DOMESTIC LOAD-PROFILE MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS ACROSS A DISPARATE CONSUMER BASE

WLO Fritz and DC Kallis

Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa ABSTRACT A need arose to analyse domestic electrical power data that were logged at various residential households in order to predict load patterns of different household types. These loads vary immensely at residential dwellings over a few minutes due to the limited number of electrical appliances and their time and pattern of use. In this paper, we report on initial results in our attempt to determine realistic baseline profiles within the wider domestic environment, with emphasis on emerging consumers in the low-income sector. Statistics from the UK was used for comparative purposes. Data is logged over a period of time from different households in the greater Cape Town municipality using a common set of instruments. 1. INTRODUCTION 2. RESEARCH TO DETERMINE A BASELINE FOR RESIDENTIAL LOAD PROFILES

Punitive new electricity tariffs are planned by ESKOM to force electricity savings. According to ESKOM there is a 15% increased probability of power interruptions and load shedding from March 2008 onwards [1]. ESKOM has to reduce the demand by 10% to achieve a 3000 MW load reduction. This will be the case for the next 5 to 8 years [1]. ESKOM prefers a voluntary demand reduction by all consumers rather than forced load shedding [1]. The authors aim to use domestic load profiles to help consumers in energy consumption reduction. Since the establishment of the Power Conservation Programme (PCP) by the National Electricity Response Team (NERT), set up by the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) following the emergence of the generation capacity crisis at the beginning of 2008, serious moves have been made by Eskom and the DME to develop an Energy Conservation Scheme (ECS). This was regulated in terms of the Electricity Regulation Act, 2006, by the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) in Government Gazette No. 31339 of 15 August 2008. Currently the ECS customer class savings in respect of their consumption for the baseline period are: mining: 8%; agriculture: 8%; industry: 10%; commercial: 20%; residential: 20%; and government/state-owned enterprises: 25%. Failure to meet these savings (i.e. a customer exceeding its energy allocation) will result in punitive electricity tariffs. This will vary from R2,80/kWh to R18,00/kWh. This is extremely high compared to the current tariff of less than 50c/kWh.

The following research was done to determine a pattern of residential electricity usage. Lane used Generalised Linear Model statistics to predict half-hourly load patterns of different household types. This was based on data logged from 650 houses [2]. Newborough logged and analysed electrical data with a one-minute resolution from 30 houses [3]. However, his analysis and statistics were based on one household. Abu-Sharkh also used high resolution data of one house to compile a simple model to generate load patterns for hypothetical household dwellings [4]. Yao and Steemers use a detailed stochastic load profile model [5]. Stokes et al. used appliance fielddata to analyse the effects of diversity on the collective maximum demand for his consumption model [6]. All the abovementioned models are deduced from actual energy usage and are referred to in The nature of domestic electricity-loads and effects of time averaging on statistics and on-site generation calculations [7]. Firth calculated household demands from five-minute data of 109 homes over a 2 year period. Wright & Firth give a detailed analysis of the effects of time averaging on eight domestic electricity load profiles at a resolution of one-minute. Data were logged and analysed at one minute intervals at seven houses over long periods (two years). The data of two houses were analysed in detail over a shorter period (a few months) and over a week in winter. This highlighted key behaviour for a more general analysis across a larger dataset. A halfhour resolution is sufficient if aggregated across many homes (at a minisub etc.) for domestic profiles used for billing. Loads can vary immensely at residential dwellings over a few minutes due to the limited amount of electrical appliances and their time and pattern of use. According to the UK DTI the average domestic electricity consumption was 4068 kWh in 2004, resulting in an average load of about 0.5 kW or load current of 2A. Modern homes in the UK have a typical peak load of less than half of that what is catered for according to the fuse rating [7]. With a fuse rating of 100A in domestic homes, the peak current is far less than 50A in the UK.

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THE CASE FOR A BASELINE RESIDENTIAL LOAD PROFILE IN SOUTH AFRICA

probably a kettle or hot water cylinder that was switched on. Typical South African Domestic Profile

If the research material is applied to South African residential loads it will result in a typical peak load of 6.6 kW (.60A.220V) or typical peak currents of 30A. Another way of looking at a household typical average load is by using the diversity factor. The Diversity Factor is the ratio of Sum of Individual Maximum Demands to the Maximum Demand on the Power Station. A 60% diversity means that the device or facility in question operates at its nominal or maximum load level 60% of the time that it is connected and turned on. A dwelling in a middle class residential area has a diversity factor of 23%. This results in an average load of 3.3 kW or an average current of 15A. However, the half hourly recorded data by Wright & Firth of the eight houses revealed a peak load value of 2.2 kW that is even further below the rated 22kW. This is displayed in the load profile of Figure 1 [7].

Given the large social disparities within the South African market, arriving at a typical household profile is fraught with difficulty. Figure 3 below shows a time average load profile of a typical middle-class household recorded in November 2008. The measurements were taken over the holiday period, evident by the upward time shift in the morning peak and the lower than normal evening peak. The average power over this period was measured to be 906 W.
7000 6000 5000
Power (W)

4000 3000 2000 1000 0

0: 0: 34 20 1: :34 50 3: :34 20 4: :34 50 6: :34 20 7: :34 50 9: :34 20 10 :34 :5 12 0:34 :2 13 0:3 :5 4 15 0:34 :2 16 0:34 :5 18 0:34 :2 19 0:3 :5 4 21 0:34 :2 0: 34
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Averaged over 6 days Maximum Power

Figure 3: household

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Load profile of a typical middle-income

The Cape Town municipality uses 4 payment categories for domestic users; viz, Figure 1: Half-hourly average loads for eight different homes, averaged over 1 year A detailed investigation on the house with the highest demand and base-load was analysed. The typical domestic load profile of the home is shown at 30 minute and 1 minute resolution in Figure 2. Domestic 1 High Consumption Category greater that 800 kWh / month Domestic 2 Low Consumption Category between 400 and 800 kWh / month Domestic 2 Low Consumption Category less than 400 kWh / month Domestic 3 3-phase supply.

The domestic user will pay a higher tariff for a larger consumption per month, since (s)he will be charged according to the next higher category. The energy used for the month in the household of the load profile in Fig. 3 is estimated to be 783 kWhr if the same average were to be maintained for the month. The user will therefore be charged according to the Domestic 2 Low Consumption Category (between 400 and 800 kWh / month). Assuming a slight increase in consumption after the holiday period the energy usage will be greater than 800 kWh / month. If the user is aware of this he would voluntary apply energy consumption reduction methods to prevent his usage exceeding the limit that will place him / her in the Domestic 1 High Consumption Category (greater that 800 kWh / month). 4. CONCLUSION

Figure 2: Load profiles at 1 min and 30 min time resolutions for a single weekday of one house As expected, the 30-minute sampled load is much smoother and lower than the 1-minute sampled loads. The two spikes between 16:00 and 17:00 is not revealed in the 30-minute resolution load profile. The spikes are most

The baselines discussed in this paper can be used to forecast energy consumption. The proposed punitive tariff scheme based on existing energy metering can only be

done after the consumption period. In other words, consumers are not given adequate information during the consumption period to allow them to keep within or apply the recommended saving percentage. The roll-out of smart meters and other high-cost measurement and automated technologies will allow the opportunity for optimal energy usage within the household environment, but given the high cost of these interventions, the shortterm demand problems are likely to continue. 5. [1] REFERENCES

Co-author: Deon Kallis is a senior lecturer in the Department of Electrical Engineering at CPUT. He holds an NHD: Electrical Engineering and an NHD: PSE. Although his research area and specialization is in the telecommunication field, his interest is in innovative energy consumption reduction methods. Presenter: The paper is presented by Wilfred Fritz.

Singh V. ESKOM. Residential Time-of-Use Tariffs and Smart Metering. DUE Conference. 19 March 2008. pp.4-6 Lane A. Modelling domestic electricity consumption, John Rylands Library P5844, Manchester University; 1998. Newborough M. Assessing the benefits of implementing micro-CHP systems in the UK, Proc Inst Mech Eng, Part A: J Power Energ 218 (2004) (4), pp. 203218. Abu-Sharkh S. Arnold RJ, Kohler J, Li R, Markvart T, Ross JN, Steemers K, Wilson P and Yao R, Can microgrids make a major contribution to UK energy supply?, Renew Sust Energ Rev 10 (2006) (2), pp. 78127. Yao and Steemers R. Yao and K. Steemers, A method of formulating energy-load profile for domestic buildings in the UK, Energy Buildings 37 (2005), pp. 663671. Stokes M. Removing barriers to embedded generation: a fine-grained load model to support low-voltage network performance analysis. IESD, Leicester, De Montfort University internal report; 2005. Wright, A. & Firth, S. 2006. The nature of domestic electricity-loads and effects of time averaging on statistics and on-site generation calculations. Journal of Applied Energy 84(2007). http://www.sciencedirect.com, pp.391-392 AUTHORS

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Principal Author: Wilfred Fritz is a lecturer in the Department of Electrical Engineering at CPUT and holds B Eng (Stell) and M Tech (CPUT) degrees. He is a registered Certified Measurement and Verification Professional (CMVP) and also a professional engineer (Pr Eng) affiliated to the Association of Energy Engineers (AEE) and ECSA respectively.