. Depending on the type of close-packing of the grains, porosity can be substantial. It should be noted

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that in engineering usagee.g., geotechnical or civil engineeringthe terminology is phrased oppositely and is referred to as grading. A well-graded sediment is a (geologically) poorly sorted one, and a poorly graded sediment is a well-sorted one. Total porosity encompasses all the void space, including those pores that are interconnected to the surface of the sample as well as those that are sealed off by natural cement or other obstructions. Thus the total porosity (T) is

where VolG is the volume of grains (and cement, if any) and VolB is the total bulk volume. Alternatively, one can calculate T from the measured densities of the bulk rock and of the (mono)mineralic constituent. Thus,

where B is the density of the bulk rock and G is the density of the grains (i.e., the mineral, if the composition is monomineralogic and homogeneous). For example, if a sandstonehas a B of 2.38 grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3) and is composed of quartz (SiO2) grains having G of 2.65 g/cm3, the total porosity is

Apparent (effective, or net) porosity is the proportion of void space that excludes the sealed-off pores. It thus measures the pore volume that is effectively interconnected and accessible to the surface of the sample, which is important when considering the storage and movement of subsurface fluids such as petroleum, groundwater, or contaminated fluids.

Physical properties
Physical properties of rocks are of interest and utility in many fields of work, including geology, petrophysics, geophysics,materials science, geochemistry, and geotechnical
engineering.

The scale of investigation ranges from the molecular and crystalline up to

terrestrial studies of the Earth and other planetary bodies. Geologists are interested in the radioactive age dating of rocks to reconstruct the origin of mineral deposits; seismologists formulate prospective earthquake predictions using premonitory physical or chemical changes; crystallographers study the synthesis of minerals with special optical or physical properties; exploration geophysicists investigate the variation of physical properties of subsurface

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rocks to make possible detection of natural resources such as oil and gas,
energy,

geothermal

and ores of metals; geotechnical engineersexamine the nature and behaviour of

the materials on, in, or of which such structures as buildings, dams, tunnels, bridges, and underground storage vaults are to be constructed; solid-state physicists study the magnetic, electrical, and mechanical properties of materials for electronic devices, computer components, or high-performance ceramics; and petroleum reservoirengineers analyze the response measured on well logs or in the processes of deep drilling at elevated temperature and pressure. Since rocks are aggregates of mineral grains or crystals, their properties are determined in large part by the properties of their various constituent minerals. In a rock these general properties are determined by averaging the relative properties and sometimes orientations of the various grains or crystals. As a result, some properties that are anisotropic (i.e., differ with direction) on a submicroscopic or crystalline scale are fairly isotropic for a large bulk volume of the rock. Many properties are also dependent on grain or crystal size, shape, and packing arrangement, the amount and distribution of void space, the presence of natural cements in sedimentary rocks, the temperature and pressure, and the type and amount of contained fluids (e.g., water, petroleum, gases). Because many rocks exhibit a considerable range in these factors, the assignment of representative values for a particular property is often done using a statistical variation. Some properties can vary considerably, depending on whether measured in situ (in place in the subsurface) or in the laboratory under simulated conditions. Electrical resistivity, for example, is highly dependent on the fluid content of the rock in situ and the temperature condition at the particular depth.
Density

Density varies significantly among different rock types because of differences in mineralogy and porosity. Knowledge of the distribution of underground rock densities can assist in interpreting subsurface geologic structure and rock type. In strict usage, density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume; however, in common usage, it is taken to be theweight in air of a unit volume of a sample at a specific temperature. Weight is the force that gravitation exerts on a body (and thus varies with location), whereas mass (a measure of the matter in a body) is a fundamental property and is constant regardless of location. In routine density measurements of rocks, the sample weights are considered to be equivalent to their

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masses, because the discrepancy between weight and mass would result in less error on the computed density than the experimental errors introduced in the measurement of volume. Thus, density is often determined using weight rather than mass. Density should properly be reported in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m 3), but is still often given in grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3). Another property closely related to density is specific gravity. It is defined, as noted above, as the ratio of the weight or mass in air of a unit volume of material at a stated temperature to the weight or mass in air of a unit volume of distilled water at the same temperature. Specific gravity is dimensionless (i.e., has no units). The bulk density of a rock is B = WG/VB, where WG is the weight of grains (sedimentary rocks) or crystals (igneous and metamorphic rocks) and natural cements, if any, and VB is the total volume of the grains or crystals plus the void (pore) space. The density can be dry if the pore space is empty, or it can be saturated if the pores are filled with fluid (e.g., water), which is more typical of the subsurface (in situ) situation. If there is pore fluid present,

where Wfl is the weight of pore fluid. In terms of total porosity, saturated density is

and thus where fl is the density of the pore fluid. Density measurements for a given specimen involve the determination of any two of the following quantities: pore volume, bulk volume, or grain volume, along with the weight. A useful way to assess the density of rocks is to make a histogram plot of the statistical range of a set of data. The representative value and its variation can be expressed as follows: (1) mean, the average value, (2) mode, the most common value (i.e., the peak of the distribution curve), (3) median, the value of the middle sample of the data set (i.e., the value at which half of the samples are below and half are above), and (4) standard deviation, a statistical measure of the spread of the data (plus and minus one standard deviation from the mean value includes about twothirds of the data). A compilation of dry bulk densities for various rock types found in the upper crust of the Earth is listed in the Table. A histogram plot of these data, giving the percent of

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the samples as a function of density is shown in

Figure 3. The

parameters given include (1) sample division, the range of density in one data columne.g., 0.036 g/cm3 for Figure 3, (2) number of samples, and (3) standard deviation. The small inset plot is the percentage of samples (on the vertical axis) that lie within the interval of the mode - x to the mode + x, where x is the horizontal axis.
Dry bulk densities for various rock types number of samples 1,647 197 323 68 mean (grams per cubic cm) 2.73 2.65 2.74 2.86 standard deviation 0.26 0.13 0.47 0.12 mode (grams per cubic cm) 2.65 2.58 2.88 2.89 median (grams per cubic cm) 2.86 2.66 2.87 2.87

rock type

all rocks andesite basalt diorite dolerite (diabase) gabbro granite quartz porphyry rhyolite syenite trachyte sandstone

224

2.89

0.13

2.96

2.90

98 334

2.95 2.66

0.14 0.06

2.99 2.66

2.97 2.66

76

2.62

0.06

2.60

2.62

94 93 71 107

2.51 2.70 2.57 2.22

0.13 0.10 0.10 0.23

2.60 2.67 2.62 2.22

2.49 2.68 2.57 2.22

Source: After data from H.S. Washington (1917) and R.J. Piersol, L.E. Workman, and M.C. Watson (1940) as compiled

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by Gary R. Olhoeft and Gordon R. Johnson in Robert S. Carmichael, ed., Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks, vol. III, CRC Press, Inc. (1984).

Question: What Is the Most Abundant Element? Answer: The most abundant element in the universe is hydrogen, which makes up about 3/4 of all matter! Helium makes up most of the remaining 25%. Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe. All of the other elements are relatively rare. The chemical composition of the earth is quite a bit different from that of the universe. The most abundant element in the earth's crust is oxygen, making up 46.6% of the earth's mass. Silicon is the second most abundant element (27.7%), followed by aluminum (8.1%), iron (5.0%), calcium (3.6%), sodium (2.8%), potassium (2.6%). and magnesium (2.1%). These eight elements account for approximately 98.5% of the total mass of the earth's crust. Of course, the earth's crust is only the outer portion of the earth. Future research will tell us about the composition of the mantle and core. This table shows the chemical composition or abundance of chemical compounds in the Earth's crust. As you can see, the most common compound in the Earth's crust is silica. Quartz consists of silica and it is the primary constituent of most sand. Reference: Brown, Geoff C.; Mussett, Alan E. (1981). The Inaccessible Earth (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 166. Compounds in the Earth's Crust

Compound

Formula

Continental % Composition 60.2 15.2 5.5 3.8 3.1 3.0 2.8 2.5 1.4 1.2 0.7 0.2 99.6%

Oceanic % Composition 48.6 16.5 12.3 6.2 6.8 2.6 0.4 2.3 1.1 1.4 1.4 0.3 99.9%

silica alumina lime iron(II) oxide magnesia sodium oxide potassium oxide iron(III) oxide water carbon dioxide titanium dioxide phosphorus pentoxide Total Ads

SiO2 Al2O3 CaO FeO MgO Na2O K2O Fe2O3 H2O CO2 TiO2 P2O5

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Mineral distribution in india

Minerals are valuable natural resources being finite and non-renewable. They constitute the vital raw materials for many basic industries and are a major resource for development. Management of mineral resources has, therefore, to be closely integrated with the overall strategy of development; arid exploitation of minerals is to be guided by long-term national goals and perspectives. India with diverse and significant mineral resources is the leading producer of some of the minerals. Of the 89 minerals produced in the country, 4 are fuel minerals, 11 metallic, 52 non-metallic and 22 minor minerals. India is the largest producer of mica blocks and mica splitting; ranks third in the production of coal and lignite, barytes and chromite; 4th in iron ore, 6th in bauxite and manganese ore, 10th in aluminium and 11th in crude steel. Iron-ore, copperore, chromite ore, zinc concentrates, gold, manganese ore, bauxite, lead concentrates, and silver account for the entire metallic production. Limestone, magnesite, dolomite, barytes, kaolin, gypsum, apatite, steatite and fluorite account for 92 percent of non-metallic minerals. The mineral wealth of India as at present known, though by no means inexhaustible, comprises an adequate range of useful products that are necessary for the industrial development of the country. An appraisal of the reserves shows that while in respect of minerals essential for basic industriescoal and ironthe reserves are ample, the country is deficient in a fairly long list of vital minerals like ores of copper, tin, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt and in sulphur and most important of all, petroleum. The position with regard to aluminum ore, refractoriness, abrasives, limestone etc may be considered as fairly adequate while in respect of titanium and thorium ores and of mica, the country has considerable reserves. India has a large number of economically useful minerals and they constitute one-quarter of the world's known mineral resources. About two-thirds of its iron deposits lie in a belt along Orissa and Jharkhand border. Other hematite deposits are found in Madhya Pradesh, Kamataka, Maharashtra and Goa. Magnetite iron-ore is found in Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand and Himachal. India has the world's third largest deposits of coal. Bituminous coal is found in Jharia and Bokaro in Jharkhand and Ranigunj in West Bengal. Lignite coals are found in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu. Next to Russia, India has the largest supply of Manganese. The manganese mining areas are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Jharkhand-Orissa area. Chromite deposits are found in Jharkhand, Cuttack district in Orissa, Krishna district in Andhra Pradesh and Mysore and Hassan in Karnataka. Bauxite deposits are found in Jharkhand, southwest Kashmir, Central Tamil Nadu, and parts of Kerala, U.P, Maharastra and Karnataka. India also produces three quarters of the world's mica. Belts of high quality mica are, Bihar, Andhra and Rajasthan. Gypsum reserves are in Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. Nickel ore is found in Cuttack and Mayurbhanj in Orissa. Ileminite reserves are in Kerala and along the east and the west coastal beaches. Silimanite reserves are in Sonapahar of Meghalaya and in Pipra in M.P. Copper ore bearing areas are Agnigundala in Andhra Pradesh, Singhbum in Jharkhand, Khetri and Dartiba in Rajasthan and parts of Sikkim and Karnataka. The Ramagiri fields in Andhra Pradesh, Kolar and Hutti in Karnataka are the important gold mines. The Panna diamond belt is the only diamond producing area in the country, which covers the districts of Panna, Chatarpur and Satna in Madya Pradesh, as well as some parts of Banda in Uttar Pradesh. Petroleum deposits are found in Assam and Gujarat. Fresh reserves were located

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off Mumbai Coast. The potential oil bearing areas are, Assam, Tripura, Manipur, West Bengal, Punjab, Himachal, Kutchch and the Andamans. India also possesses the all-too-valuable nuclear Uranium as well as some varieties of rare earths. Until recently, mineral exploration and their utilisation in the country received little attention. Except for coal, iron ore and petroleum required for internal use, the majority of minerals were raised in India for purpose of bulk export without any dressing, processing and fabrication. These exports brought but a small return to the country. Nearly a hundred minerals are known to be produced or mined in India of which nearly 30 may be considered more important including several which although comparatively unimportant in quantity today, are capable of material development in future with the expansion of industries. It should be made dear at the outset that though progress has been made in the survey of mineralised areas in recent years and the principal mineral regions have been ascertained, exploration of mineral resources has not been thorough or complete in most cases and present estimates are just rough guesses. The power resources in India comprise coal, oil and hydro electricity. India's coal mining is centred mainly in Bihar and West Bengal. The total workable reserves of coal down to a depth of 1,000 ft are estimated at 20,000 million tonnes, of which the good quality coal would amount to 5,000 million tonnes. The reserves of coking coal, however, are small amounting to only 2,000 million tonnes. As against relatively meagre resources of coal and oil, the hydroelectric resources of India are considerable with estimates varying from about 30 million horse-powers to 40 million horse-powers. India possesses large quantities of high grade iron ore and may be classified as one of the countries which can reasonably expect along continued development of heavy industry though, in proportion to the population, these reserves are lower than in the main ore regions of the world. Likewise, there are large reserves of bauxite. India is also the world's main source of supply of mica. In India, over the years, a national mineral policy has evolved. The policy addresses certain new aspects and elements like mineral exploration in the sea-bed, development of proper inventory, proper linkage between exploitation of minerals and development of mineral industry, protection of forests environment and ecology from the adverse effects of mining, enforcement of mining plan for adoption of proper mining methods and optimum utilisation of minerals, export of minerals in value-added form and recycling of metallic scrap and mineral waste. The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1957 lays down the legal framework for the regulation of mines and development of all minerals other than petroleum and natural gas. The Central Government has framed the Mineral Concession Rules 1960 for regulating grant of prospecting licences and mining leases in respect of all minerals other than atomic minerals and minor minerals. The State Governments have framed the rules in regard to minor minerals. The Central Government has also framed the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules, 1988 for conservation and systematic development of minerals. These are applicable to all minerals except coal, atomic minerals and minor minerals. In conclusion, all we can say is that though India is rich in a wide variety of minerals, all we need is to develop ways and means for their detection, mining and utilisation so as to provide rich returns to the Indian economy and to strengthen it.

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sURFACE FEATURES AND PROCESSES

Physical geography
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Physiographic regions of the world.

True-color image of the Earth's surface and atmosphere. NASA Goddard Space Flight Centerimage.

Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the two major subfields of geography.[1] Physical geography is that branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere,biosphere and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain ofhuman geography. Within the body of physical geography, the Earth is often split either into several spheres or environments, the main spheres being the atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere, geosphere,hydrosphere, lithosphere and pedosphere. Research in physical geography is often interdisciplinary and uses the systems approach.

[edit]Sub-fields

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A natural arch.

Physical Geography can be divided into several sub-fields, as follows:

Geomorphology is the field concerned with understanding the surface of the Earth and the processes by which it is shaped, both at the present as well as in the past. Geomorphology as a field has several sub-fields that deal with the specific landforms of various environments e.g. desert geomorphology and fluvialgeomorphology, however, these sub-fields are united by the core processes which cause them; mainly tectonic or climatic processes. Geomorphology seeks to understand landform history and dynamics, and predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling (Geomorphometry). Early studies in geomorphology are the foundation for pedology, one of two main branches of soil science.

Meanderformation.

Hydrology is predominantly concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and accumulating on the land surface and in the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified by the hydrological cycle. Thus the field encompasses water in rivers, lakes, aquifers and to an extent glaciers, in which the field examines the process and dynamics involved in these bodies of water. Hydrology has historically had an important connection with engineering and has thus developed a largely quantitative method in its research; however, it does have an earth science side that embraces the systems approach. Similar to most fields of physical geography it has sub-fields that examine the specific bodies of water or their interaction with other spheres e.g. limnology and ecohydrology.

Alpine glacier.

Glaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets, or more commonly the cryosphere or ice and phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology groups the latter (ice sheets) as continental glaciers and the former (glaciers) as alpine glaciers. Although, research in the areas are similar with research undertaken into both the dynamics of ice sheets and glaciers the former tends to be concerned with the interaction of ice sheets with the present climate and the latter with the impact of glaciers on the

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landscape. Glaciology also has a vast array of sub-fields examining the factors and processes involved in ice sheets and glaciers e.g. snowhydrology and glacial geology.

Wallace line.

Biogeography is the science which deals with geographic patterns of species distribution and the processes that result in these patterns. Biogeography emerged as a field of study as a result of the work of Alfred Russel Wallace, although the field prior to the late twentieth century had largely been viewed as historic in its outlook and descriptive in its approach. The main stimulus for the field since its founding has been that of evolution, plate tectonics and the theory of island biogeography. The field can largely be divided into five sub-fields: island biogeography, paleobiogeography , phylogeography , zoogeography and phytogeography

Climate trends.

Climatology is the study of the climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a long period of time. Climatology examines both the nature of micro (local) and macro (global) climates and the natural and anthropogenic influences on them. The field is also sub-divided largely into the climates of various regions and the study of specific phenomena or time periods e.g. tropical cyclone rainfall climatology and paleoclimatology.

Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and short term forecasting (in contrast with climatology). Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the eighteenth century. Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology.

Nitrogen cycle.

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Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology mainly deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, soil classification. In physical geography pedology is largely studied due to the numerous interactions between climate (water, air, temperature), soil life (micro-organisms, plants, animals), the mineral materials within soils (biogeochemical cycles) and its position and effects on the landscape such as laterization.

Palaeogeography is a cross-disciplinary study that examines the preserved material in the stratigraphic record in order to determine the distribution of the continents through geologic time. Almost all the evidence for the positions of the continents comes from geology in the form of fossils or paleomagnetism. The use of this data has resulted in evidence for continental drift, plate tectonics and supercontinents. This in turn has supported palaeogeographic theories such as the Wilson cycle.

High-energy coastline.

Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography of the coast. It involves an understanding of coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weathering, and also the ways in which humans interact with the coast. Coastal geography although predominantly geomorphological in its research is not just concerned with coastal landforms, but also the causes and influences of sea level change.

Thermohaline circulation.

Oceanography is the branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics (biological oceanography); ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics (physical oceanography); plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor (geological oceanography); and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries (chemical oceanography). These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it.

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Quaternary science is an inter-disciplinary field of study focusing on the Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years. The field studies the last ice age and the recent interstadial the Holocene and uses proxy evidence to reconstruct the past environments during this period to infer the climatic and environmental changes that have occurred.

Habitat fragmentation.

Landscape ecology is a sub-discipline of ecology and geography that address how spatial variation in the landscape affects ecological processes such as the distribution and flow of energy, materials and individuals in the environment (which, in turn, may influence the distribution of landscape "elements" themselves such as hedgerows). The field was largely founded by the German geographer Carl Troll Landscape ecology typically deals with problems in an applied and holistic context. The main difference between biogeography and landscape ecology is that the latter is concerned with how flows or energy and material are changed and their impacts on the landscape whereas the former is concerned with the spatial patterns of species and chemical cycles.

Digital elevation model.

Geomatics is the field of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering of geographic information, or spatially referenced information. Geomatics includes geodesy (scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth, its gravitational field, and other geodynamic phenomena, such as crustal motion, oceanic tides, and polar motion) and G.I.S. (a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing data and associated attributes which are spatially referenced to the earth) and remote sensing (the short or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real-time sensing devices that are not in physical or intimate contact with the object).

Salinization.

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Environmental geography is a branch of geography that analyzes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. The branch bridges the divide between human and physical geography and thus requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment. Although the branch was previously more visible in research than at present with theories such as environmental determinism linking society with the environment. It has largely become the domain of the study of environmental management or anthropogenic influences.

Phsiography of the earth

The Earth's continental crust consists of three discernible units, each with their own characteristics. These units are cratons ,mountain belts, and continental margins.

Cratons All of the continental masses on the Earth have a central foundation of very old basement rock. Basement rock is composed of mixtures of ancient granite, gneiss, schist, volcanic, plutonic, and sedimentary rocks. Some of the Earth's oldest rocks are found in this geologic formation. Basement rock that is exposed at the Earth's surface is called shield. The shields extend for thousands of kilometres and dip ever so slightly from a slightly elevated center. Layers of younger sedimentary strata up to 2000 meters deep cover most of the basement rock. These sedimentary deposits are sometimes called the platform of the continents. The deposits making up the platform were laid down in shallow seas in repeated episodes over the last 600 million years. The platform and the basement rock together form a craton. The continents of Australia, North America, South America, and Africa each have a single continuous craton forming their nucleus. Eurasia is composed several distinct cratons that are separated from each other by the Alps, Ural, and Himalaya mountain belts.

Figure 10o-1: Cross section showing the relationship between basement rock and platform sedimentary deposits. Note that the surface of the basement rocks (the shield) is

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gently arched.

The craton of North America has been relatively stable for about 600 million years. Prior to this period, the North American continent saw several periods of very active growth with the amalgamation of once distinct cratons and the addition of rock along it's margins. Geologic evidence suggests that North America is made up of several once independent minicontinents. Scientists believe that the amalgamation of these minicontinents into the core of the North America continent was complete by about 2.5 billion years ago. On a global scale, about 70 percent of the Earth's continental crust was formed by 2.5 billion years ago. Over the next 2 billion years, the planet's continents would continue to growth through the accretion of sedimentary rock and the addition of igneous rocks along the continental margins. This growth was also driven by tectonic processes. The accretion of sedimentary rock occurred with the collision of tectonic plates which pushed ocean sediments onto the continents. Plate subduction created enough heat to melt rock into magma beneath the margins of the continents. This magma then migrated upward through the crust to form intrusive and extrusive igneous features and deposits. This process also added significant mass to the continents.

Mountain Belts Numerous mountain belts are also found on the continents. These features are often located on the edge of cratons. Mountain belts are the result of tectonic processes that cause to crustal plates to collide. This collision results in the folding and faulting of rock, igneous intrusive and extrusive activity, and metamorphism. The elevated relief common to mountain belts is generally caused by the compression of rock into a smaller area. Uplift may also be caused by the upward migration of magma through the crust to produce granitic batholiths. Some mountains occur in isolation like Mount Rainier in the state of Washington, USA. These features are volcanic and are produced by localized extrusive igneous activity.

Continental Margin Located between the terrestrial continents and the ocean basins is the continental margin. Two basic types of continental margin are recognized: active and passive. Active continental margins occur in the Pacific ocean. Active margins are generally narrow tectonically active areas. They are also associated with earthquakes, oceanic trenches, and volcanoes. Passive continental margins are relatively wide and have a lack of volcanic activity and few earthquakes. The continental margin is actually made up of three structures: thecontinental shelf, the continental slope and the continental rise. Both the continental shelf and slope are structurally part of the continents, even though they are below the sea surface.

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The continental shelf is a shallow (average depth 130 meters) gently sloping part of the continental crust that borders the continents (Figure 10o-2). The extent of this feature varies from tens of meters to a maximum width of about 1300 kilometers.

Figure 10o-2: Marginal features found at the interface of the continents and the ocean basins.

The continental slope extends from the continental shelf at an average depth of about 135 meters. The base of this steeply sloping (from 1 to 25, average about 4) topographic feature occurs at a depth of approximately 2000 meters, marking the edge of the continents. The width of the slope varies from 20 to 100 kilometers. The boundary between the continental slope and shelf is called thecontinental shelf break. At the base of the continental slope an accumulation of sediments may develop. This accumulation of sediments is properly known as the continental rise. The continental rise is composed of a number abyssal fans that run side-by-side along the edge of the continental slope. Abyssal fans are usually associated with a deep submarine canyon cut into the continental slope. Under water abyssal fans can be compared to terrestrial landforms known as alluvial fans. The sediments that make up this feature are transported down the continental slope by turbidity currents, underwater landslides, and several different processes that move clay, silt, and sand. Most of this sediment is terrestrial in origin. The depth of the continental rise ranges from 2000 to 5000 meters deep. The continental rise can be as much as 300 kilometers wide.

Topography of the Terrestrial Surface Figure 10o-3 classifies the Earth's terrestrial surface in to six different categories based on topography. Most of the Earth's terrestrial surface is dominated by relatively flat low and high plains. The low plains tend to be areas of sediment deposition because of their low elevation. The high plains can have elevations as high as 600 meters and are more strongly influenced

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by erosion. Both of these topographic features are often associated with craton's and their exposed shield and platform surfaces. Local relief on both types of plains is less than 100 meters. The three types of mountains shown in Figure 10o-3 have local relief in excess of 500 meters and slope angles greater than 5. Many of the "low" mountains are very old structures that have been reduced in height by erosion. Plateaus have altitudes that are greater than the high plains but less than mountains. Local relief of this topographic feature varies between 100 and 500 meters. Some plateaus are the remnants of eroded mountains. Others have formed because of large-scale block faulting.

Figure 10o-3: The Earth's various topographic regions. The legend below describes the colors associated with the six topographic regions shown. Glaciers are colored white.

Deposition (1) The change in state of matter from gas to solid that occurs with cooling. Usually used in meteorology when discussing the formation of ice from water vapor. This process releases latent heat energy to the environment.

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(2) Laying down of sediment transported by wind, water, or ice.

Depositional Landform Is a landform formed from the deposition of weathered and eroded surface materials . On occasion, these deposits can be compressed, altered by pressure, heat and chemical processes to become sedimentary rocks. This includes landforms with some of the following geomorphic features: beaches, deltas, floodplains, and glacial moraines.

Deposition (geology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Deposition (sediment))

Map of Cape Cod showing shores undergoing erosion (cliffed sections) in red, and shores characterized by marine deposition (barriers) in blue[1]

Deposition is the geological process by which material is added to a landform or land mass. Fluids such as wind and water, as well as sediment flowing via gravity, transport previously eroded sediment, which, at the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers of sediment. Deposition occurs when the forces responsible for sediment transportation are no longer sufficient to overcome the forces of particle weight and friction, creating a resistance to motion. Deposition can also refer to the buildup of sediment from organically derived matter or chemical processes. For example, chalk is made up partly of the microscopic calcium carbonate skeletons of marine plankton, the

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deposition of which has induced chemical processes (diagenesis) to deposit further calcium carbonate. Similarly, the formation of coal begins with deposition of organic material, mainly from plants, in anaerobic conditions.

The process known as weathering breaks up rocks so that they can be carried away by the process known as erosion. Water, wind, ice, and waves are the agents of erosion that wear away at the surface of the earth. Water Erosion Water is the most important erosional agent and erodes most commonly as running water in streams. However, water in all its forms is erosional. Raindrops (especially in dry environments) create splash erosion that moves tiny particles of soil. Water collecting on the surface of the soil collects as it moves towards tiny rivulets and streams and creates sheet erosion. In streams, water is a very powerful erosional agent. The faster water moves in streams the larger objects it can pick up and transport. This is known as critical erosion velocity. Fine sand can be moved by streams flowing as slowly as threequarters of a mile per hour. Streams erode their banks in three different ways: 1) the hydraulic action of the water itself moves the sediments, 2) water acts to corrode sediments by removing ions and dissolving them, and 3) particles in the water strike bedrock and erode it. The water of streams can erode in three different places: 1) lateral erosion erodes the sediment on the sides of the stream channel, 2) down cutting erodes the stream bed deeper, and 3) headward erosion erodes the channel upslope. Wind Erosion Erosion by wind is known as aeolian (or eolian) erosion (named after Aeolus, the Greek god of winds) and occurs almost always in deserts. Aeolian erosion of sand in the desert is partially responsible for the formation of sand dunes. The power of the wind erodes rock and sand.

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Ice Erosion The erosive power of moving ice is actually a bit greater than the power of water but since water is much more common, it is responsible for a greater amount of erosion on the earth's surface. Glaciers can perform to erosive functions - they pluck and abrade. Plucking takes place by water entering cracks under the glacier, freezing, and breaking off pieces of rock that are then transported by the glacier. Abrasion cuts into the rock under the glacier, scooping rock up like a bulldozer and smoothing and polishing the rock surface. Wave Erosion Waves in oceans and other large bodies of water produce coastal erosion. The power of oceanic waves is awesome, large storm waves can produce 2000 pounds of pressure per square foot. The pure energy of waves along with the chemical content of the water is what erodes the rock of the coastline. Erosion of sand is much easier for the waves and sometimes, there's an annual cycle where sand is removed from a beach during one season, only to be returned by waves in another.
5.1) Physical Weathering

Weathering in general refers to a group of processes by which surface rock disintegrates into smaller particles or dissolve into water due to the impact of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. The weathering processes often are slow ( hundreds to thousands of years). The amount of time that rocks and minerals have been exposed at the earth's surface will influence the degree to which they have weathered. Weathering processes are divided into three categories: physical weathering chemical weathering biological weathering

Physical weathering
Primary minerals and rocks are spited in fragments due to physical weathering. This leads to environmental conditions (e.g. a higher surface area) that favour chemical weathering. There are several forms of physical weathering:

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Abrasion: Water carrying suspended rock fragments has a scouring action on surfaces. Examples are the grinding action of glaciers, gravel, pebbles and boulders moved along and constantly abraded by fast-flowing streams. Particles carried by wind also have a 'sand-blasting effect'. Wetting and drying: Water penetrates into rocks and reacts with their constituent minerals. Freezing and thawing: When water is trapped in the rock (or in cracks) repeatedly freezing and thawing results in forces of expansion and contraction (when water freezes, the increase in its volume is about 9 %). Thermal expansion and contraction of minerals: Rocks are composed of different kind of minerals. When heated up by solar radiation each different mineral will expand and contract a different amount at a different rate with surfacetemperature fluctuations. With time, the stresses produced are sufficient to weaken the bonds along grain boundaries, and thus flaking of fragments. For instance, the difference in temperature in desert environments or mountain regions may range from 30 - 50 degrees C between day and night. Rocks are heated and cooled from the outside by change in solar radiation, which results in high temperature gradients inside and outside of the rocks (the heat conductivity of rocks is very low). Pressure unloading or pressure-release jointing: There is a reduction in pressure on a rock due to removal of overlying material. This allows rocks to split along planes of weakness, called joints. Crystallization: In arid environments, water evaporates at the surface of rocks and crystals form from dissolved minerals. Over time, the crystals grow (They expand their volume) and exert a force great enough to separate mineral grains and break up rocks. Action of organisms: They aid in the physical disintegration of rocks. Plant roots: They aid in the physical disintegration of rocks. Pressures exerted by roots during growth are able to rupture rocks.

Chemical weathering
5.2) Chemical Weathering

The difference between physical and chemical weathering is that with the latter one the mineral composition of the mineral or rock is changed. The larger the

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surface area, i.e, the smaller the fragments, the better for chemical weathering. Water is the dominant agent because it initiates chemical weathering. In the following there is a brief description of the most important chemical weathering processes: Hydration: Ions have the tendency to hydrate when H O is present and dissociate. This kind of weathering happens in arid environments where salts are present. For example, chlorides and sulphates weather due to hydration. In general, ions with the same charge but smaller ion radius have a larger layer of H O ions and therefore do not tend to adsorb tight. The small Li ion tends to remain hydrated at the surface, whereas the large Al ion tends to dehydrate and become tightly adsorbed. The strength of adsorption increases in the following sequence:
2 2 + 3+

Li x
+

x Na x
+

xK x
+

x Mg x
2+

x Ca x
2+

xAl

3+

Hydrolysis: Water molecules at the mineral surface dissociate into H and OH and the mobile H ions (actually H O ) penetrate the crystal lattice, creating a charge imbalance, which causes cations such as Ca , Mg , K and Na to diffuse out. For example, the feldspar orthoclase hydrolyses to produce a weak acid (silicic acid), a strong base (KOH), and leaves a residue of clay mineral illite, which is a secondary mineral:
+ + 3 + 2+ 2+ + +

3KAl + Si O + 14H O <- -> K(AlSi ) Al O (OH) + 6Si(OH) + 2KOH

4 3 8 2 3 4 2 4 10 2 4

In hydrolysis reactions it has to be taken into account the important role played by dissolved CO . This is shown in the hydrolysis of Mg-olivine:
2

Mg SiO + 4CO + 4H O <- -> 2Mg + 4HCO + H SiO

2 4 2 2 2+ 3 4 2 3

This reaction uses an acid (carbonic acid - H CO )and therefore the solution becomes increasingly alkaline during completion of hydrolysis reactions. Oxidation-Reduction: Several primary minerals contain Fe and Mn . If there are oxidizing environmental conditions the Fe is oxidized to Fe (precipitates as an insoluble oxyhydroxide, usually either ferrihydrite or the stable mineral goethite) and Mn to Mn or Mn partly inside the minerals, which results in a positive charge and the mineral becomes unstable. This charge imbalance is neutralized by a loss of some oxidized iron and manganese ions and/or some cations dissociate from the mineral. The precipitate may form a coating over the mineral surface, which slows down the subsequent rate of hydrolysis. Note that the oxidation of Fe to Fe according to:
2+ 2+ 2+ 3+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 2+ 3+

Fe + 2H O + 1/2O < - -> Fe(OH) + H

2+ 2 2 3

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is an acidifying reaction (acid solution weathering). The H ions produced by this reaction will generally accelerate the rate of hydrolysis.
+

Complexation: Metals released from primary minerals such as Fe, Mn, and Al, build complexes with organic components, such as fulvic acids and humic acids, which are very stable. Important referring to chemical weathering is the loss of the cations out of the active system, therefore causing an imbalance between cations and anions.

Figure 5.2.1. Chemical weathering processes.

Summary Weathering of primary minerals produce secondary minerals. Elements released from primary minerals are prone to leaching if they do not form complexes. The area of weathering is depleted first by Na , Ca , and Mg .
+ 2+ 2+

5.3) Biological Weathering Lichens play an important part in weathering, because they are rich in chelating agents, which trap the elements of the decomposing rock in organo-metallic complexes. Some of the lichens being epilithic (i.e. living on the rock surface), some endolithic (actively boring into the rock surface), and some chasmolithic (living in hollows or fissures within the rock). Evidence for the operation of these processes comes mainly from detailed microscopic and microchemical analyses of the lichen : rock interface. The mechanisms and results of their actions is summarized in Table 5.3.1.

Table 5.3.1. Lichen weathering mechanisms and forms produced (Robinson et al., 1994).
Mechanisms Results of weathering

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Chemical mechanisms Chelation of extracellular, soluble compounds Attack by oxalic acid Attack by water acidified by respired carbon dioxide Physical mechanisms Rhizine penetration Thallus expansion and contraction on wetting and drying

Results of chemical action Grooves at endolithic thalli interfaces Etching minerals Precipitation of alteration products, e.g. calcium oxalate, which may or may not play a further role in weathering Results of physical action Exfoliation of rock surface layer Cracking of rock Increase in pore volume