Principles of Leak Detection 2012-04-09

GerhardGeiger,Prof.Dr.Ing.
WestphalianUniversityGelsenkirchen
WestphalianEnergyInstitute
InternalReportRevisionApril9
th
,2012
PrinciplesofLeakDetection
GerhardGeiger,Prof.Dr.Ing.,gerhard.geiger@whs.de
WestphalianUniversityGelsenkirchen
WestphalianEnergyInstitute
NeidenburgerStr.43
D45897Gelsenkirchen
Phone:+49(0)2864882680
Mobile:+49(0)1723703473
Preface
Preface
Pipelinenetworksarethemosteconomicandsafestmethodoftransportformineraloil,gasesand
otherfluidproducts.Pipelineshavetomeethighdemandsforsafety,reliabilityandefficiency.Most
pipelines,regardlessofwhattheytransport,aredesignedwithalifespanofaround25years.When
theydobegintofail,theydososlowlybeginningwithleaksatpoorconstructionjoints,corrosion
pointsandsmallstructuralmaterialcracks,andgraduallyprogresstoacatastrophicending.Butthere
arealsootherreasonsforleakdisasterssuchasaccidents,terrorism,sabotageandtheft.
Theprimarypurposeofleakdetectionsystems(LDSSystems)istoassistpipelinecontrollersinde
tectingandlocalizingleaks.LDSSystemsprovideanalarm,anddisplayotherrelateddatatothepipe
linecontrollersinordertoaidindecisionmaking.Pipelineleakdetectionsystemsarealsobeneficial
becausetheycanenhanceproductivityandsystemreliabilitythankstoreduceddowntimeandre
ducedinspectiontime.LDSSystemsarethereforeanimportantaspectofpipelinetechnology.
Thisreportpresentsanoverviewaboutthemostcommonlyusedprinciplesforleakdetection(and
leaklocalization).ThemainfocusisoninternalLDSsystems,whichutilizefieldinstrumentation(for
exampleflow,pressureandfluidtemperaturesensors)tomonitorinternalpipelineparameters.A
significantpartofthisreportisdedicatedtomodelbasedleakdetectionwhichisusuallycalledReal
TimeTransientModel(RTTM)basedLDS,andinparticularExtendedRTTMbasedLDSwhichcom
binescomputerbasedmodelingandsimulationtechniqueswithstatisticalleakclassification(orleak
signatureanalysis).Inthis,thesecondedition,chaptersaboutinstrumentationissues,datacommu
nication(SCADA)andleakmonitoringinshutinconditionshavebeenadded.Furthermore,en
hancementsofPipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)haveledtosubstantialrevisionsoftherelated
chapter.
Acomparisonofallpresentedprinciplesandmethodsisalsoincludedinthetext,whichmayhelpthe
readertoselectaleakdetectionprinciplethatismostsuitableforaparticularapplication.Character
isticsarelistedonaninformativebasis,andwhiletheyaretosomeextentsubjectivebynatureevery
efforthasbeenmadeinthisdocumenttopresentobjectivefacts.
Finally,thereaderwillfindacomprehensivelistofdefinitionsthatarerelevantinthefieldofleak
detectionattheendofthisreport.
GerhardGeiger,Reken,Germany
geiger_g@tonline.de
Contents
ii
Contents
PrinciplesofLeakDetection.....................................................................................................................i
Preface......................................................................................................................................................i
Contents...................................................................................................................................................ii
ListofFigures...........................................................................................................................................iv
ListofTables............................................................................................................................................iv
SymbolsandUnits....................................................................................................................................v
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................1
2 RegulatoryFramework...................................................................................................................3
2.1 TRFL(Germany).......................................................................................................................3
2.2 APIRP1130(USA)...................................................................................................................4
3 InstrumentationIssues...................................................................................................................6
3.1 PerformanceMeasures...........................................................................................................6
3.2 Flowmeters[ADEC].................................................................................................................7
4 SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).......................................................................9
4.1 ComponentsofaSCADASystem.............................................................................................9
4.2 DataAcquisition....................................................................................................................10
4.3 DataCommunicationEquipment(DCE)................................................................................10
5 Pressure/FlowMonitoring............................................................................................................12
5.1 PressureMonitoring..............................................................................................................12
5.2 FlowMonitoring....................................................................................................................12
5.3 Summary................................................................................................................................12
6 RarefactionWaveMethod...........................................................................................................14
6.1 Summary................................................................................................................................14
7 BalancingMethods.......................................................................................................................16
7.1 SomeCommentsonDefinitions............................................................................................16
7.2 UncompensatedMassBalance.............................................................................................17
7.3 CompensatedMassBalance..................................................................................................18
7.4 UseofVolumetricFlowMeters.............................................................................................19
7.5 BalancingatStandardConditions.........................................................................................19
7.6 VolumeBalancing..................................................................................................................19
7.7 Summary................................................................................................................................20
8 StatisticalLeakDetectionSystems...............................................................................................22
8.1 HypothesisTesting................................................................................................................22
8.2 SignatureAnalysis..................................................................................................................23
8.3 Summary................................................................................................................................24
9 LeakMonitoringduringShutInConditions.................................................................................25
9.1 PTPressureTemperatureMethod.....................................................................................25
9.2 DPDifferentialPressureMethod.......................................................................................26
9.3 Summary................................................................................................................................26
10 LeakLocalization...........................................................................................................................28
10.1 GradientIntersectionMethod..............................................................................................28
10.2 TimeofFlightMethod..........................................................................................................28
11 RTTMRealTimeTransientModel.............................................................................................30
11.1 CompensationApproach.......................................................................................................32
11.2 FlowResidualApproach........................................................................................................33
11.3 PressureResidualApproach..................................................................................................34
12 PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB).......................................................................................35
12.1 PipelineInventoryCompensation.........................................................................................35
12.2 StatisticalLeakClassification.................................................................................................36
12.3 Summary................................................................................................................................36
Contents
iii
13 PipePatrolExtendedRealTimeTransientModel(ERTTM).........................................................38
13.1 PipelineObserver..................................................................................................................38
13.2 LeakSignatureAnalysis.........................................................................................................38
13.3 LeakLocation.........................................................................................................................38
13.4 PipePatrolERTTM/PCLeakMonitoringinPumpingConditions.......................................39
13.5 PipePatrolERTTM/SCLeakMonitoringinShutinConditions..........................................43
13.6 Summary................................................................................................................................45
14 ComparisonofAllMethods..........................................................................................................48
14.1 FunctionalityandInstrumentation........................................................................................48
14.2 FieldofApplication................................................................................................................48
14.3 PerformanceParameters......................................................................................................48
A Bibliography..................................................................................................................................50
B Definitions.....................................................................................................................................51
AbouttheAuthor..................................................................................................................................64
ListofFiguresandTables
iv
ListofFigures
Figure1:SCADAsystemforanexampleapplication..........................................................................................................................................9
Figure2:Conditionalprobabilitydensityfunctions(PDF)...............................................................................................................................22
Figure3:LeakdetectionduringshutinbyPTmethod....................................................................................................................................25
Figure4:LeakdetectionduringshutinbyDPmethod....................................................................................................................................26
Figure5:Leaklocationbygradientintersectionmethod................................................................................................................................28
Figure6:RTTMtocalculatelocalprofiles;modelusingpressure(andtemperature)readings......................................................................31
Figure7:RTTMtocalculatelocalprofiles;modelusingflow(andtemperature)readings.............................................................................31
Figure8:CompensatedmassbalancewithRTTMbasedcompensation..........................................................................................................32
Figure9:Flowresidualapproach....................................................................................................................................................................33
Figure10:Pressureresidualapproach............................................................................................................................................................34
Figure11:PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)..........................................................................................................................................35
Figure12:PipePatrolERTTM/PCheadstationmonitoring...........................................................................................................................39
Figure13:PipePatrolERTTM/PCsubstationsmonitoring.............................................................................................................................40
Figure14:PipePatrolERTTM/PCsectionalmonitoring,substationsfullyinstrumented..............................................................................41
Figure15:PipePatrolERTTM/PCsectionalmonitoring,substationswithoutflowmeasurement................................................................42
Figure16:PipePatrolERTTM/SCheadstationmonitoring...........................................................................................................................43
Figure17:PipePatrolERTTM/SCsubstationsmonitoring.............................................................................................................................44
ListofTables
Table1:SymbolsandunitsPart1....................................................................................................................................................................v
Table2:SymbolsandunitsPart2...................................................................................................................................................................vi
Table3:Functionalityandinstrumentationofpressureandflowmonitoring.................................................................................................12
Table4:Fieldsofapplicationofpressureandflowmonitoring.......................................................................................................................12
Table5:Performanceparametersofpressureandflowmonitoring...............................................................................................................13
Table6:Functionalityandinstrumentationofrarefactionwavemethod.......................................................................................................14
Table7:Fieldsofapplicationforrarefactionwavemethod.............................................................................................................................14
Table8:Performanceparametersofrarefactionwavemethod......................................................................................................................15
Table9:Functionalityandinstrumentationforbalancingmethods................................................................................................................20
Table10:Fieldsofapplicationforbalancingmethods.....................................................................................................................................21
Table11:Performanceparametersforbalancingmethods.............................................................................................................................21
Table12:FunctionalityandinstrumentationforstatisticalLDS.......................................................................................................................24
Table13:FieldsofapplicationforstatisticalLDS.............................................................................................................................................24
Table14:PerformanceparametersforstatisticalLDS.....................................................................................................................................24
Table15:Functionalityandinstrumentationforleakmonitoringduringshutinconditions...........................................................................26
Table16:Fieldsofapplicationforleakmonitoringduringshutinconditions.................................................................................................27
Table17:Performanceparametersforleakmonitoringduringshutinconditions.........................................................................................27
Table18:FunctionalityandinstrumentationforPipePatrolSLB......................................................................................................................36
Table19:FieldsofapplicationforPipePatrolSLB............................................................................................................................................37
Table20:PerformanceparametersforPipePatrolSLB....................................................................................................................................37
Table21:FunctionalityandinstrumentationofPipePatrolERTTM................................................................................................................45
Table22:FieldsofapplicationofPipePatrolERTTM.......................................................................................................................................46
Table23:PerformanceparametersofPipePatrolERTTM..............................................................................................................................47
Table24:Comparisonofallmethods..............................................................................................................................................................49
SymbolsandUnits
SymbolsandUnits
Symbol Meaning SIUnit

c Speedofsound m/s
e Relativemeasurementerror
E Absolutemeasurementerror
L Lengthofpipeline m
M Massingeneral kg
Leak
M
Spilledleakmass kg
Pipe
M
Massstoredinpipeline kg
M
Massflowingeneral kg/s
I
M
Massflowatinlet kg/s
Leak
M
Leakflow kg/s
O
M
Massflowatoutlet kg/s
, p P
Pressureingeneral Pa
P Probabilityingeneral
FA
P
Probabilityoffalsealarm
MA
P
Probabilityofmissedalarm
Q
Flowingeneral kg/s, m
3
/s
I
Q
Flowatinlet kg/s, m
3
/s
O
Q
Flowatoutlet kg/s, m
3
/s
s Onedimensionalcoordinatealongthepipeline m
Leak
s
Positionofleak m
t Time s
down
t
Downstreamarrivaltimeofrarefactionwavecausedbyaleak s
up
t
Upstreamarrivaltimeofrarefactionwavecausedbyaleak s
T Temperatureingeneral K
G
T
Temperatureofground K
V Volumeingeneral m
3

Pipe
V Volumeofthepipeline m
3

V
Volumeflowingeneral m
3
/s
I
V
Volumeflowatinlet m
3
/s
s
V
Volumeflowatstandardconditions sm
3
/s
O
V
Volumeflowatoutlet m
3
/s
x Actualmeasurementofanyphysicalvariable
x Flowresidualatinlet kg/s
ref
x
Referencevalueforcalculationofrelativemeasurementerror
true
x
Truevalueofanyphysicalvariable
y
Flowresidualatoutlet kg/s
z Pressureresidualingeneral Pa
Table1:SymbolsandunitsPart1

SymbolsandUnits
vi
Symbol Meaning SIUnit

Leakalarmthresholdformassbalance kg/s
s
Leakalarmthresholdforstandardvolumebalance sm
3
/s
'
Leakalarmthresholdforvolumebalance m
3
/s
I
M A Massenteringpipelineatinletintegratedoversometimet kg
O
M A Massleavingpipelineatoutletintegratedoversometimet kg
Pipe
M A Changeofmassinventoryoversometimet kg
t A Timedifferenceingeneral s
t A Timedelayevaluatedbytimeofflightmethod s
I
V A Volumeenteringpipelineatinletintegratedoversometimet m
3

O
V A Volumeleavingpipelineatoutletintegratedoversometimet m
3

c Relativeresolutionofdataacquisition
E Absoluteresolutionofdataacquisition
0 Temperatureingeneral C
A Probabilityratio

MeanofaGaussiandistribution
Densityofthefluid kg/m
3

Meandensityofthefluidalongthepipeline kg/m
3

o

StandarddeviationoftheGaussiandistribution
Table2:SymbolsandunitsPart2
1 Introduction
1 Introduction
ModernleakdetectionsystemssuchasthePipePatrolfamilyfromKROHNEOilandGasmonitor
pipelinescontinuously,bylogicallytestingwhetheraleakhasoccurredornot(leakdetection).In
caseofaleaktheyalsocalculatetheleakflowandtheleakposition(leaklocalization).
Somecountriesformallyregulatepipelinesafety,forexampletheGermanrulesarelaiddownin
TechnischeRegelnfrRohrfernleitungsanlagen[TRFL].Othercountriesprovideguidelinesandrec
ommendedpractices,forexampleleakdetectionisspecificallyaddressedby[APIRP1130]inthe
USA.[APIRP1130]definesthefollowingimportantrequirementsofanLDS
1
:
Sensitivity:AnLDSshouldensurethatthelossoffluidasaresultofaleakisassmallaspossible.This
placestworequirementsonthesystem:itshoulddetectsmallleaks,anditshoulddetectthemquick
ly.PipePatrolExtendedRealTimeTransientModelERTTM(Chapter13)isabletodetectleakage
below1%ofnominalflowratewithinlessthanaminute.PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB,
Chapter12)mayalternativelybeusedifdemandforsensitivityisreducedand/orleaklocalizationis
notrequired.
Reliability:TheusermustbeabletotrusttheLDS.Thismeansthatitshouldcorrectlyalarmanyreal
leak,butitisequallyimportantthatitdoesnotgeneratefalsealarms.PipePatrolERTTMtherefore
usesleaksignatureanalysisbasedonwellknownandprovenstatisticalprocedures.
Accuracy:TheLDSshouldreporttheleaklocation(andleakflow)accurately.Thisenablestargeted
actionsforrepairandreestablishingsafety.
Robustness:TheLDSshouldcontinuetooperateinnonidealcircumstances.Forexample,incaseofa
transducerfailurethesystemmustdetectthefailureandcontinuetooperate(possiblywithneces
sarycompromisessuchasreducedsensitivity).TakingPipePatrolERTTMasanexample,thisERTTM
basedLDSoptionallyusesthemuchsimplerPipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)asabackupif
pressureortemperaturesensorsfail.
Theseperformancemeasurescanbefoundin[APIRP1130].Buttherearefurtherrequirements:
UniversalApplicability:AmodernLDSisexpectedtobeuniversallyapplicable.Forexample,PipePa
trolcanbeusedwithequalsuccessonliquidorgaspipelines,andoperateseffectivelyonsingle
productandmultiproductpipelineswithorwithoutseparationpigs.Dragreducingagent(DRA)cre
atessomechallenges,butnoinsurmountableproblems.
Wideoperatingrange:Leakdetectionisimportantthroughoutthewholeoperatingenvelope,includ
ingunsteady,ortransient,states.Itshouldcontinuetofunctioninhighlytransientstatessuchas
startupandshutdownandmoderatelytransientstatessuchasflowadjustmentaswellasthesteady
state.SomeLDSsalsoprovideamodelthatworksundershutinconditionssuchasPipePatrolE
RTTM,seeChapter13.
Accordingto[APIRP1130],LDSsaredividedintotwogroups:
- Externalsystemsusingdedicatedmeasurementequipment,suchasasensorcables
- Internalsystemsusingexistingmeasurementsensorsforflow,pressureandsoon
1
Thesedefinitionsformerlyhadbeenpartof[API1155],whichhadbeenwithdrawnbyAPI.Valuabledefinitionsanddiscussionsarenow
includedintoannexCfrom[APIRP1130].
1 Introduction
Externalsystemsprovideexcellentperformancebutinmanycasescannotoperatecontinuously.
Investmentandoperationalcostsareusuallyveryhighbecausetheyneeddedicatedmeasurement
equipmentsuchassensorcablesthatmustbelaidalongthepipeline.Forthatreason,externalsys
temswillonlybeusedincriticalapplications,forexamplewhenpipelinescrossnaturereserves.
Internalsystemsusuallyruncontinuously.Sensitivityisgenerallylower,butsoareinvestmentand
operationalcosts.Forthisreason,internalsystemsareverycommonandarerequiredbylawfor
mostpipelinesincountriessuchasGermany.Thefocusofthissurveythereforeisoninternalsys
tems.
InternalLDSsuseexistinginstrumentatione.g.forflow,pressureandtemperature.Instrumentation
issuesanddatacommunication(SCADA)topicsarethereforeveryimportantandarediscussedin
Chapters3and4,respectively.
ThissurveydescribestheprinciplesofinternalLDSandleaklocationasfollows:
- Chapter5: Pressure/FlowMonitoring
- Chapter6: RarefactionWaveMethod
- Chapter7: BalancingMethods
- Chapter8: StatisticalLeakDetectionSystems
- Chapter9: LeakMonitoringduringShutInConditions
- Chapter10:LeakLocalization
Thesemethodsandprincipleshavebeenwellknownfordecades.Greatimprovementsinthefieldof
computerhardwareandsoftwaremakeitpossibletosimulatesophisticatedtransientmodelsofthe
pipelineinrealtime.Chapter11thereforedescribesindetailprinciplesofusingRealTimeTransient
Models(RTTMs)forleakmonitoring.
Chapter12describesPipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB),whichcombinesthemassbalancewith
statisticalmethodsandoptionallyRTTMtechnology.Chapter13describesPipePatrolExtendedReal
TimeTransientModelERTTM,thepremiumleakdetectionsolutionofKROHNEOil&Gas.
Chapter14providesacomparisonofavailableleakdetectionmethodswhichmayhelpthereaderto
selectaLDSprinciplewhichismostsuitableforaparticularapplication.Listedinformationisprovid
edonaninformativebasisandsubjectivebynature.Lastbutnotleasttheinterestedreaderwillfind
withinAppendixBacomprehensivelistofdefinitionswhicharerelevantinthefieldofleakmonitor
ing.
2 RegulatoryFramework
2.1 TRFL(Germany)
GermanTRFLstandsforTechnischeRegelnfrRohrfernleitungsanlagen[TRFL],whichwasfirstly
publishedin2003andrevisedin2010.[TRFL]appliestomostGermanpipelinestransportingliquids
orgases.Itdemands:
a) Twoautonomous,continuouslyoperatingsystemsthatcandetectleaksinsteadystatecondi
tions.Thesetwosystemsmustrelyondifferentphysicalvariables.(Forgasandbrinepipelines
underwelldefinedoperatingconditions,onlyonesystemmaybenecessary.)
b) Oneofthesesystems,orathirdone,mustbeabletodetectleaksintransientconditions.
c) Onesystemtodetectleaksinpausedflowconditions.
d) Onesystemorproceduretodetectgradualleaks.
e) Onesystemorproceduretodetecttheleakposition.
2.1.1 InstallationsAccordingtoTRFLa)andb)
[TRFL]requirestwoautonomous,continuouslyoperatingLDSsthatcandetectleaksinthesteady
state.Eitherofthesesystems,orboth,orathirdone,mustbeabletodetectleaksintransientcondi
tions.
Specialattentionshouldbepaidtothedifferencebetweenthesteadystateandthetransientstate.
Steadystateconditionsexistwhenallrelevantphysicalvariablessuchasflow,pressure,temperature
anddensityaresufficientlyconstantalongthepipelinetoensurethatnowaveeffectscanbeob
served.Transientconditionsexistwhenthephysicalvariableschangesignificantlywithtime,sowave
effectsarepresent.Reasonsforthesechangesincludeproductcompressibilityandpipeelasticity,
togetherwithspecialoperationalconditionssuchas:
- Startingandstoppingpumpsorcompressorsduringstartupandshutdown
- Valveoperationanywherebefore,alongorbeyondthemonitoredpipelinesegment
- Floworpressurecontrolactions
- Changesoftargetthroughput
- Specialcasessuchascavitation
Experienceshowsthatgaspipelinesareusuallyina(moderately)transientstateasaresultofthe
highgascompressibility.Liquidpipelinesareoftenoperatedinasteadystate,butoncloseexamina
tiontransienteffectscanalsofrequentlybeobserved.
PipePatrolExtendedRealTimeTransientModel(ERTTM)fromKROHNEOil&Gasoffersastateof
theartleakdetectionsystemcapableofoperatinginbothsteadystateandtransientconditions;for
detailsrefertoChapter13.
2.1.2 InstallationsAccordingtoTRFLc)
[TRFL]requiresthateachpipelinehasonesystemtodetectleaksinpausedflowconditions,see
Chapter9.Inthiscontext,pausedflowjustmeans"flowequalorclosetozero";nothingissaidabout
howthiswillbeachieved.Iftheflowisblockedbyvalveslockingpressurewiththepipelinesegment,
itissaidtobeintheshutincondition.PipePatrolERTTMChapter13usesamodelbasedpressure
temperaturemethod(PTmethod),whichcanbeappliedtopipelinesinshutinconditions.
2.1.3 InstallationsAccordingtoTRFLd)
Gradualleaks(forexamplecausedbycorrosion)havetwoimportantcharacteristics:leakflowusually
is(very)small,anditdevelopsslowly.InstallationsaccordingtoTRFLa)arenotwellsuitedtodetect
ingthistypeofleak,so[TRFL]requiresadedicatedLDSforthispurpose.
AnexternalLDScanbeused,butthisisveryexpensive.InternalLDStechniquesincludingthepres
suretemperaturemethodChapterdescribedinChapter9.1anddifferentialpressuremethodde
scribedinChapter9.2canalsobeusedtodetectgradualleaks.
Ifadequate,leaktightvalvesarepresent,thePipePatrolERTTM/SCmodelbasedpressure
temperaturemethodcanalsobeapplied,seeChapter13.5.
2.1.4 InstallationsAccordingtoTRFLe)
TheTRFLadditionallyrequiresasystem(orotherprocedure)tolocateleaksrapidly,enablingtarget
edactionsforrepairandreestablishingsafety.Thisfunctioncanbeintegratedintooneofthesys
temsinstalledtocomplywithsectiona)forexample,PipePatrolERTTM,Chapter13.Detailsofleak
localizationaredescribedinChapter10.
2.2 APIRP1130(USA)
ThefirsteditionofAPI(AmericanPetroleumInstitute)RecommendedPractice(RP)1130Computa
tionalPipelineMonitoringforLiquidPipelineswaspublished2007[APIRP1130].APIRP1130does
notdirectlyimposelegalrequirementsonpipelineoperatorsinthesamewayasTRFL,but:
- Givesatechnicaloverviewofleakdetectiontechnology
- DescribesinfrastructuresupportforCPM
2
- DiscussesCPMoperation,maintenanceandtesting
Itprovidesthenecessarytechnicalinformationforconscientiousoperatorsandpipelinecontrollers
tomanagetheirpipelinessafely.
[APIRP1130]coversliquidpipelinesonly.LDSsaredividedintotwogroups:
- Externalsystemsusingdedicatedmeasurementequipment,suchasasensorcables.
- Internalsystemsusingexistingmeasurementsensorsforflow,pressureetc.AllLDSsintroduced
inthissurveyarepartofthisgroup.
[APIRP1130]alsodefinescriteria(ormeasures)forcomparingLDSsfromdifferentmanufacturers
3
:
- Sensitivity:Thesensitivityisacompositemeasureofthesizeofaleakthatasystemiscapableof
detecting,andthetimerequiredforthesystemtoissueanalarmintheeventthataleakofthat
sizeshouldoccur.Volumeormasslostbetweentheoccurrenceofaleakanditsdetectionisa
moreobjectivemeasureofperformancethanthesmallestdetectableleakflow.PipePatrolE
RTTMtypicallydetectsleakagebelow1%ofnominalflowrateinlessthanoneminute,resulting
inaleakvolumethatistypicallylessthan50liters.
- Reliability:Reliabilityisameasureoftheabilityofaleakdetectionsystemtorenderaccurate
decisionsaboutthepossibleexistenceofaleakonthepipeline,whileoperatingwithinanenve
lopeestablishedbytheleakdetectionsystemdesign.Itfollowsthatreliabilityisdirectlyrelated
2
CPM=ComputationalPipelineMonitoring.ThisisasoftwarebasedLDS.
3
Thesecriteriawereoriginallypublishedin[API1155]whichisbeenwithdrawnbyAPI.Usefuldefinitionsanddiscussionshavebeen
movedintoanAnnexof[APIRP1130].
totheprobabilityofdetectingaleak,giventhataleakdoesinfactexist,andtheprobabilityof
incorrectlydeclaringaleak,giventhatnoleakhasoccurred.
- Accuracy:Accuracycoversestimationofleakparameterssuchasleakflowrate,totalvolume
lost,typeoffluidlost,andleaklocationwithinthepipelinenetwork.Theseleakparameteresti
matesshouldbeasaccurateaspossible.
- Robustness:Robustnessisameasureoftheleakdetectionsystemsabilitytocontinuetofunc
tionandprovideusefulinformationevenunderchangingconditionsofpipelineoperation,orin
conditionswheredataislostorsuspect.Asystemisconsideredtoberobustifitcontinuesto
functionundersuchnonidealconditions.
3 InstrumentationIssues
Fortheinternalleakdetectionprinciplespresentedinthenextchapters,instrumentationincludes:
- Flowmeters
- Pressuresensors
- Temperaturesensors
[API1149]addressestheeffectofmeasurementuncertaintyonleakdetectionsystemsensitivity.It
considerssteadystateflowinliquidpipelinesusingpipecharacteristicstoestablishtheenvironment
inwhichthemeasurementsaremade.Itthenconsidersmeasurementaccuracyanduncertaintyfrom
theinstrumentvendorsinordertodeterminetheoreticalleakdetectionsensitivitybasedonmeas
urementquality.Theresultisatheoreticallimittoleakdetectionsensitivitybasedoninstrument
accuracyandpipelinecharacteristics.
3.1 PerformanceMeasures
Ingeneral,applyingaspecificLDSprincipleimpliesspecificperformancerequirementsfortherelated
measurementsystems.Thestaticperformanceofmeasurementsystemsismainlydefinedbytwo
measures:accuracyandrepeatability.Thedynamicperformanceisusuallydefinedbythesettling
time.
3.1.1 Accuracy
Accuracyisthedegreeofclosenessofmeasurementsxofaquantitytothatquantity'struevalue
x
tuc
.Formostmeasurementsystems,accuracyisspecifiedbydeclaringmaximummagnitudeval
uesfortheabsolutemeasurementerror
4
true
E x x .
Alternatively,accuracycanbeexpressedrelativetoareferencevalue:
true
ref ref
x x E
e
x x
= .
x
c]
indicatesachosenreferencevalue,usuallythemeasurementrange(x
c]
= x
mux
- x
mn
)or
thetruevalue(x
c]
= x
tuc
)
5
.Maximumerrorvaluesmaybespecifiedglobally,orasafunctionof
actualmeasurementx.
3.1.2 Repeatability
Repeatabilityistheclosenessofagreementbetweenindependentmeasurementreadingsobtained
withthesamemeasurementsystemunderthesameconditions(forexamplesameflowandsame
environmentalconditions).Veryoftenrepeatabilityisdefinedasthevaluebelowwhichtheabsolute
difference|x| |x|k] - x|k - 1]|betweentwosuccessivesinglemeasurementsx|k]and
x|k -1]obtainedunderthesameconditionsmaybeexpectedtoliewithaspecifiedprobability
suchas95%.
Repeatabilitydoesnotimplyaccuracy:theabsolutedifferencexmaybeverylow,butitispossible
foreverysinglemeasurementx|k]andx|k - 1]tobeincorrect.Ontheotherhand,accuracyimplies
repeatability:ifameasurementsystemisaccurate,x|k]andx|k - 1]showsmalldeviationsfrom
thetruevalue,andthereforethescatterofreadingsmustalsobesmall.Requiringagivenaccuracyis
thereforealwaysamoresevereconstraintthenrequiringagivenrepeatability.
4
Thisistrueonlyforadeterministicapproach.Withinastatisticalcontext,uncertaintyshouldbeusedinstead.
5
Inmanycasestheactualvaluexcanbeusedforx
tuc
asanapproximation.
3.1.3 SettlingTime
Accuracyandrepeatabilitydescribethestaticperformanceofameasurementsystem.Themostim
portantparameterdescribingthedynamicperformanceisthesettlingtimeI
s
,thetimerequiredfor
theresponsecurvetoreachandstaywithinarangeofcertainpercentage(usually5%or2%)ofthe
finalvalue.Fastmeasurementsystemsarecharacterizedbysmallsettlingtimes.
3.2 Flowmeters[ADEC]
Withtheexceptionofpressuremonitoringmethod(Chapter5.1),rarefactionwavemethod(Chapter
6)andleakmonitoringinshutinconditions(Chapter9),flowmetersarethemostimportantmeas
urementinstrumentsforleakdetection.Severaldifferenttypesofflowmeterareusedonpipelines
including:
- Orificeplates(differentialpressure),
- Turbinemeters
- Positivedisplacementmeters
- Directmassflowmeters(Coriolistype)
- Ultrasonicmeters
3.2.1 OrificePlate
Theflowmetersmostcommonlyinstalledonpipelinesaresharpedgedorificeplates,adifferential
pressuretypeofmeter.Althoughthesemetersareverycommoninapplicationssuchasthemeas
urementofnaturalgas,theiruseasaccurateinstrumentationforpipelineleakdetectionisquestion
able.Thebiggestproblemistheirmeasurementuncertainty.Thebasicuncertaintyinthedischarge
coefficientofawellinstalledorificeplateinfactoryconditionisaround0.5%.Thebestcaseuncer
taintyinafiscalgasapplicationwithallnecessarysecondarymeasurementstakenintoaccountis
closerto1%,conditionalonregularinspectionandoccasionalreplacementoftheplate.Ininstalla
tionsnottofiscalstandarditisreasonabletoexpectaccuraciesofaround35%.
Thereadingofanorificeplatedependsonthedensityaswellastheflow.Itiscommonpracticein
lowaccuracymeasurementstoperformasimplesquarerootextractioninatransmitterusingan
assumedconstantvalueofdensity.Thisisnotnormallysufficientlyaccurateandstableforleakde
tection,andaflowcomputershouldthereforebeconsidered.
3.2.2 TurbineMeter
Turbinemetersareflowmeasuringdeviceswithfanlikerotorsthatsensethevelocityofflowing
fluidinaclosedconduit.Thefluidforceontherotorcausesittorotateataratethatdependsmainly
onvolumetricflowrate,althoughalsoonfrictionforcesandotherfactors.Oversomerangeofcondi
tions,therateofrotationisnearlydirectlyproportionaltotherateofflow.Turbinemetersareused
extensivelyonpipelines,especiallythosecarryingpetroleumhydrocarbons.Thetotaltheoretical
uncertaintyofmassflowinafiscalturbinemetersystemisaround0.25%,althoughthisisanupper
boundandpracticalfiguresaslowas0.05%canbeachieved.Turbinesaresensitivetoviscosity,and
mosttypesperformlesswellaboveabout20cP.Theirsettlingtimeisfarfasterthanmightbeex
pected.
3.2.3 PositiveDisplacementMeter
Positivedisplacementmetersmeasureflowbydynamicallytrappingfluidparcelsofknownvolumein
oneormoremeasuringchambers.Thebiggestuncertaintyfactorwiththistypeofmeteristheun
measuredfluidslippagethroughitssealsandclearances.Thisvariesasthemeterwears,soregular
provingandfairlyfrequentservicingarebothimportant.Althoughgaspositivedisplacementmeters
exist,themainpipelineapplicationforthismetertypeisrelativelyviscousliquids.Inthiscase,the
expecteduncertaintyisagainaround0.25%forafiscalsystem.
3.2.4 CoriolisMassMeter
Coriolisdirectmassmetersareslowlygainingacceptanceandbeingincorporatedintothepipeline
industry.Theuncertaintyoftheseinstrumentsisapproximately0.5%ofreadingorbetter.Thistype
ofmeterhastheadvantageofprovidingdirectmassmeasurement,whichmeansthatadditional
measurementsoftemperature,pressure,anddensitymeasurementoranequationofstatetode
terminefluiddensityarenotnecessary.Coriolismeterscanbeappliedtobothliquidandgas,andare
insensitivetoviscosity.Theirprincipaldisadvantageisthattheyareverycumbersomeandexpensive
inmediumsizes,andlargesizesareonlystartingtobeavailable.Itisalsomoredifficulttochecka
massmeteragainstaprover,whichisbynatureavolumetricreference.
3.2.5 UltrasonicMeter
UltrasonicflowmetersareavailableinDopplerandTransitTimetypes,butonlythesecondofthese
iswidelyconsideredsuitableforpipelineapplications.TransitTimeultrasonicmetersrelyonaccu
ratetimingofultrasonicimpulsesthatcutacrossthepipediagonally,andwhosetraveltimeacross
themeterthereforedependsontherateofflow.Ultrasonicmetersdonotdirectlymeasuretheav
eragevelocitydistributioninthepipe,andsorequiremultiplepathstointegratethevolumeflow
properly.Generallymorepathsimplybettervelocitydistribution(orReynoldsnumber)compensa
tion,althoughsomemetershavemultipleequivalentpathswhosefunctionistocompensatefor
installationeffects.Ultrasonicmetersareavailableforbothgasandliquid.Thelatestgasultrasonic
technologygivesthebestperformanceofanymeasurementprinciple,withuncertaintyaslowas
0.2%.Liquidultrasonicmetersgiveuncertaintiessimilartoturbines,butwithahigherviscositycut
off.Oneofthemajoradvantagesofultrasonicmetersislittleornopressureloss.
4 SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA)
InternalLDSsrequirefieldinformationsuchasflow,pressureandtemperaturethatwillbeprovided
bymeansofmeasurementstationslocatedatinlet,outletandintermediatestations.Measurement
stationsattheinletandoutletarecalledheadstations,intermediatestationsarecalledsubstations.
ThisfieldinformationwillusuallybeprovidedbyaSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA)
system;thisisacomputerbaseddatacommunicationsystemthatmonitors,processes,transmits,
anddisplayspipelinedataforthepipelinecontroller[ADEC].SCADAsystemsmaybeuseddirectlyfor
leakdetection,mayprovidesupportforanLDS,oranLDSmayoperateindependentlyofSCADA.
Generally,apipelineLDSwillusethedatageneratedbyaSCADAsystem.
4.1 ComponentsofaSCADASystem
Regardlessofthemanufacturer,SCADAsystemsaregenerallybasedonsimilarcomponents.
SubstationB SubstationA
HeadStation
Outlet
HeadStation
Inlet
ControlRoom
RS RS RS
MS
LDS
DCE
Figure1:SCADAsystemforanexampleapplication
Figure1showsanexamplewithtwoheadstations(inletandoutlet)andtwosubstations.Theinlet
headstationisapumpingstation,andtheoutletheadstationisavalvestation(forexamplewitha
pressurecontrolvalve).Twosubstationswithvalvespermitfastflowshutoffincaseofanemergen
cy.TheSCADAsystemcollectsrealtimedatafromfieldinstrumentsusingremotestations(RSs)at
substationsandoutletheadstation.RSsacquiredatafromfieldinstrumentssuchasflowmeters,
oftenviaanalogue420mAcurrentlooporcommunicationprotocolssuchasModbus.Programma
blelogiccontrollers(PLCs)usuallyformpartofRSswhenlocalmonitoringandcontrolfunctionsare
necessary.RSsaresometimescalledremoteterminalunits(RTUs)ifonlydataacquisitionisprovided.
Amasterstation(MS)attheinletheadstationisconnectedtotheRSsusingdatacommunication
equipment(DCE).Inmostcases,theMSprovidesanEthernetTCP/IPLocalAreaNetwork(LAN)in
ordertoconnectequipmentfordatapresentationandhumaninteraction;throughthis,thepipeline
controllermonitorsandcontrolsthesystem.
IntheexampleofFigure1theLDSacquiresrequiredfieldinformation(flow,pressure,temperature
andsoon)fromSCADAbutotherwiseoperatesindependently.DataistransferredfromSCADAtothe
10
LDSusingadedicatedlink,e.g.Modbusoverserialconnection(RS232orRS485),Modbusover
EthernetTCP/IP,orOLEforProcessControl(OPC).NowadaysOPCisbecomingmoreandmorethede
factoindustrystandard.TheLDSperformsleakmonitoring;thediagnosticresults(leakno/yes,leak
flowandpositionincaseofaleak)aretransferredbacktotheSCADA.Usuallyresultsarepresented
tothepipelinecontrollerwhothentakestheappropriateactions.ForadditionaldiscussionofSCADA
systemdesignfactorsandtheireffectsonthequalityandtimelinessofthedatarequiredbyanLDS,
see[APIRP1130].
4.2 DataAcquisition
Dataacquisition(DAQ)convertsanaloguefieldsignalsintodigitalvaluesfordataprocessing.DAQis
partofRSandMSwhenfieldsignalsareanalogue,veryofteninformofa420mAcurrentloop.The
qualityoftheconversionheavilydependsontheDAQresolutionwhichisthesmallestincrementof
signalchangethatcanbedeterminedbythedevice,andthefullscalerangeofthefieldsignal.Ifthe
completefieldsignalrangeisassignedto420mAandtheDAQresolutionisspecifiedwithnbits,
thentheabsoluteresolutionisgivenby
20 4 16
2 2
n n
mA mA mA
E = =
yieldingarelativeresolutionof
1
20 4 2
n
mA mA
c
E
= =
.
ExperienceshowsthatDAQresolutionshouldben = 12bitorbetter.Itisalsoimportanttousethe
full420mArange.
4.3 DataCommunicationEquipment(DCE)
Datacommunicationequipment(DCE)includesphoneandradiomodemsaswellasfiberoptic,mi
crowaveandsatellitetransmissionequipment.MessagingbetweentheRSandMSisknownasthe
communicationsprotocolincludinghandshaking,errordetection,anderrorrecovery.Leakmonitor
ingissafetyrelevant;itthereforecouldbenecessarytoprovideredundantcommunicationlinksto
ensurethatleakmonitoringwillcontinueincaseofaconnectionfailure.
4.3.1 Topology
Topologyisthegeometricarrangementofnodesandlinksthatmakeupanetwork.ForaSCADA
system,thesetopologiesarecommonlyused:
- PointtoPoint.Thisisacommunicationlinkbetweenonlytwostations.Eitherstationcaninitiate
communicationwiththeother,oronestationcanactasmaster.
- PointtoMultipoint.Thisisacommunicationlinkamongthreeormorestationswithonestation
beingacommunicationarbitrator(master)thatcontrolswhentheotherstations(remotesta
tionsactingasslaves)cancommunicate.
- MultipointtoMultipoint.Thisisacommunicationlinkamongthreeormorestationswherethere
isnocommunicationarbitrator(master)andanystationcaninitiatecommunicationswithany
otherstation.
4.3.2 CommunicationProtocol
Acommunicationprotocolgovernstheformatofdatatransmissionbetweentwoormorestations,
includinghandshaking,errordetection,anderrorrecovery.Leakmonitoringissafetyrelevant,so
specialattentionisrequiredconcerningerrordetectionandrecovery.Transmissionmodemaybe
11
halfduplex(informationissentinonedirectionatatimeoverthelink)orfullduplex(informationis
simultaneouslysentandreceivedoverthelink).
TheprotocolisconsideredpolledwhentheMSrequestsdatafromeachdeviceconsecutively.When
thelastdeviceisscanned,theMSwillautomaticallyrequestinformationfromthefirstone,creating
acontinuouspollingcycle.Thedurationofthiscycle,theSCADAsystempollingtime,hassteadily
improvedovertheyearsandcannowbelessthan0.25seconds.SCADAcommunicationsmayalsobe
nonpolled.Forexample,RSsmayreportwithoutbeingpolledonatimescheduledbasisorwhen
fieldconditionschange.
LDSsthatrelyontheSCADAsystemtoreceiveoperatingdataaredirectlyaffectedbythepolling
time.Longerpollingcyclestypicallytranslatetodegradedleakdetectionsensitivity.Mostmodern
SCADAsystemsincludequalitycheckingsoftwaretoassessthevalidityofthedatabeforeanycalcu
lationsarecomputedanddisplayed.FormodelbasedLDS,timetaggingmayberequired.
4.3.3 LinkMedia
Fieldinformationistransferredusingspecificphysicallinkmediasuchas:
- Publictransmissionmediasuchaspublicswitchedtelephonenetworks(PSTN),privateleased
lines(PLLs)anddigitaldataservices(DDS)
- Atmosphericmediasuchasmicrowaveradio,VHF/UHFradioandgeosynchronoussatellites
- Fiberopticalcable
Thechoiceoflinkmediadependson:
- Datatransmissionneedsoftheapplication
- Remotesiteandcontrolcenterlocations
- Distancebetweenstations
- Availablelinkmediaservices
- Projectbudget
5 Pressure/FlowMonitoring
12
Aleakchangesthehydraulicsofthepipeline,andthereforechangesfloworpressurereadingsafter
sometime[Krass/Kittel/Uhde].Localmonitoringofpressureorflowatonlyonepointcantherefore
providesimpleleakdetection.Itrequiresnotelemetry,forexampletocompareflowrateatinletan
outlet,aslocalmonitoringofpressureorflowrateissufficient.Itisonlyusefulinsteadystatecondi
tions,however,anditsabilitytodealwithgaspipelinesandmultiproductliquidpipelinesisextreme
lylimited.Itdoesnotprovidegoodsensitivity,andleaklocalizationisnotpossible.
5.1 PressureMonitoring
Ifaleakoccurs,thepressureinthepipelinewillfallbyanamountp.Aspressuresensorsarealmost
alwaysinstalled,itisnaturaltousethemforleakdetection.Thepressureinthepipelineissimply
comparedagainstalowerlimitafterreachingthesteadystatecondition.Whenthepressurefalls
belowthislowerlimit,aleakalarmisraised.
5.2 FlowMonitoring
Thesensitivityofthepressuremonitoringmethoddependsontheleaklocation.Neartheinletand
theoutletofthepipelinealeakleadstolittleornochangeinpressure.Thiscanbeavoidedbyflow
monitoring,wheretheflowismeasuredforchange.Thetwomethodscanbecombined.
5.3 Summary
Thenextsubchapterssummarizethemostimportantrequirementsandcharacteristics.SeeChapter
14foracomparisonofallmethodsintroducedinthissurvey.
5.3.1 FunctionalityandInstrumentation
Complexity Static Dynamic

Pressure/FlowMonitoring
PressureMonitoring LD 1xP Accuracy None
FlowMonitoring LD 1xQ Accuracy None
Requirements Method Function
Instrumentation
Table3:Functionalityandinstrumentationofpressureandflowmonitoring
6
Bothmethodsprovideleakdetection,butnoleaklocalization.(Fordetailsaboutleaklocalizationsee
Chapter10.)Forpressuremonitoringonlyonepressuresensorisrequired,andforflowmonitoring
onlyoneflowmeterisrequired.Nostatisticalprocedureisinvolvedsoaccuracyisimportant(instead
ofrepeatability).Therearenospecialrequirementsconcerningthedynamictransmissionbehavior.
5.3.2 FieldsofApplication
Pumping Dynamics
PressureMonitoring PC,SC Steady Liquids+Gases a),c)
FlowMonitoring PC Steady Liquids+Gases a)
Application Method Medium TRFL
Table4:Fieldsofapplicationofpressureandflowmonitoring
7
6
LD=Leakdetection,P=Pressuresensor,Q=Flowsensor.
7
PC=Pumpingconditions,SC=Shutinconditions
13
Pressuremonitoringisabletodetectleaksinpumpingconditionsaswellasinshutinconditions;for
shutinconditions,thiswillbetrueifthepipelinevalvessealtightlyenough.(Forshutinoperation,
thereisamodifiedversioncalledthepressuretemperaturemethod,whichtakesintoaccountthe
actualfluidtemperature.FordetailsseeChapter9.)
Incontrast,flowmonitoringisonlyabletodetectleaksinpumpingconditions.Bothmethodsare
restrictedtothesteadystate,assmallchangesinpressureorflowwillcauseafalsealarm.Either
methodiscapableofmonitoringgasandliquidpipelines.Pressuremonitoringmeetsthefollowing
requirementsofTRFL:
- TRFLa),acontinuouslyworkingsystem,whichcandetectleaksinsteadystateconditions
- TRFLc),asystemtodetectleaksinshutinconditions
Incontrast,flowmonitoringonlyachievesTRFLa).
5.3.3 PerformanceParameters
AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

PressureMonitoring High Short Long Sudden+Graduate
FlowMonitoring High Short Long Sudden+Graduate
Sensitivity
LeakTypes TimetoDetect Method
Table5:Performanceparametersofpressureandflowmonitoring
Bothmethodswillworkwithoutmalfunctionifpressureandflowstaysufficientlyconstantindaily
operation.Thisistrueforsomeliquidpipelines,buthardlyeverforgaspipelines.
Thesesimplemethodsnormallydonotusesophisticatedstatisticalmethodstopreventfalsealarms
(Chapter8).Theonlywaytoavoidfalsealarmsisthereforetosetwidealarmlimits.Thiscausesa
shorttimetodetectaleakwithinliquidpipelines.Ingaspipelinespressurechangesareratherslow,
soleakdetectionisslow.Bothmethodsdetectsuddenleaksaswellasgradualleaksofsufficientsize.
6 RarefactionWaveMethod
14
Asuddenleakcaused,forexample,bycarelessuseofanexcavator,leadstoanegativepressure
wavepropagatingatthespeedofsoundcupanddownstreamthroughthepipeline.Suchawave,
calledararefactionwave,canberecognizedusinginstalledpressuretransmitters,givingaleak
alarm.Itisalsopossibletocalculatetheleaklocationbytimingthearrivalofthepressurewaveat
twoormorepointsonthepipeline(Chapter10).
6.1 Summary
Thenextsubchapterssummarizethemostimportantrequirementsandcharacteristics.SeeChapter
14foracomparisonofallmethodsintroducedinthissurvey.

RarefactionWave(NegativePressureWave)
RarefactionWave LD+LL 2xP Repeatability Veryfast
Instrumentation
Table6:Functionalityandinstrumentationofrarefactionwavemethod
8
Atleasttwopressuretransmittersareneededforleaklocalization;onepressuretransmitterallows
leakdetectiononly.(FordetailsaboutleaklocalizationseeChapter10.)Ineithercase,theselected
transmittersmustbecapableofdetectingrapidchangesinpressureandthereforemustbeveryfast
(verylowsettlingtime).Ontheotherhand,repeatabilityratherthanaccuracyisimportant.
Pumping Dynamics
RarefactionWave PC,SC Steady Liquids a),c),e)
Table7:Fieldsofapplicationforrarefactionwavemethod
9
Therarefactionwavemethodisabletodetectleaksinpumpingconditionsaswellasinshutincon
ditions.Itisonlyabletodetectleaksinthesteadystatecondition,andsmallvariationsinpressure
caneasilyleadtofalsealarms.Rarefactionwavemethodsaremostusefulinliquidpipelines,aspres
surewavesarequicklyattenuatedingaspipelines.ThistechniquemeetsthefollowingTRFLrequire
ments:
- TRFLa),acontinuousworkingsystem,whichcandetectleakswithinsteadystateconditions
- TRFLe),asystemorproceduretodetecttheleakposition
8
LD=Leakdetection,LL=Leaklocalization,P=Pressuresensor
9
PC=Pumpingconditions,SC=Shutinconditions
15

RarefactionWave(Chapter6)
RarefactionWave High VeryShort N/A Sudden
Sensitivity
Table8:Performanceparametersofrarefactionwavemethod
Thistechniquewillworkwithoutmalfunctionifpressurestayssufficientlyconstantindailyoperation,
whichistrueforsomeliquidpipelinesbuthardlyeverforgaspipelines.Sophisticatedstatistical
methodstopreventfalsealarms(Chapter8)willnotnormallybeused.Theonlywaytoavoidfalse
alarmsisthereforetosetwidealarmlimits.Thiscausesaveryshorttimetodetectaleakwithinliq
uidpipelines.Thismethodonlydetectssuddenleaksofsufficientsize.
7 BalancingMethods
16
7 BalancingMethods
Balancingmethodsarebasedontheprincipleofconservationofmass.Inthesteadystate,summed
overasufficientlylongtimeperiodt,themassH
I
enteringaleakfreepipelineatinletwillbal
ancethemassH
0
leavingitatoutlet.Inthemoregeneralcase,thedifferenceinmassatthetwo
endsmustbebalancedagainstthechangeofmassinventoryofthepipelineH
Ppc
.Overanygiven
periodoftimet,wecanthereforesay
0
I O Pipe I O Pipe
M M M M M M A A = A A A A = (1)
ifthereisnoleak,or,alternatively,
0
Pipe Pipe
I O I O
dM dM
M M M M
dt dt
= =

(2)
whendividingEq.(1)bytandt = Jt u.Eq.(2)istheinstantaneousversionofEq.(1).Here,H
andH
0
aremassflowatinletandoutlet,respectively,andJH
Ppc
Jt isthechangeofmassinvento
ryperunittime.Themassinthepipeisgivenby
Pipe Pipe
M V =
whereI
Ppc
isthevolumeofthepipeline,and
( )
0
1
L
s ds
L

}

isthemeanproductdensityalongthepipelineoflengthI.p(s)denotesthelocaldensityprofile
alongthepipelinewithspacecoordinates, u s I.
Anyadditionalmassimbalanceindicatesaleak.ThiscanbequantifiedbyrearrangingEq.(1)and
addingatermforleakmassyielding
Leak I O Pipe
M M M M A = A A A (3)
whereH
Lcuk
denotesthemasslostbytheleakduringt,or,usingEq.(2)
Pipe
Leak I O
dM
M M M
dt
=

(4)
whereH
Lcuk
denotestheinstantaneousleakmassflow.Theseequationsarevalidforliquidandgas
pipelinesinanyconsistentmassunits.
7.1 SomeCommentsonDefinitions
Balancingmethodsareverycommonsomanyreferencesaddressthistopic.Examplesofdefinitions
foundintheliteratureinclude:
- Massbalance
- Materialbalance
- Linebalance
- Volumebalance
- Modifiedorcompensatedvolumebalance
7 BalancingMethods
17
Unfortunately,someofthelisteddefinitionsaremisleading.Volumebalance,forexample,might
sometimesbeconfusedwithmassbalance.Butthereisnoprincipleofconservationofvolume,so
0
I O
V V A A = (5)
forleakfreepipelinesevenfort andidealsteadystateconditions.(I
I
andI
0
arethevol
umesenteringandleavingthepipelineduringt,respectively.)
Definitionsusedwiththissurveyconsiderstrictlythephysicalfactstherebyinsuringconsistency.
7.1.1 MassBalance
Balancingmethodsingeneralaremassbalancemethodsbecausetheprincipleofconservationof
massisused.Ifvolumeflowismeasuredinsteadofmassflow,thesemethodsgenerallyhavetocon
siderthedensityattheinletandtheoutlet,seeChapter7.4.Ifchangesinthemassinventoryofthe
pipelineH
Ppc
arenotconsideredthesearecalleduncompensatedmassbalancemethods(Chapter
7.2),andotherwisecompensatedmassbalancemethods(Chapter7.3).
7.1.2 VolumeBalance
Ifdensitiesp
I
andp
0
atinletandoutletareequal,then
0
I O
V V A A =
forleakfreepipelinesandt .Thisisonlytrueforsingleproductpipelineswherepressureand
temperatureatinletandoutletareequal.Themethodrelyingontheseassumptionsiscalledthe
volumebalancemethod,buttherestillisnorelationequivalenttoEq.(3)and(4),sochangeofinven
torycannotbecompensated.Anotherapproachuses
.
I O
V V V const A A = A =
whichmeansthatleakfreevolumeimbalanceisconsideredtobeconstant.Aleakchangestheoffset
Ileadingtoaleakalarmdeclarationusingstatisticalprocedures.Fordetailsonvolumebalancesee
Chapter7.6.
7.1.3 LineBalance
LineBalanceisagenerictermcoveringallbalancingmethods(massbalanceorvolumebalance).
7.2 UncompensatedMassBalance
Supposingthataleakwasallowedtocontinueforaninfinitelylongperiod,themassenteringand
leavingthepipelinewouldincreaseindefinitely.Themassinventoryofthepipeline,ontheother
hand,remainswithinafixedrange.H
Ppc
thereforebecomesnegligible,andEq.(3)reducesto
Leak I O
M M M A = A A (6)
whichisthebasicformulaofuncompensatedmassbalance.
Leak
M A isnowanestimateforthetrue
value
Leak
M A inEq.(3).Overafiniteperiodt,thisequationisanapproximation.Furthermore,er
rorsinmassflowcalculationmustbeconsidered,finallyyieldingtheleakdeclarationrule
Leak
No Leak
Leak I O
t
M M M
t
> A
A = A A

s A
(7)
whereyistheleakmassflowthreshold.Foroperationwithoutfalsealarms,thetimeperiodtmust
besufficientlylongfortheflowinandoutofthepipelinetobelargeincomparisonwiththechange
inpipelineinventory.Inthefollowingcases,averylargevaluewillberequired:
7 BalancingMethods
18
- Startingandstoppingpumpsorcompressorsduringstartupandshutdown
- Valveoperationanywherebefore,alongorbeyondthemonitoredpipelinesegment
- Floworpressurecontrolactions
- Changesoftargetthroughput
- Specialcasessuchascavitation
- Mostgaspipelines,mostofthetime
ForthecalculationofH
I
andH
0
inEq.(7),massflowsH
I
andH
0
willbeusedinmostcasesusing
M M t A = A
whereH
isthemassflowmeanvalueduringt.
7.3 CompensatedMassBalance
Unliketheuncompensatedmassbalance,thecompensatedmassbalancetakesaccountofchanges
inpipelineinventory;introducingH
Ppc
inEq.(7)thereforegives
Leak
No Leak
Leak I O Pipe
t
M M M M
t
> A
A = A A A

s A
(8)
whereinventorychangeH
Ppc
isgivenby
( )
0
1
L
Pipe Pipe Pipe
M V s ds V
L

(
= =
(

}
(9)
Itisnotpossibletodeterminethedensityprofilep(s)alongthepipelinedirectly.Threeindirectap
proachesaredescribedbelow.
7.3.1 MeasurementofPressureandTemperaturealongthePipeline
Aquantitynofpressurep
andtemperatureI
transmittersmustbeinstalledsufficientlyclosely,
1 i n.ThepipelineisthensplitintonsegmentsofknownvolumeI
ateachtransducerpair.
Foreverysegment,thedensityp
iscalculatedusingathermodynamicequationofstate
10
appropri
atetotheproduct.Equivalentrelationsforgasesarealsoavailable.Finally,meandensityp inEq.(9)
willbecalculatedusingp
.
7.3.2 DeterminationUsingaSteadyStateModel
Thereare(reasonablysimple)mathematicalmodelsavailableforliquidpipelinesaswellasforgas
pipelines.Inliquidpipelines,asimplelineardecreaseinpressurecansometimesbeassumedalong
thepipeline
11
;temperatureofthefluidcanbeassumedtoequalgroundtemperatureforlongpipe
lines.Correspondingflowequationsforgaspipelines,(assumingforexampleisothermaloradiabatic
flow)areavailable[Bohl].Usingthesestatemodelstogetherwiththecorrespondingequationof
statepermitsthecalculationofdensityprofilep(s)andpipeinventoryusingEq.(9).
7.3.3 DeterminationUsingaRealTimeTransientModel(RTTM)
Themostaccuratemethodistouseapipelinemodelthatcoverstransientaswellassteadystate
conditions.Thisallowsthedensitytobedeterminedateverypointalongthepipelineforthesteady
stateandtransientoperationseeChapter11.

10
EOS(forEquationOfState)orPVTequation(forP=Pressurep,V=SpecificVolumeu,T=TemperatureI)aresynonyms.
11
Thisassumesahorizontalpipelineofconstantinternalroughnessandcrosssectionalarea.Othercasesrequireamodifiedapproach.
7 BalancingMethods
19
7.4 UseofVolumetricFlowMeters
Itisnotalwayspracticaltomeasurethemassflowinandoutofthepipelinedirectlyforexample,
directmassmetersareonlyavailableinalimitedrangeofsizes.Itispossibletosubstitutevolumetric
flowmeters,buttheindicatedvolumeflowmustbemultipliedbylinedensitytoderivethemass.
Dependingontheapplication,theoptionsforobtainingdensityinclude:
- Thedensityoffluidsofknowncompositionisknownandconstant,andthereforecanbestored
inalookuptable
- Thedensitycanbedirectlymeasured
- Thedensityforcrudeoilanditsproductscanbedeterminedasafunctionofpressureandtem
peratureusing[APIMPMS11],providedthatareferencedensityisavailable
- ThedensityofnaturalgascanbecalculatedusingequationsofstatesuchasAGA8iftherelevant
parametersareknownorcanbemeasured
Conversioncalculationsfromvolumetricflowtomassflowforcommonlyusedvolumetricflowme
tersareusuallyimplementedinaflowcomputer.
7.5 BalancingatStandardConditions
Wherevolumetricflowmetersareused,itcanbeconvenienttoexpressthepipelinebalanceEq.(6)
intheformofstandardvolumeI
s
insteadofmassH.ThestandardvolumeofafluidofmassHis
definedasthefluidvolumeatsomefixedandagreedtemperatureI
s
andpressurep
s
,suchas
1.01325barand15C(ISOstandardconditions),andisgivenby
s
s
M
V
. (10)
Thestandarddensityp
s
issimplytheproductdensityatstandardconditions.Itisfixedforpure
products,andcanotherwisebecalculatedfrommeasurementsusinganequationofstate.Forun
compensatedmassbalance,usingEq.(7)togetherwithEq.(10)yields
, , ,
Leak
No Leak
s
s Leak s I s O
s
t
V V V
t
> A
A = A A

s A
(11)
whereI
s,I
andI
s,0
denotevolumeenteringandleavingduringtimeperiodtreferredtostand
ardconditions,andI
`
s,Lcuk
representstheleakvolumeatstandardconditions.y
s
isthecorrespond
ingalarmthreshold.Forcompensatedmassbalance,Eq.(11)canbemodifiedaccordingly.
7.6 VolumeBalancing
Balancingmethodsingeneralrelyonthemassconservationprinciple;flowmetersmusttherefore
providemassflowsdirectly(usingCoriolismeters)orindirectlyviavolumeflowcombinedwithpres
sureandtemperature,seeChapter7.4.Thereare,however,someapplicationswherevolumetric
flowmeterscanbeusedbyapplyingvolumebalancing
12
.

12
Intechnicalliterature,terms"massbalancing"and"volumebalancing"areoftennotusedconsistently.
7 BalancingMethods
20
7.6.1 ApproximatelyEqualDensityatInletandOutlet
Inthiscase,assumingsingleproductoperation,densityatinletandoutletisequal,sop
I
= p
0
= p ,
andEq.(7)becomes:
Leak
No Leak
Leak I O
t
V V V
t
' > A
A = A A

' s A
(12)
whereyistheleakvolumeflowthreshold.Thisonlyhappensiftemperature(andpressureforgases)
atinletandoutletareequal.Again,foroperationwithoutfalsealarms,thetimeperiodtmustbe
sufficientlylonggiventheflowinandoutofthepipeline,seeChapter7.2.ForthecalculationofI
I
andI
0
,volumeflowsI
I
andI
0
willbeusedinmostcasesusing V V t A = A
whereV
isthemean
volumeflowduringt.
7.6.2 BatchChangeforMultiProductPipelines
Duringabatchchangeformultiproductpipelines,theproductenteringthepipelineisnotthesame
astheproductleaving.Inthiscase,massflowsattheinletandoutletcandiffersignificantlyevenin
theabsenceofsignificanttransienteffects.ItmaythenbepreferabletousevolumebalanceEq.(12)
insteadofmassbalanceEq.(7).
7.7 Summary
Thissectionsummarizesthekeyrequirementsandcharacteristicsofthemethodsintroducedinthis
chapter.SeeChapter14foracomparisonofallmethodscoveredbythissurvey.

BalancingMethods
MassBalanceuncompensated LD 2xQ Accuracy None
MassBalancecompensated
DirectpandTmeasurement
LD
2x(Q,P,T)
nx(P,T)
Accuracy None
Steadystatemodel
LD 2x(Q,P,T);T
G
Accuracy None
RTTM
LD 2x(Q,P,T);T
G
Accuracy Fast
VolumeBalance LD 2xQ Repeatability None
Instrumentation
Table9:Functionalityandinstrumentationforbalancingmethods
13
Allbalancingmethodsrequireatleasttwoflowmeters,oneattheinletandtheotherattheoutlet.
Allmassbalancemethodsrequiremassflow,eitherdirectlyorindirectlymeasured,seeChapter7.4.
Volumebalancingrequiresvolumetricflowmeters.Allmethodsprovideleakdetection,butnoleak
location.(FordetailsaboutleaklocalizationseeChapter10.)Whenthechangeinpipelineinventory
iscompensated,additionalpressureandtemperaturesensorsarealsoneeded.
Therearenospecialrequirementsfordynamictransitionbehavior(settlingtime)exceptforRTTM
basedcompensationwhichrequiredfastinstrumentsforflowandpressuretofollowtransientef
fects.Formostversionsaccuracyisimportant(insteadofrepeatability).Volumebalanceonlyhasto
considerrepeatabilitybecausethismethodusesstatisticalprocedurestodetectchangesinthevol
umeimbalance.
13
LD=Leakdetection,Q=Flowsensor,T=Temperaturesensor,P=Pressuresensor,T
G
=Groundtemperaturesensor
7 BalancingMethods
21
Pumping Dynamics
BalancingMethods
MassBalanceuncompensated PC Steady Liquids a)
PC Steady+LowTransient Liquids+Gases a)
Steadystatemodel
RTTM
PC Steady+Transient Liquids+Gases a),b)
VolumeBalance PC Steady Liquids a)
Table10:Fieldsofapplicationforbalancingmethods
14
Balancingmethodscanbeusedonlyinpumpingconditions:useinshutinconditionsisnotpossible.
Uncompensatedmassbalanceandvolumebalanceareonlyabletomonitorinsteadystatecondi
tions.Compensatedmassbalanceisabletomonitorforleaksinthepresenceofmoderatetransients.
Uncompensatedmassbalanceandvolumebalancearepracticallylimitedtoliquidpipelines;com
pensatedmassbalancecanmonitorgaspipelineswithsomesuccess.Balancingmethodsmeetthe
followingTRFLrequirements:
- TRFLa),acontinuouslyoperatingsystemthatcandetectleaksinsteadystateconditions
OnlytheRTTMcompensatedmassbalancemeetsthisTRFLrequirement:
- TRFLb),acontinuouslyoperatingsystemthatcantodetectleaksintransientconditions

BalancingMethods
MassBalanceuncompensated Medium Long N/A Sudden+Graduate
Medium Medium Long Sudden+Graduate
Steadystatemodel
Medium Medium Medium Sudden+Graduate
RTTM
Medium Short Short Sudden+Graduate
VolumeBalance Medium Long N/A Sudden+Graduate
Sensitivity
Table11:Performanceparametersforbalancingmethods
Allbalancingmethodsachieveamediumdetectionlimitwhereaccurateflowmeasurementsare
available.Uncompensatedmassbalanceandvolumebalancehavelongdetectiontimes,whilecom
pensationforchangeofinventoryhelpstoshortenthedetectiontime.RTTMcompensatedmass
balanceshowsthebestresults.Leakdetectiontimeislongerforgasesbecauseofthedynamiciner
tiaofpressureandflow.Allbalancingmethodsdetectsuddenleaksaswellasgradualleaksofsuffi
cientsize.
14
PC=Pumpingconditions
8 StatisticalLeakDetectionSystems
22
StatisticalLDSsusestatisticalmethodstodetectaleak.Thisgivesanopportunitytooptimizethe
decisionifaleakexistsinthesenseofsomechosenstatisticalcriteria.Howeveritmakesgreatde
mandsonmeasurements.Theyneedtobestationary(inastatisticalsense)forexample.Statistical
LDSsarethereforeverywellsuitedtosteadystateconditions,butputonlyprovidelimitedsensitivity
intransientstatesunlesstheyareadapted,forexampleusingaRealTimeTransientModels(RTTMs).
PipePatrolERTTM(Chapter13),forexample,combinesRTTMtechnology(Chapter11)withsophisti
catedstatisticalmethods.PleaserefertoChapter13formoredetailsonthistopic.
Statisticalmethodscanimprovetheperformanceofallleakdetectionmethodsintroducedinthis
survey.ThisChapterdescribesstatisticalLDSsbasedonuncompensatedmassbalance,Chapter7.2,
becausethesesystemsarecommon[Zhang].
8.1 HypothesisTesting
StatisticalLDSsbasingonhypothesistestingusemethodsandprocessesfromdecisiontheory[Bar
kat].Thehypothesistestforleakdetectionbasedontheuncompensatedmassbalanceuses
| | | | | |
I O
M i M i M i A

(13)
accordingtoEq.(2),whereH
|i]denotessampleioftheinstantaneousimbalancebetweeninlet
andoutletmassflow.Thesesamplescanbeusedtodecidebetweentwohypotheses,E
0
andE
1
:
0
1
: No leak
: Leak
H
H

Thestatisticalbehaviorofeveryindividualsampleisdescribedbyconditionalprobabilitydensity
function
( )
0
| p M H A

forhypothesisE
0
(noleak)and
( )
1
| p M H A

forhypothesisE
1
(leak).AGaussi
an(normal)distributionisgenerallyassumed:
Figure2:Conditionalprobabilitydensityfunctions(PDF)
8.1.1 LikelihoodRatioTest(ProbabilityRatioTest)
Instatistics,acauseleadstoapossibleresultwithsomeprobability.Howeverasetofresultsimplies
aparticularcausewithsomelikelihood.Forexample,ifacoincomesupheadssixtimesinarowit
wouldbepossibletocalculatethelikelihoodthatthecoinisbiased.Althoughthetermprobability
ratioissometimesusedforthetypeoftestdescribedhere,likelihoodratioismoreappropriate.
23
InsteadofusingonesinglesampleH
|i],awholecollectionofdata
| |
1 N i
M M M M i ( A A A A A

M

willnormallybeusedtoincreasetheperformanceofthehypothesistest.Thelikelihoodratiotestis
thengivenby
( )
( )
( )
1
1
0
0
|
(Leak)
(No Leak)
|
p H
H
H
p H
>
A

s
M
M
M
, (14)
where
( )
|
i
p H M
istheconditionalprobabilitydensityfunction(PDF)of AM
forhypothesisE
,
and
( )
A M
isthelikelihoodratioof AM
.Thevalueofymustbechosentosatisfyappropriate
statisticalcriteria,including:
- Probabilityoffalsealarms.Afalsealarmoccursifthereisaleakdeclarationbutthereisnoreal
leak.FalsealarmprobabilityP
PA
shouldbeassmallaspossible.
- Probabilityofmissedalarms.Amissedalarmoccursiftheisnoleakdeclarationbutthereisareal
leak.MissedalarmprobabilityP
MA
shouldalsobeassmallaspossibletoo.
Theproblemofchoosingyappropriatelymustbesolvedinallprobabilityratiotests.Detailscanbe
foundin[Kroschel]forexample.
AlikelihoodratiotestsuchasEq.(14)requiresaprioriknowledgeofPDFs
( )
|
i
p H M
.Inmostcas
es,includingleakdetection,thesePDFsarenotknowninadvance.Tosolvethisproblem,ageneral
izedlikelihoodratiotestcanbeusedinstead.Here,PDFs
( )
| ,
i i
p H M
haveparameters
i
suchas
themeanp
andstandarddeviationo
ofanormaldistribution.Thesecanbeestimatedbysome
statisticalprocedure,forexamplebyapplyingthemaximumlikelihoodmethod.Fordetails,referto
[Kay].
8.1.2 SequentialProbabilityRatioTest(SPRT)
Thelikelihoodratiotestabovereliesonevaluatingawholecollectionofdata AM
inasinglestep,so
applyingittoonlineleakdetectionschemeswoulddependonestablishingandmaintainingdata
buffers.Thisinconveniencecanbeavoidedusingasequentialprobabilityratiotest(SPRT),see
[Wald].Here,(AM
)willbecomputedrecursivelyyielding
| | ( ) | | ( ) | |
( )
1 , k f k k A A = A A A M M M

.
8.2 SignatureAnalysis
Themethodspresentedsofarcanbeimprovedbyusingstatisticalclassificationtechniquestoana
lyzethesignatureoffieldsignalsinfluencedbythepresenceofaleak.Asanexample,threedifferent
imbalancesignaturescanbedefinedfor:
a) Stepsignatureforsuddenleaks
b) Driftsignatureforgradualleaksorsensordrift
c) Allothertypesofsignature
24
Statisticalclassificationalgorithms(seee.g.[Kay])nowdeterminethesignatureof AM
byassign
menttoanyoftheclassesa),b)orc).Usingthistechniqueleadstoimprovedleakdetectionsensitivi
tywhileatthesametimepreventingfalsealarms.PipePatrolERTTMusesthisapproach,seeChapter
13.2.
8.3 Summary
Chapter.SeeChapter14foracomparisonofallmethodscoveredbythissurvey.

StatisticalLDS
MassBalanceuncompensated
HypothesisTesting
LD 2xQ Repeatability None
Instrumentation
Table12:FunctionalityandinstrumentationforstatisticalLDS
15
Statisticalmethodsbasedontheuncompensatedmassbalanceneedtwoflowmeters,oneatthe
inletandtheotherattheoutlet.Theyprovideleakdetection,butnoleaklocation(fordetailsofleak
localizationseeChapter10).Therearenospecialrequirementsfordynamicbehavior(settlingtime).
StatisticalLDSsonlyhavetoconsiderrepeatabilitybecausethesemethodsusestatisticalprocedures.
Pumping Dynamics
StatisticalLDS
HypothesisTesting
Table13:FieldsofapplicationforstatisticalLDS
16
StatisticalLDSscanbeusedinpumpingconditions,butnotinshutinconditions.StatisticalLDSsare
abletooperateinmoderatelytransientstates,butwithincreasedleakdetectiontime.Statistical
LDSsprovidemoderateperformanceongaspipelines.Theymeetthefollowingrequirements:
- TRFLa),acontinuousworkingsystem,whichcandetectleakswithinsteadystateconditions

StatisticalLDS
HypothesisTesting
Low Long VeryLong Sudden+Graduate
Sensitivity
Table14:PerformanceparametersforstatisticalLDS
StatisticalLDShavealowalarmlimit,buttimetodetectiscomparativelylong.Statisticalmethods
detectsuddenleaksaswellasgradualleaksofsufficientsize.
15
LD=Leakdetection,Q=Flowsensor
16
9 LeakMonitoringduringShutInConditions
25
Therearetwomainpipelineconditions:
- Pumpingconditions,wheretheproductwillbetransportedbymeansoffluidflow
- PausedFlowconditions,wherefluidflowis(near)zero.
Thefocusofthemethodspresenteduptonowwasonpumpingconditions,butleakmonitoringin
pausedflowconditionsisalsoimportantifpausetimescannotbeneglected.Inparticular,thisap
pliestomultiproductpipelineswherepausetimesbetweentwobatchesmaybesignificant.Insome
applicationsvalveswillbeusedtoblockthefluidflowinthemonitoredsegment.Thisspecialpaused
flowconditionwillbecalledshutinorblockedlinecondition.
9.1 PTPressureTemperatureMethod
Inshutinconditions,valveswilllockapressureintooneormoresectionsofthepipeline.Itispossi
bleforconsiderablepressurechangestooccurinthiscaseasaresultofthermaleffects,butanyrap
idorunexpectedfallinpressureindicatesthataleakhasoccurred.
, p 0
0
/
/
p bar
C 0
p
0
Figure3:LeakdetectionduringshutinbyPTmethod
Afterclosingthevalves,duringtemperatureequalization,transienteffectsdecayandfluidpressurep
andfluidtemperature0approachtheirequilibriumvalues.Ifthereisnoleak,theresultingpressure
trendonlydependsonfluidtemperatureasshowninFigure3,wherethegreennoleaklineindicates
apressuredropasaconsequenceofatemperaturedrop.Leaktestingisperformedbybalancing
changesinthemeasuredpressureinthetestsectionagainsttheoreticalpressurechangescalculated
fromthemeasuredtemperatureinthetestsection.ThisisthereforecalledthePTmethod.
ThePTmethodcanbeusedforhydrostatictestingwherethepipelinesegmentisfilledwithwater.
Hydrostatictestingisregulatedinmanycountries,forexampleincaseofanewpipelineinstallation,
apipelinerelocation,replacementofexistingpipelinesegments,orwhenthereareotherchangesto
apipelinesystemwhichmayaffectintegrity[VdTV1051].
26
9.2 DPDifferentialPressureMethod
Forpipelines,thePTmethodcanbeenrefinedtothedifferentialpressuremethod(DPmethod).
1 1
,
i i
p 0

,
i i
p 0
Figure4:LeakdetectionduringshutinbyDPmethod
Sometimeafterthevalvesareclosedthepressurep
andtemperature0
ofsegmenticomecloseto
theirequilibriumvalues.Wenowobservethedifferentialpressurepacrossthetightlyclosedvalve
V.Ifthereisnoleak,pstayssufficientlyconstant(greenline);incaseofaleak,thereisasignificant
pressuregradient(redline).UsingdifferentialpressureinsteadofabsolutepressureasforthePT
methodleadstohighersensitivitybutcanonlybeusedincaseintermediatevalvestationsarepre
sent.
9.3 Summary
Thissectionsummarisesthekeyrequirementsandcharacteristicsofthemethodsintroducedinthis

LeakMonitoringduringShutInConditions
PTMethod LD 2x(P,T) Repeatability None
DPMethod LD nxDP Repeatability None
Instrumentation
Table15:Functionalityandinstrumentationforleakmonitoringduringshutinconditions
17
Bothmethodsprovideleakdetection,butnoleaklocalization.(Fordetailsaboutleaklocalizationsee
Chapter10.)ThePTmethodrequirespressureandtemperaturesensorsonbothsidesofthepipe
line,whereasDPmethodrequiresahighernumberofvalvestationswheredifferentialpressure
acrosstightlyclosedvaleswillbemeasured.Therearenospecialrequirementsconcerningthedy
namictransitionbehavior(settlingtime).Bothmethodsneedonlytoconsiderrepeatabilitybecause
thechangeof(differential)pressureisanalyzed.
17
LD=Leakdetection,T=Temperaturesensor,P=Pressuresensor,DP=DifferentialPressuresensor
27
Pumping Dynamics
PTMethod SC Steady Liquids c),d)
DPMethod SC Steady Liquids c),d)
Table16:Fieldsofapplicationforleakmonitoringduringshutinconditions
18
Bothmethodsareabletodetectleaksinshutinconditions,ifthepipelinevalvessealtightlyenough.
Theyarerestrictedtosteadystateconditionsassmallchangesinpressurewillcauseafalsealarm.
Bothmethodsareparticularlyusefulforliquidpipelines,andmeetthefollowingrequirementsof
TRFL:
- TRFLd),asystemorproceduretodetectgradualleaks

PTMethod
LowTRFLc)
VeryLowTRFLd)
VeryLong N/A Sudden+Graduate
DPMethod
LowTRFLc)
VeryLowTRFLd)
Sensitivity
Table17:Performanceparametersforleakmonitoringduringshutinconditions
Bothmethodsprovideasensitivealarmthreshold(inparticularwhenusedforgradualleakdetec
tion),buttimetodetecttheleakisverylong.Bothmethodsareabletodetectsuddenleaksaswell
asgradualleaksofsufficientsize.
18
SC=Shutinconditions
10 LeakLocalization
28
10 LeakLocalization
Whenaleakisdetected,itisimportanttolocateit.Anexactleaklocationgivestheopportunityto
takeswiftcontainingactiontominimizeharmtopeopleandtheenvironment.Localizedrepairscan
thenbecarriedoutcosteffectively.
10.1 GradientIntersectionMethod
Thegradientintersectionmethodisbasedonthefactthatthepressureprofilealongthepipeline
withitslengthLwillchangesignificantlyifaleakoccurs
19
.
I
V
O
V
dt
dV
Leak
Figure5:Leaklocationbygradientintersectionmethod
Thedashed,greenlineinFigure5showsthelinearpressuredropinaleakfreeliquidpipeline.The
pressureprofileismorecomplexforagaspipeline,butasimilarprincipleapplies.Ifaleakoccurs,
thepressureprofiledevelopsakinkattheleakpoint(continuous,redline).Theleaklocationcan
bedeterminedbycalculatingtheintersectionpointofthepressureprofilesupstreamanddown
streamoftheleak.Theclassicgradientintersectionapproachcalculatesthegradientofbothlines
usingtwopressurereadingsneartheinletandtwopressurereadingsneartheoutlet.Themodel
basedgradientintersectionmethod,asusedbyPipePatrolERTTMLDSChapter13,calculatesthe
twogradientswiththehelpoftherealtimetransientmodel,computedfromflowandpressure
measurementsatinletandoutlet.
Thismethodonlyachievesaccurateresultsifthepipelineisinthesteadystate.Thecauseordevel
opmentoftheleak(suddenorgradual)doesnotmatter.
10.2 TimeofFlightMethod
Asuddenleakcaused,forexample,bycarelessuseofanexcavator,leadstoararefactionwave
propagatingatthespeedofsoundcupanddownstreamthroughthepipelineofgivenlengthI.
Suchawavecanberecognizedusinginstalledpressuretransmitters,givingaleakalarm.Theleak
positioncanbedetermined
20
ifthemomentt
down
(downstream)andt
up
(upstream),whenthisneg
ativewavepassesthetransmittersismeasured.Settingt t
down
- t
up
,theestimatedleakloca
tionis:
19
Thisistrueforliquidpipelineswithconstantroughnessheightk
R
,aconstantcrosssectionA,andahorizontalbuiltpipeline.Themethod
mustbemodifiedinothercases.
20
Thespeedofsoundisnotconstantinliquidpipelinesundermultiproductconditionsoringaspipelines.Themethodhastobemodified
accordingly.
10 LeakLocalization
29
( )
1
2
Leak
s L c t = A . (15)
Thetimeofflightmethodneedsanidentifiablerarefactionwave.Resultswillbegoodifaleakis
sufficientlylargeandsudden.Smalland/orgradualleakscannotbelocatedbythismethod.Inpracti
caluse,itislimitedtosteadystateconditions.Itisabletolocateleaksinpumpingorinpausedflow
conditions.PipePatrolERTTMusestheRTTMbasedgradientintersectionmethod,whichcompen
satestransientsleadingtogoodresultseveninhighlytransientstates.
11 RTTMRealTimeTransientModel
30
RTTMmeansRealTimeTransientModel.SomeLDSsofthePipePatrolLDSFamilybyKROHNEOil&
GasarebasedonRTTM,alsoknownasthePipelineObserver.TheKROHNEflagshipisPipePatrol
ExtendedRealTimeTransientModel(ERTTM),whichcombinesRTTMtechnologyusedforthere
sidualmethod(Chapter11.2andChapter11.3)withleaksignatureanalysistopreventfalsealarms,
Chapter13.PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB,Chapter12)mayalternativelybeusedifdemand
forsensitivityisreduced,ifleaklocalizationisnotrequired,orasafallback.
RTTMsystemsbuildmathematicalmodelsoftheflowwithinapipelineusingbasicphysicallawssuch
as:
- Conservationofmass
- Conservationofmomentum
- Conservationofenergy
Whencombinedwithanequationofstate,introducedinChapter7,RTTMsystemsmodeltransient
andsteadystateflowinapipeline.Atransientstatemeansthatsuddenchangesinflow,pressure,
temperatureanddensitymayoccur.Thechangespropagateaswavesthroughthepipelinewiththe
speedofsoundcofthefluid.Forexample,transientstateoccursinapipelineduring:
- Startandstopofpumpsorcompressorsduringstartupandshutdown
- Valveoperationanywherebefore,alongorafterthemonitoredpipelinesegment
- Floworpressurecontrolaction
- Changesofthroughput
- Specialeffectssuchascavitation
Gaspipelinesarealmostalwaysinatransientstate,becausegasesareverycompressible.Evenin
liquidpipelinestransienteffectscannotbedisregardedmostofthetime.
AnRTTMmakesitpossibletocalculatemassflow,pressure,densityandtemperatureateverypoint
alongthepipelineinrealtimewiththehelpofmathematicalalgorithms.Thesesolutionsarecalled
localprofiles.
31

F P T T
RTTM
T P F
P
I
Temperature(T)ofGround
Temperature(T)ofFluid
Pressure(P)
Flow(F)
Inlet Outlet
T
I
T
G
T
O
P
O
( )
M s
( ) p s ( )
s ( )
T s
Figure6:RTTMtocalculatelocalprofiles;modelusingpressure(andtemperature)readings
21
ThesimplestpossibilityforRTTMisshowninFigure6.Inthiscaseonlypressure(andtemperature)at
theheadstationsarefedintotheRTTM,alongwithgroundtemperatureifthepipelineisburied.
Calculationofthelocalprofilesneedsprocessmeasurementsattheinlet(subscriptI)andoutlet
(subscriptO)ofthepipelinethesepointsareknowntogetherastheheadstations.Variouscom
binationsofmeasurementarepossible,asweshallseeinamoment.Avalueofgroundtemperature,
T
G
isalsoneeded,assumingthatthepipelineisunderground.Ifgroundtemperaturecanbeassumed
constantalongapipelineinpractice,onesensormaybeusedtomeasurearepresentativevalue.
Itisalsopossibletoimplementthemodelusingflowattheheadstationsinsteadofpressure:

F P T
RTTM
T P F
Temperature(T)ofGround
Temperature(T)ofFluid
Pressure(P)
Flow(F)
Inlet Outlet
T
I
T
O
( )
M s
( ) p s ( )
s ( )
T s
T
T
G
I
Q
O
Q
Figure7:RTTMtocalculatelocalprofiles;modelusingflow(andtemperature)readings
22
21
Subscriptsareusedasfollows:"I"=inlet,"O"=outlet,"G"=ground.The"^"isusedtoindicatethatthevaluesarenotmeasured,but
calculated.Theadditionof(s)indicatesthatthesearenotsimplepointvalues,butprofilesandthereforefunctionsofthedistancealong
thepipeline.
22
denotesfloweitherasmassfloworvolumeflow
32
11.1 CompensationApproach
ItwasmentionedinChapter7.3thatacompensatedmassbalancecalculationneedstointegratethe
densitypalongthepipelineinordertodeterminethemassinventoryofthepipe.TheRTTMpro
videsthenecessaryinformationtodosoaccurately,asshowninFigure8.

F P T T
RTTM
T P F
P
I
Inlet Outlet
T
I
T
G
( )
s
PipelineInventory
Compensation
I
M
O
M
Pipe
dM dt
+ -
-
Leak
M
P
O
T
O
Figure8:CompensatedmassbalancewithRTTMbasedcompensation
23
Inthisimplementation,theRTTMcalculatesthedensityprofilep(s)basedonpressureandtempera
tureattheheadstationsandgroundtemperature.PipelineinventorytheniscalculatedusingEq.(9)
( )
0
1
L
Pipe Pipe Pipe
M V s ds V
L

(
= =
(

}

whereI
Ppc
= A IdenotesthevolumeofthepipelineoflengthI,andp istheestimatedmean
densityalongthepipeline
24
.LeakswillbedetectedusingEq.(8)oralternatively
Leak
No Leak
Pipe
Leak I O
dM
M M M
dt
>
=

s

. (16)
Eq.(16)istheinstantaneousversionofEq.(8);Figure8isthereforeanexampleofancompensated
massbalancemethod,inthiscasewithRTTMbasedcompensation.
PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB,Chapter12)usesthistechnologytogetherwithstatistical
methods(Chapter8).
23
Theflowneedstobemassflowhere;ifvolumeflowgiven,massflowhastobecalculatedseechapter0.
24
Forsimplicity,crosssectionAhadbeenassumedtobeconstantalongthepipeline.
33
11.2 FlowResidualApproach
TheflowatheadstationsinFigure9isnotnecessarytocalculatethelocalprofiles,aspressureis
usedforthispurpose,seeFigure6.TheRTTMcalculatesflowattheendpointsofthepipeaswellas
everywhereelse.Itisthereforepossiblechecktothedifferencebetweenmeasuredandcalculated
flow.Adifferencebetweenthetwoindicatesachangeinthedynamicsofthepipelineinother
words,asuspicionthattheremaybealeak.

F P T T
RTTM(noleak)
T P F
P
I
Inlet Outlet
T
I
T
G
I
M
O
M
+
-
P
O
T
O
I
M
O
M
y x
+
-
Flow-Residuals
Figure9:Flowresidualapproach
25
BothoftheFlowResidualscanbeusedasleakindicators:
I I
O O
x M M
y M M

ThenoleakhypothesisH
0
istrueiftheindicatedflowsagreesufficientlycloselywiththemodel.The
leakpresenthypothesisH
1
istrueifthereisapositiveresidualattheinletand/oranegativeresidual
attheoutlet.Mathematically:
0
1
: No leak 0, 0
: Leak 0, 0
H x y
H x y
~ ~
> <

Weinsistontheappropriatesignsfortheresidualsbecauseapositiveresidualattheoutlet,forex
ample,wouldindicatethatmorefluidwasleavingthepipelinethanexpected.Inotherwords,the
casesx<0andy>0wouldindicateanegativeleak.Thistellsussomethinginterestingaboutthe
performanceoftheinstrumentsorthevalidityoftheRTTM,butitisnotaphysicallyrealisticbasisfor
declaringaleakalarm.
PipePatrolERTTM(Chapter13)usesthistechnologytogetherwithstatisticalmethods(Chapter8)
forheadstationmonitoringduringpumpingconditions,seeChapter13.4.1.
25
Theflowhereneedstobemass;ifvolumeflowgiven,massflowhastobecalculatedseesection0.
34
11.3 PressureResidualApproach
Ifapipelineislongenough,substationswithpressuresensorswilloftenbeincluded.Theindicated
pressurescanbecomparedwiththosecalculatedusingtheRTTMmethod,givingpressureresiduals
asfollows:
, 1
i i i
z p p i n s s
NotethatinFigure10temperatureandflowmeasurementatthesubstationsareunnecessary.
F P T
RTTM(noleak)
T P F
PI
Inlet
TI TO PO
PressureResiduals
P P

1
p
1
p
2
p
2
p
z
1
z
2
Substation1 Substation2 Outlet
SegmentS2 SegmentS1 SegmentS3
T
TG
Figure10:Pressureresidualapproach
26
ThenoleakhypothesisH
0
istrueiftheindicatedpressuresagreesufficientlycloselywiththemodel.
TheleakpresenthypothesisH
1
istrueifthereisanegativeresidual.Mathematically:
0
1
: No leak 0
: Leak 0
i
i
H z
H z
~
<

Again,weinsistontheappropriatesignfortheresidualbecauseapositiveresidualwouldindicatea
negativeleak,whichimpliesaninstrumentproblem.
26
Forabetterpointofviewonlytwosubstationsareshown.Themethodisabletohandleasmuchsubstationaspresentatthepipeline.
12 PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)
35
PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)combinesbalancingmethods(Chapter7)withstatisticalclas
sificationmethods(Chapter8).
I
Q
Pipe
dM dt
O
Q
Leak
Q
Figure11:PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)
27
PipePatrolSLBoffersoptionstohandledifferentapplicationneeds.Instrumentsshownwithred
symbolsinFigure11aremandatory;instrumentsshownwithgreensymbolsareusedifrequiredfor
aspecificapplication.
Dependingonthechosenoptions,PipePatrolSLBcanbeclassifiedasabalancingmethod(Chapter7)
and/oranRTTMbasedmethod(Chapter11).Itappliescompensatedmassbalancing(Chapter7.3)or
uncompensatedmassbalancing(Chapter7.2)oralternativelyvolumebalancing(Chapter7.6).Esti
matesoftheleakmassorvolumewillbeanalyzedbyastatisticalleakclassificationimplementing
themethodsofastatisticalLDS(Chapter8).
IncontrasttoPipePatrolERTTM(Chapter13),PipePatrolSLBdoesnotprovideleaklocalization.If
thereishighdemandforsensitivity,PipePatrolERTTMshouldalsobeusedinstead.Ontheother
hand,PipePatrolSLBmaybeusedwithoutpressureandtemperaturesensorsifInventoryCompensa
tionisomitted;PipePatrolSLBcanthereforeserveasabackupsystemforPipePatrolERTTMincase
ofafailureofapressureortemperaturesensor.
12.1 PipelineInventoryCompensation
PipePatrolofferstwodifferentpossibilitiesofpipelineinventorycompensation:
12.1.1 RTTMBasedCompensation(CompensatedMassBalanceLDS)
Initsmostsophisticatedversion,PipePatrolSLBappliesRTTMbasedinventorycompensationusing
thecompensationapproach(Chapter11.1).ItisthenacompensatedmassbalanceLDSrequiringfull
instrumentation:directorindirectmassflowmeters,pressureandtemperaturesensorsatinletand
outlet.ItthenprovidessensitivityclosetothatofPipePatrolERTTM.
27
denotesfloweitherasmassflow(forcompensatedanduncompensatedmassbalance)orvolumeflow(forvolumebalance).Ifneces
sary,thetransformationofthevolumeflowtomassflowisdonewithinPipePatrolseeChapter0.
36
12.1.2 NoCompensation(UncompensatedMassBalanceorVolumeBalanceLDS)
Inventorycompensationoptionallycanbeomittedcompletely;PipePatrolSLBisthenanuncompen
satedmassbalanceLDS.Thisreducessensitivitysignificantly,butrequirementsforinstrumentation
arealsoreduced:onlyflowmetersattheinletandoutletarerequired.Inthisconfiguration,PipePa
trolSLBthencanserveasabackupsystemforPipePatrolERTTMincaseofafailureofapressureor
temperaturesensor.
Volumebalancingusingvolumetricflowmetersisalsopossible,seeChapter7.6;PipePatrolSLBis
thenavolumebalanceLDS.Thisisparticularlyusefulduringbatchchangeformultiproductpipe
lines,wheredifferentproductsareenteringandleavingthepipeline.Inthatcase,massflowsatinlet
andoutletwoulddiffersignificantlyevenintheabsenceofsignificanttransienteffects.
12.2 StatisticalLeakClassification
AnLDSthatgeneratesfalsealarmscannotbetrusted,soitisakeytasktoeliminatethem.PipePatrol
SLBpreventsthemusingstatisticalleakclassification(seeChapter8),whichexecutesaftertheinven
torycompensation.Thisbooststhereliabilityandtherobustnessofthesystemwithoutcompromis
ingsensitivity.Falsealarmsareprevented,evenwithlowalarmthresholds.
12.3 Summary

PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB),KrohneOil&Gas
MassBalancecompensated LD 2x(Q,P,T);T
G
Repeatability Fast
MassBalanceuncompensated LD 2xQ Repeatability None
VolumeBalance LD 2xQ Repeatability None
Instrumentation
Table18:FunctionalityandinstrumentationforPipePatrolSLB
28
Allconfigurationsneedatleasttwoflowmeters,oneattheinletandtheotherattheoutlet.They
provideleakdetection,butnoleaklocation.(FordetailsaboutleaklocalizationseeChapter10.)If
thechangeinpipelineinventoryiscompensated,additionalinstruments(pressureandtemperature
sensors)arerequired.PipePatrolSLBusesstatisticalleakclassification;instrumentrepeatabilityis
thereforeofprimaryinterest,ratherthanaccuracy,whichreducesspecificationrequirements.In
strumentationmustbefast(lowsettlingtime)forRTTMbasedcompensatedmassbalanceonlyin
ordertofollowtransienteffectscorrectly.
28
LD=Leakdetection,Q=Flowsensor,T=Temperaturesensor,P=Pressuresensor,T
G
37
Pumping Dynamics
MassBalancecompensated PC Steady+Transient Liquids+Gases a),b)
MassBalanceuncompensated PC Steady+LowTransient Liquids a)
VolumeBalance PC Steady+LowTransient Liquids a)
Table19:FieldsofapplicationforPipePatrolSLB
29
Allconfigurationscanbeusedinpumpingconditions,butuseundershutinconditionsisnotpossi
ble.Allconfigurationsarecapableofhandlingmoderatelytransientstatesandliquidpipelines,but
heavilytransientstatesandgaspipelinescanonlybehandledbyaddingRTTMbasedinventorycom
pensation.Volumebalancewillbeusedmainlyformultiproductliquidpipelines.Allconfigurations
ofPipePatrolSLBarecapableofoffering:
- TRFLa),acontinuouslyoperatingsystem,whichcandetectleaksinsteadystateconditions
Ifpipelineinventorycompensationisused,PipePatrolSLBisalsoabletooffer:
- TRFLb),acontinuouslyoperatingsystem,whichisabletodetectleaksintransientstates

MassBalancecompensated Low Short Medium Sudden+Graduate
MassBalanceuncompensated Medium Long N/A Sudden+Graduate
VolumeBalance Medium Long N/A Sudden+Graduate
Sensitivity
Table20:PerformanceparametersforPipePatrolSLB
Allconfigurationsoffermediumtolowalarmthresholds.Timetodetectaleakislongwithoutpipe
lineinventorycompensation,butshortenssignificantlyifitisavailable.Timetodetectaleakislonger
forgaspipelinesbecauseofthedynamicinertiaofpressureandflow.Allconfigurationsdetectboth
suddenandgradualleaksofsufficientsize.
29
13 PipePatrolExtendedRealTimeTransientModel(ERTTM)
38
PipePatrolERTTMisKROHNEsflagshipLDS,whichfusestheRTTMtechnologydescribedinChapter
11withleaksignatureanalysisdescribedinChapter13.2inauniquemanner.Forthisreasonitis
calledExtendedRTTM[Geiger].PipePatrolERTTMisabletomonitorpipelines:
- Duringpumpingconditions(PipePatrolERTTM/PC,PumpingConditions,seeChapter13.4)
- Duringshutinconditions(PipePatrolERTTM/SC,ShutInConditions,seeChapter13.5).
13.1 PipelineObserver
PipePatrolERTTMusestheRTTMresidualapproachespresentedinChapter11.2(forpumpingcon
ditions)andChapter11.3(forshutinconditions).WithinthecontextofPipePatrolERTTM,the
RTTMmodulesinFigure9andFigure10arecalledpipelineobserver
30
,becausetheyareobserving
thepipelinebycalculatingthelocalprofilesforflow,pressure,fluidtemperatureanddensity.
UseoftheRTTMpipelineobservercompensatesthetransientbehaviorofthepipeline.Eveninheavy
transientstates(forexampleduringpipelinestartup)residualsstayclosetozeroinleakfreecondi
tions.Sensitiveleakdetectionisthereforepossibleintransientstates.
13.2 LeakSignatureAnalysis
AnLDSthatgeneratefalsealarmscannotbetrusted,soitisakeytasktoeliminatethem.PipePatrol
ERTTMusesleaksignatureanalysis(seeChapter8.2),whichexecutesafterthepipelineobserver,to
preventthem.Inthissecondstageresidualsareanalyzedforleaksignatures:
- Suddenleak.Thisclassicalleakdevelopsquicklyforexamplebyexternaldamagetothepipe
line.Itcausesadynamicsignatureinresiduals.Whensuchaleakrecognized,aleakalarmwillbe
reportedandtheleaklocationandleakflowaredetermined.
- Sensordriftorgradualleak.Thesemayoccurbycontaminationoftheflowmeterorbysmall
leakscausedbycorrosion.Theyresultinindistinguishable,slowsignatures.Whendriftisrecog
nized,asensoralarmisreportedandtheapparentleakflowisdetermined.
Thisbooststhereliabilityandtherobustnessofthesystemwithoutcompromisingsensitivityand
accuracy.Falsealarmsareprevented,evenwithlowalarmthresholds.
13.3 LeakLocation
PipePatrolERTTMlocatesleaksusingtwomethods,bothintroducedinChapter10:
- Modelbasedgradientintersectionmethod
- Modelbasedtimeofflightmethod
Themodelbasedgradientintersectionmethod([Billmann])calculatesanestimates
Lcuk
usingthe
amplitudesofthemassresidualsxandyattheheadstations.Themodelbasedtimeofflightmeth
odanalysesresidualsxandytodetectastep.Isasteprecognizeddownstreamattimet
down
iny
andrecognizedupstreamattimet
up
inx,theleaklocationcanbedeterminedbythetraveltime
differencet t
down
-t
up
.
30
SometimesalsocalledVirtualPipeline.
39
13.4 PipePatrolERTTM/PCLeakMonitoringinPumpingConditions
Flowispresentduringpumpingconditions,sofloweitherasvolumeflowormassflowisavailable.
Thisisalsotrueforunblockedpausedflowconditionswhenflowisclosetozero.
13.4.1 HeadStationMonitoring
ThisbasicschemeappliestheRTTMflowresidualapproach(Chapter11.2).
F P T
PipelineObserver
T P F
Inlet Outlet
Segment
LeakSignatureAnalysis
x y
Leak
Signatures
LeakAlarm
SensorAlarm
Leakflowandlocation
PI TI
I
M
I
M
O
M
TO PO
O
M
T
TG
Figure12:PipePatrolERTTM/PCheadstationmonitoring
31
TheexampleinFigure12showsheadstationmonitoringbasedontheflowresidualapproachde
scribedinChapter11.2.WiththehelpoftheRTTM,PipePatrolERTTMcomparesthemeasuredflow
atinletandoutletwiththecalculatedflowassumingaleakfreepipeline.Theflowresiduals,which
areusedbytheleaksignatureanalysis,are

I I O O
x M M y M M

yieldingaleakflowestimate[Billmann]
Leak
M x y =

wherechangeofpipelineinventoryisimplicitlyconsidered.UseoftheRTTMpipelineobserverthere
forecompensatesfortransientbehaviorofthepipeline.Eveninheavilytransientconditions(for
exampleduringpipelinestartup)x,yand
Leak
M
stayclosetozeroinleakfreeconditions.Sensitive
leakdetectionisthereforepossibleintransientconditions.
Thedynamicfreeresidualsarenowpassedtothesecondstage,theleaksignatureanalysis.Itstasks
accordingtoChapters13.2and13.3areto:
- Managealarms
- Determineleakrateandleaklocation
31
Ifnecessary,thetransformationofthevolumeflowtomassflowisdonewithinPipePatrolseeChapter13.4.5.
40
Ifpressureand/ortemperaturesensorsfail,thepipelineobserverinFigure12cannotcontinueto
calculate;inthatcase,PipePatrolSLBChapter12.1.2serveasabackupLDSbutwithreducedsensi
tivityandwithoutleaklocalization.
13.4.2 SubstationMonitoringwithoutFlowMeasurement
UsingthepressureresidualmethodChapter11.3allowsforhandlingsubstationswithpressure
measurementsasshownbelow.
F P T
PipelineObserver
T P F
PI
Inlet
TI TO PO
P P

1
p
1
p
2
p
2
p
LeakSignature
Analysis1
LeakSignature
Analysis2
SubstationEvaluation
z
1
z
2
T
TG
Leak
Signatures
Leak
Signatures
LeakAlarm
SensorAlarm
Leakflowandlocation
Figure13:PipePatrolERTTM/PCsubstationsmonitoring
32
TheRTTMpipelineobserverusespressureandtemperaturesensorsattheheadstationstocalculate
thelocalprofiles,includingthepressureprofilealongthepipe.Anydiscrepancybetweenthecalcu
latedandtheobservedpressureatthesubstationsindicatesachangeinthepipelinedynamics:in
otherwords,aleak.Thepressureresidualateachstationis:
, 1
i i i
z p p i n = s s
Theseareusedbytheleaksignatureanalysistodetectaleakandfinditslocation.Thiskindofpipe
linemonitoringiscalledsubstationmonitoring.Thepipelineobservercompensatesforanytransient
behaviorofthepipeline.
Thecompensatedresidualsarenowpassedtothesecondstage,theleaksignatureanalysis.Itstask
istomanagealarmsforeachindividualsubstation.Resultsofleaksignatureanalysisarecombinedby
substationevaluation,whichgroupssubstationalarmsanddeterminesleakflowrateandlocation.
Usually,headstationmonitoring(Figure12)andsubstationmonitoring(Figure13)willbecombined
toprovideleakmonitoringforpipelinesectionsconsistingofanumberofsegmentsformedbyhead
stationsandsubstations.
32
Twosubstationsareshownforclarity,butthemethodisabletohandleanynumberofsubstations.
41
13.4.3 SectionalMonitoringforSubstationswithFlowMeasurement
TheexampleinFigure14showsapipelinesectionconsistingoftwosubstationswithflowmeasure
ment.
I
M
(1)
O
M
(2)
I
M
(1)
I
M
O
M
(2)
O
M
(3)
I
M
(3)
O
M
1
M
2
M
Figure14:PipePatrolERTTM/PCsectionalmonitoring,substationsfullyinstrumented
33
Whereflowmeasurementisavailableatsubstationsinadditiontopressureandtemperature,the
pipelinecanbedividedintoindependentsegmentsasshowninthediagram.IndependentRTTM
pipelineobserversandERTTMLeakClassifiersmaybeappliedinparalleltoeverysegment,each
usingthemethodsalreadyintroducedinearliersections.Theshorterlengthofthemonitoredsec
tionscomparedtotheoveralllengthofthepipelineleadstoseveraladvantages:
- Significantlylowersmallestdetectableleakrate
- Significantlyshortertimetodetectaleak
- Significantimprovementinaccuracyofleaklocation
Thesegmentevaluationchoosesthesegmentthatshowsthemostsignificantleaksignature,deter
mineswhetheraleakalarmorasensoralarmispresent,andreportstheleaklocationandflowif
appropriate.
ThismethodachievesbetterperformancethanthemethodshowninFigure13,especiallyongas
pipelines.Thedisadvantageisthecomplexinstrumentationneededatthesubstations.
33
Twosubstationsareshownforclarity,butthemethodisabletohandleanynumberofsubstations.Ifnecessary,thetransformationof
volumeflowtomassflowisdonewithinPipePatrolseeChapter13.4.5.Groundtemperatureisomittedforclarity.
42
KROHNEOilandGasisabletoconfigurethismethodtoassignpipelinesegmentsdynamically.For
example,intheeventofatransmitterfailureatsubstation1itispossibletoskipthisstationand
performleakdetectionbetweentheinletstationandsubstation2.
13.4.4 SectionalMonitoringforSubstationswithoutFlowMeasurement
Thedisadvantageofthecomplexandexpensiveinstrumentationfromchapter13.4.3canbeelimi
natedbyvirtualflowmeasurement,asshowninFigure15.
I
M
(1)
O
M
(2)
I
M
(1)
I
M
O
M
(2)
O
M
(3)
I
M
(3)
O
M
Figure15:PipePatrolERTTM/PCsectionalmonitoring,substationswithoutflowmeasurement
34
ThefunctionalityisnearlythesameasshowninFigure14,exceptthatdirectflowmeasurementis
replacedbyvaluescalculatedintheRTTMpipelineobserverfromaneighboringsegment.
EachRTTMpipelineobservercalculatesflowateverypointalongitsassociatedsegment,including
theinletandtheoutlet.Themeasuredflowattheheadstationsiscomparedwiththecalculatedflow
intheusualway.Atintermediatestations,thecalculatedoutletflowforthesegmentupstreamis
simplycomparedwiththecalculatedinletflowforthesegmentdownstream,andviceversa.Asonly
oneRTTMpipelineobservercalculatestheflowattheheadstations,arealflowmeasurementisstill
neededattheselocationsforcomparison.
Iftemperaturemeasurementsatsubstationsarenotpresent,calculatedfluidtemperaturesfroma
neighboringsegmentcanbeusedinstead.
34
Twosubstationsareshownforclarity,butthemethodisabletohandleanynumberofsubstations.Ifnecessary,thetransformationof
volumeflowtomassflowisdonewithinPipePatrolseeChapter13.4.5.Groundtemperatureisomittedforclarity.Temperaturemeas
urementforsubstationscanbereplacedbygroundtemperaturemeasurementinmostcases.
43
13.4.5 FlowCalculation
PipePatrolERTTM/PCbasicallyrequiresmassflowasshowninFigure12,Figure14andFigure15,
butitisnotalwayspracticaltomeasurethemassflowinandoutofthepipelinedirectlyforexam
ple,directmassmetersareonlyavailableinalimitedrangeofsizes.Itisalsopossibletousevolu
metricflowmeters,whereusuallyflowcomputerscalculatethemassflowbycombiningmeasured
volumeflowwithothermeasurements.Correspondingflowcalculationsarestandardized.
Forspecialcases,wherevolumetricflowmetersareusedbutflowcomputersarenotavailablefor
conversionfromvolumeflowtomassflow,PipePatrolisabletoperformtherequiredcalculations
internally,e.g.using[APIMPMS11].
13.5 PipePatrolERTTM/SCLeakMonitoringinShutinConditions
PipePatrolERTTM/PCpresentedinChapter13.4islimitedtopumpingconditionswherenonzero
flowispresentorunblockedpausedflowconditionswhereflowisclosetozero.Ifvalvesareusedto
blocktheflow,thepipelineisinshutinorblockedlineoperation,seeChapter9;inthiscase,PipePa
trolERTTM/SCshouldbeusedinstead.PipePatrolERTTM/SCisamodelbasedpressure
temperaturemethod,whichisvalidforbothliquidandgaspipelines.Therelevantvalvesmustbe
leaktight,andthisshouldbeconsideredwhenchoosingthem.
13.5.1 HeadStationsMonitoring
ThisbasicschemeappliestheRTTMpressureresidualapproachChapter11.3.
P T
PipelineObserver
T P
Inlet Outlet
Segment
LeakSignatureAnalysis
zI zO
Leak
Signatures
LeakAlarm
SensorAlarm
Leakflowandlocation
TI
I
p
I
p
0
O
M =
TO
O
p
T
TG
0
I
M =
O
p
Figure16:PipePatrolERTTM/SCheadstationmonitoring
Itisclearwithoutmeasurementthattheflowattheinletandoutletshouldbezero.TheRTTMpipe
lineobservercanusethistocalculatethelocalprofiles,includingtheexpectedpressureatthetwo
headstations.Itispossibletocomparethesewiththemeasuredvalues,givingpressureresidualsz
I
andz
O
:

I I I O O O
z p p z p p
TheRTTMpipelineobserverisabletocompensatetransientbehaviorofthepipelineinshutincondi
tions.Inaddition,thethermodynamicequationofstateintheRTTMcompensatesfortheeffectof
temperaturechangesonpressure.
44
ThecompensatedresidualsarepassedtotheERTTMleaksignatureanalysis,asintroducedinChap
ter13.2.Leakrateandleaklocationwillbedeterminedwhennecessary.
13.5.2 SubstationsMonitoring
Substationmonitoringforshutinissimilartosubstationmonitoringforpumpingconditions.Details
canbefoundinChapter13.4.2.
P T
PipelineObserver
T P
PI
Inlet
TI TO PO
P P

1
p
1
p
2
p
2
p
LeakSignature
Analysis1
LeakSignature
Analysis2
SubstationEvaluation
z
1
z
2
T
TG
Leak
Signatures
Leak
Signatures
LeakAlarm
SensorAlarm
Leakflowandlocation
0
I
M =
0
O
M =
Figure17:PipePatrolERTTM/SCsubstationsmonitoring
35
Thepressureprofilefortheentirepipeiscalculatedusingonepipelineobserver.Calculatedpres
surescanthenbecomparedwithmeasuredvaluesatthesubstations.
Iftherelevantvalvesarecompletelyleaktight,evenverysmall,gradualleakswillberecognized.In
thiscase,PipePatrolERTTM/SCmeetstherequirementsofTRFLd).
Usually,headstationmonitoring(Figure16)andsubstationmonitoring(Figure17)willbecombined
toprovideleakmonitoringforsectionsconsistingofanumberofsegmentsformedbyheadstations
andsubstations.
35
Twosubstationsareshownforclarity,butthemethodisabletohandleanynumberofsubstations.
45
13.6 Summary

PipePatrolERTTM,KrohneOil&Gas
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
HeadStationsMonitoring
LD+LL 2x(Q,P,T);T
G
Repeatability Fast
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
SubstationMonitoring
LD+LL
2x(P,T);T
G
nxP
Repeatability Fast
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
SectionalMonitoring
LD+LL
2x(Q,P,T);T
G
nx(Q,P,T)
Repeatability Fast
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
SectionalMonitoringVirtualFlow
LD+LL
2x(Q,P,T);T
G
nx(P,T)
Repeatability Fast
PipePatrolERTTM/SC
LD+LL 2x(P,T);T
G
Repeatability Fast
PipePatrolERTTM/SC
LD+LL
2x(P,T);T
G
nxP
Repeatability Fast
Instrumentation
Table21:FunctionalityandinstrumentationofPipePatrolERTTM
36
PipePatrolERTTMprovidesleakdetectionandleaklocationinbothpumpingandshutinconditions
(fordetailsofleaklocalizationseeChapter10.)PipePatrolERTTM/PCHeadstationmonitoringre
quiresmeasurementsofflow,pressureandtemperatureattheheadstations.Ifgroundtemperature
isreasonablyconstantalonganundergroundpipeline,asinglerepresentativemeasurementatsome
pointalongthepipelineissufficient.Flowmetersatsubstationsarenotnecessary,butsubstations
mustbeequippedwithpressuresensors.Sectionalmonitoringrequiresflow,pressureandtempera
tureforthesubstations,butusingvirtualflowtechnologyrequirementsforthesubstationscanbe
reducedtopressureandtemperatureorevenpressurealone.
PipePatrolERTTM/SCHeadstationmonitoringneedsmeasurementsofpressureandtemperatureat
theheadstations.Again,groundtemperatureatsomepointalongthepipelineissufficient.ForSub
stationmonitoring,substationsmustbeequippedwithpressuresensors.
PipePatrolERTTMusesleaksignatureanalysis;instrumentrepeatability,ratherthanaccuracy,is
thereforethemainconcern,whichreducestherequirements.Instrumentationmustbefast(low
settlingtime)inordertofollowtransienteffectscorrectly.
36
LD=LeakDetection,LL=LeakLocation,Q=Flowsensor,T=Temperaturesensor,P=Pressuresensor,T
G
46
Pumping Dynamics
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
PC Steady+Transient Liquids+Gases a),b),e)
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
SectionalMonitoring
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
PipePatrolERTTM/SC
SC Steady+LowTransient Liquids+Gases c),d),e)
PipePatrolERTTM/SC
SC Steady+LowTransient Liquids+Gases c),d),e)
Table22:FieldsofapplicationofPipePatrolERTTM
37
PipePatrolERTTM/PCprovidesleakdetectioninpumpingconditions;PipePatrolERTTM/SCprovides
leakdetectioninshutinconditions.Allconfigurationsareabletomonitorinsteadyand(moderately)
transientstates.Evengaspipelinescanbemonitoredwithoutproblems.PipePatrolERTTM/PCper
formsthefollowingfunctions:
- TRFLa),acontinuouslyfunctioningsystem,whichcandetectleaksinsteadystateconditions
- TRFLb),acontinuousworkingsystemwhichisabletodetectleaksintransientstate
PipePatrolERTTM/SCperformsthefollowingfunctions:
- TRFLd),asystemorproceduretodetectgradualleaks
37
PC=PumpingConditions,SC=ShutinConditions.
47

PipePatrolERTTM/PC
Low VeryShort Medium Sudden+Graduate
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
Low VeryShort Short Sudden+Graduate
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
SectionalMonitoring
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
PipePatrolERTTM/SC
LowTRFLc)
VeryLowTRFLd)
ShortTRFLc)
LongTRFLd)
LongTRFLc)
VeryLongTRFLd)
Sudden+Graduate
PipePatrolERTTM/SC
LowTRFLc)
VeryLowTRFLd)
ShortTRFLc)
LongTRFLd)
LongTRFLc)
VeryLongTRFLd)
Sudden+Graduate
Sensitivity
Table23:PerformanceparametersofPipePatrolERTTM
AllconfigurationsofPipePatrolERTTMprovidealowalarmthreshold,andPipePatrolERTTM/SC
canofferaverylowalarmthresholdifrequired.PipePatrolERTTM/PCprovidesveryshorttimesto
detectaleakforliquidpipelines.Timetodetectaleakbecomeslongerforgaspipelinesbecauseof
thedynamicinertiaofthefluid.AllconfigurationsofPipePatrolERTTMareabletodetectandlocate
suddenleaksaswellasgradualleaksofsufficientsize.
14 ComparisonofAllMethods
48
Thischaptercomparesallmethodspresentedsofar:
- Chapter5: Pressure/FlowMonitoring
- Chapter6: RarefactionWaveMethod
- Chapter7: BalancingMethods
- Chapter8: StatisticalLeakDetectionSystems
- Chapter9: LeakMonitoringduringShutInConditions
ThePipePatrolLDSfamilyfromKROHNEOil&Gasisalsoincludedinthecomparison,namely:
- Chapter12:PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)
- Chapter13:PipePatrolExtendedRealTimeTransientModel(ERTTM)
ThiscomparisonmayhelpinterestedreaderstoselecttheLDSprinciplebestsuitedtoaparticular
application.Characteristicsarelistedonaninformativebasis,andwhiletheyaretosomeextentsub
jectivebynatureeveryefforthasbeenmadetopresentobjectivefacts.Forallthesemethods,typical
characteristicsaregivenunderthefollowingheadings.
14.1 FunctionalityandInstrumentation
Amethodmayprovideleakdetection(LD),leaklocalization(LL),orboth(LD+LL).Instrumentre
quirementsareindicatedasfollows:
StaticBehavior:"Repeatability"meansthatrepeatabilityisofprimaryinterestincontrastto"Accura
cy"whereabsoluteaccuracyisalsorequired."Repeatability"islessstrict(andthereforelessexpen
sive)than"Accuracy",seeChapter3.1.
DynamicBehavior:"None"(nospecialrequirementsforsettlingtimeI
S
);"Fast"(I
S
typicallybelow
1s);"VeryFast"(I
S
typicallybelow0.1s).FordetailsrefertoChapter3.1.3.
14.2 FieldofApplication
Thisindicatesallowedoperationalconditions("PC"=PumpingConditions,"SC"=ShutinConditions,
"Steady"=SteadyState,"Transient"=TransientState)."LowTransient"meansthatonlysmalltransi
enteffectsareallowedforcorrectoperation,whichnormallyexcludesstartupandshutdown.Al
lowedfluidsare"Liquid","Gases",and"Liquid+Gases".PleaserefertoChapter2.1fordetailsof
compliancetoTRFL:"a)","b","c)","d)",and"e)".
14.3 PerformanceParameters
Alarmthresholdsareclassifiedas"High"(typically5%leakrateormore),"Medium"(typicallybe
tween1%and5%),"Low"(typicallyaround1%)and"VeryLow"(significantlowerthan1%).
Timetodetectisclassifiedas"VeryLong"(halfadayormore),"Long"(typicallylongerthanonehour
busnotmorethanhalfaday),"Medium"(typicallybetweentenminutesandonehour),"Fast"(typi
callybetweenoneminuteandtenminutes),and"VeryFast"(lessthanoneminute).
Detectableleaktypesinclude"Sudden","Gradual",and"Sudden+Gradual".
49
Complexity Static Dynamic Pumping Dynamics AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

PressureMonitoring LD 1xP Accuracy None PC,SC Steady Liquids+Gases a),c) High Short Long Sudden+Graduate
FlowMonitoring LD 1xQ Accuracy None PC Steady Liquids+Gases a) High Short Long Sudden+Graduate
RarefactionWave LD+LL 2xP Repeatability Veryfast PC,SC Steady Liquids a),c),e) High VeryShort N/A Sudden
BalancingMethods
MassBalanceuncompensated LD 2xQ Accuracy None PC Steady Liquids a) Medium Long N/A Sudden+Graduate
LD
2x(Q,P,T)
nx(P,T)
Accuracy None PC Steady+LowTransient Liquids+Gases a) Medium Medium Long Sudden+Graduate
Steadystatemodel
LD 2x(Q,P,T);T
G Accuracy None PC Steady+LowTransient Liquids+Gases a) Medium Medium Medium Sudden+Graduate
RTTM
LD 2x(Q,P,T);T
G Accuracy Fast PC Steady+Transient Liquids+Gases a),b) Medium Short Short Sudden+Graduate
VolumeBalance LD 2xQ Repeatability None PC Steady Liquids a) Medium Long N/A Sudden+Graduate
StatisticalLDS
HypothesisTesting
LD 2xQ Repeatability None PC Steady+LowTransient Liquids+Gases a) Low Long VeryLong Sudden+Graduate
PTMethod LD 2x(P,T) Repeatability None SC Steady Liquids c),d)
LowTRFLc)
VeryLowTRFLd)
DPMethod LD nxDP Repeatability None SC Steady Liquids c),d)
LowTRFLc)
VeryLowTRFLd)
MassBalancecompensated LD 2x(Q,P,T);T
G Repeatability Fast PC Steady+Transient Liquids+Gases a),b) Low Short Medium Sudden+Graduate
MassBalanceuncompensated LD 2xQ Repeatability None PC Steady+LowTransient Liquids a) Medium Long N/A Sudden+Graduate
VolumeBalance LD 2xQ Repeatability None PC Steady+LowTransient Liquids a) Medium Long N/A Sudden+Graduate
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
LD+LL 2x(Q,P,T);T
G Repeatability Fast PC Steady+Transient Liquids+Gases a),b),e) Low VeryShort Medium Sudden+Graduate
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
LD+LL
2x(P,T);T
G
nxP
Repeatability Fast PC Steady+Transient Liquids+Gases a),b),e) Low VeryShort Short Sudden+Graduate
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
SectionalMonitoring
LD+LL
2x(Q,P,T);T
G
nx(Q,P,T)
PipePatrolERTTM/PC
LD+LL
2x(Q,P,T);T
G
nx(P,T)
PipePatrolERTTM/SC
LD+LL 2x(P,T);T
G Repeatability Fast SC Steady+LowTransient Liquids+Gases c),d),e)
LowTRFLc)
VeryLowTRFLd)
ShortTRFLc)
LongTRFLd)
LongTRFLc)
VeryLongTRFLd)
Sudden+Graduate
PipePatrolERTTM/SC
LD+LL
2x(P,T);T
G
nxP
Repeatability Fast SC Steady+LowTransient Liquids+Gases c),d),e)
LowTRFLc)
VeryLowTRFLd)
ShortTRFLc)
LongTRFLd)
LongTRFLc)
VeryLongTRFLd)
Sudden+Graduate
Legend
Instrumentation: Q=Flow,P=Pressure,T=ProductTemperature,TG=GroundTemperature,DP=DifferentialPressure
Function: LD=LeakDetection,LL=LeakLocalization
Condition: PC=PumpingConditions,SC=ShutinConditions
TRFL: a)ContinuoussteadystateOperation,b)ContinuoustransientOperation,c)PausedFlow,d)GradualLeak,e)LeakLocalization 20120317
Requirements
Sensitivity
LeakTypes TimetoDetect Application Method Function Medium TRFL
Instrumentation
Table24:Comparisonofallmethods
A Bibliography
50
A Bibliography
[ADEC] ADEC:TechnicalReviewofLeakDetectionTechnologies,Volume1.Alaska
DepartmentofEnvironmentalConservation,1999.
[APIRP1130] APIRP1130:ComputationalPipelineMonitoringforLiquidPipelines.Rec
ommendedPracticefromtheAmericanPetroleumInstitute,2007.
[API1149] API1149:PipelineVariableUncertaintiesandTheirEffectonLeakDetecta
bility.AmericanPetroleumInstitute,1993.
[API1155] API1155:EvaluationMethodologyforSoftwareBasedLeakDetectionSys
tems.AmericanPetroleumInstitute,1995.(WithdrawnbyAPI).
[APIMPMS11] APIManualofPetroleumMeasurementStandardsChapter11:Physical
PropertiesData.AmericanPetroleumInstitute,2007.
[Baehr] Baehr,H.D.,Kabelac,S.:Thermodynamik.Springer,14.Auflage,2009.
[Barkat] Barkat,M.:SignalDetectionandEstimation.ArtechHouse,1991.
[Billmann] Billmann,L.:MethodenzurLeckberwachungundRegelungvonGasfernlei
tungen.FortschrittsberichteVDIReihe8,VDIVerlag.
[Bohl] Bohl,W.:TechnischeStrmungslehre.VogelVerlag,12.Auflage,2002.
[Geiger] Geiger,G.:LeakDetectionandLocatingASurvey.35
th
AnnualPSIGMeet
ing,15October17October2003,Bern,Switzerland.
[Kay] Kay,StevenM.:FundamentalsofStatisticalSignalProcessing,Volume2.
PrenticeHall,1998.
[Krass/Kittel/Uhde] Krass,W.,Kittel,A.,Uhde,A.:Pipelinetechnik.VerlagTVRheinland,1979.
[Kroschel] Kroschel,K.:StatistischeNachrichtentheorie.SpringerVerlag,1996.
[RFVO] Rohrfernleitungsverordnung.InTRFLTechnischeRegelnfrRohrfernlei
tungsanlagen.CarlHeymannsVerlag,2010.
[TRFL] TRFLTechnischeRegelnfrRohrfernleitungsanlagen.CarlHeymanns
Verlag,2010.
[VdTV1051] VdTV1051:WasserdruckprfungvonerdverlegtenRohrleitungennach
demDruckTemperaturMessverfahren(DTVerfahren).VdTVMerkblatt.
[Wald] Wald,A.:SequentialAnalysis,JohnWileyandSons,NewYork,1947.
[Zhang] Zhang,X.J.:StatisticalLeakDetectioninGasandLiquidPipelines.Pipes&
PipelinesInternational,JulyAugust1993,p.2629.
B Definitions
51
B Definitions
Accuracy:WithinthecontextofLDS,performancecriteriaby[APIRP1130].Ameasuredescribingthe
accuracyofleakflowandpositioncalculation.Formeasurementsystemsingeneral,thedegree
ofclosenessofmeasurementsxofaquantitytothatquantity'struevaluex
tuc
.Seealso:Accu
racy,Reliability,Repeatability,Robustness,andSensitivity.
API1149:"PipelineVariableUncertaintiesandTheirEffectonLeakDetectability."Publishedbythe
AmericanPetroleumInstitute.Allowsforthecalculationofatheoreticallimittoleakdetection
sensitivitybasedoninstrumentaccuracyandpipelinecharacteristics.
API1155:"EvaluationMethodologyforSoftwareBasedLeakDetectionSystems."Publishedbythe
AmericanPetroleumInstitute.Definesperformancemetricslikesensitivity,accuracy,reliability
androbustness.Withdrawn.Seealso:APIRP1130.
APIMPMSChapter11:"APIManualofPetroleumMeasurementStandardsChapter11:Physical
PropertiesData."PublishedbyAmericanPetroleumInstitute.Describesrelationstocalculate
densityoffluids(crudeoil,refinedproductsetc.)fromtemperatureandpressure.
APIRP1130:RecommendedPractice"ComputationalPipelineMonitoringforLiquidPipelines".Pub
lishedbytheAmericanPetroleumInstitute.Givesatechnicaloverviewaboutleakdetection
technologies,describesinfrastructuresupportsforCPM,anddiscussesCPMoperation,mainte
nanceandtesting.Definesperformancemetricslikesensitivity,accuracy,reliabilityandrobust
ness(fromAPI1155).Seealso:TRFL.
Batch:Acertainquantityoffluid(product)plannedforpipelinetransportfrominlettooutlet.See
also:Fluid,Pipeline,Product.
CommunicationProtocol:Asetofconventionsgoverningtheformatandtimingofdatatransmission
betweencommunicationdevices,includinghandshaking,errordetection,anderrorrecovery.
Synonym:Protocol.Seealso:SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
CompensatedMassBalance:Massbalancemethodwhichcompensatesforchangeofmassinvento
ryinapipeline.Seealso:LineBalance,MassBalance,UncompensatedMassBalance,andVolume
Balance.
Compressibility:Attributeofafluid,representingtherateofchangeofdensitywithrespecttopres
sureandtemperature.Itiscompensatedby(E)RTTMSystems.
ConservationofMass:Physicallawthatstatesthatmasstransportedbyapipelinewillbeconserved
incasethatthereisnoleak.Seealso:MassBalance.
CoriolisMassMeter:FlowmeasuringdevicedirectlymeasuringmassflowbasingontheCoriolis
principle.Seealso:Flowmeter,OrificePlate,PositiveDisplacementMeter,TurbineMeter,Ultra
sonicMeter,andVolumetricFlowMeter.
B Definitions
52
C(Continued)
CPMSystem:Computationalpipelinemonitoringsystemaccordingto[APIRP1130].Synonymfor
softwarebasedLDS.Seealso:LeakDetectionSystem(LDS).
DataAcquisition(DAQ):Theprocessofacquiringanaloguefielddataandconvertingthemintodigi
talvalues.Thequalityofthisprocessismainlyspecifiedbytheresolutiongiveninbits.Seealso:
Resolution,SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
DataCommunicationEquipment(DCE):Equipmentthatprovidesthefunctionsrequiredtoestablish,
maintain,orterminateaconnectionandthesignalconversionandcodingrequiredforcommuni
cationbetweendataterminalequipmentanddatacircuits.Examplesincludemodems,linedriv
ers,coaxialcable,satellitelinks,etc.Seealso:SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
DensityMeter:Asensorthatmonitorstheactualdensityofafluid.Seealso:Flowmeter.
DetectionLimit:Synonym:LeakDetectionLimit.
DifferentialPressureMethod(DPMethod):Differentialpressureacrossatightlyclosedvalvebe
tweentwotightlyclosedsegmentsisanalyzed.Seealso:PressureTemperatureMethod(PT
Method).
DigitalDataService(DDS):Aspecialwidebandwidthprivateleasedline(PLL)thatusesdigitaltech
niquestotransferdataathigherspeedsandlowererrorratethanvoiceband,analogPLLs.See
also:PrivateLeasedLine(PLL),PublicSwitchedTelephoneNetwork(PSTN).Seealso:Supervisory
ControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
DragReducingAgent(DRA):Addedtoliquidstoreducepipewallfriction.
Drift:Synonym:MeasurementDrift!
EOS:EquationofState.Synonyms:PVTEquation,ThermodynamicEquationofState.
ExternalLDS:Accordingto[APIRP1130],LDSsusingdedicatedmeasurementequipmentsuchas
sensingcables(e.g.vaportube,fiberopticcables).PipePatrolERTTMLDSandPipePatrolSLBLDS
donotbelongtothatLDSfamily.Seealso:InternalLDS.
ERTTMLDS:LDSbasedonExtendedRTTMtechnology.ThistechnologycombinesRTTMtechnology
withtheleaksignatureanalysis.Seealso:RealTimeTransientModel(RTTM),RTTMLDS,Leak
SignatureAnalysis,PipePatrolERTTMLDS.
FalseAlarm:Aleakalarmthatisraisedwhennorealleakispresent.FalsealarmprobabilityP
PA
specifiestheexpectednumberoffalsealarms,e.g.peryear.Seealso:LeakAlarm,MissedAlarm.
B Definitions
53
F(Continued)
Flow:Collectivetermformassflow(e.g.inkg/s),volumeflow(e.g.inm
3
/h),andvelocity(e.g.in
m/s).
Flowmeter:Devicemeasuringvolumeand/ormassflow.Seealso:CoriolisMassMeter,OrificePlate,
PositiveDisplacementMeter,TurbineMeter,UltrasonicMeter,andVolumetricFlowmeter.
FlowComputer:Deviceusedtopreprocessflowfieldsignalse.g.bycalculatingmassflowfrom
volumeflowforvolumetricflowmeters.Seealso:Flowmeter,Volumetricflowmeter.
FlowMonitoring:Asimpleleakdetectionmethodwhereflowismeasuredatasinglelocationinthe
pipeline;flowchangesincaseofaleak.Seealso:PressureMonitoring.
FlowResidual:Differencebetweenmeasuredflowandthevaluecalculatedbypipelineobserver
assumingaleakfreepipeline.UsedbyPipePatrolERTTM/PC.Seealso:PipelineObserver,Pres
sureResidual,Residual,andPipePatrolERTTM/PC.
Fluid:Asubstancethatiscapableofflowingthroughapipeline,includingallgasesandliquids.See
also:Batch,Product.
FullDuplexProtocol:Amodeofoperationforapointtopointlinkwithtwostations,inwhichmes
sagescanbesentinbothdirectionsatthesametime.Seealso:HalfDuplexProtocol,Supervisory
Gaussian(Normal)Distribution:Wellknownformofprobabilitydensityfunction,firstpublishedby
Gauss.Alsocallednormaldistribution.Veryoftenusedfortheunderlyingstatisticalmethodsof
StatisticalLDS.Seealso:StatisticalLDS.
GradientIntersectionMethod:Methodofleaklocationbasedoncharacteristicchangesinpressure
profilealongthepipeline.PipePatrolERTTMusesamodelbasedversion,whichisabletolocate
aleakevenintransientconditions.Seealso:LeakLocalization,TimeOfFlightMethod.
GradualLeak:Aslowlydevelopingleakidentifiablebyadriftsignature,oftenwithaverylowleak
flow.[TRFL]demandsdedicatedLDStodetectgradualleaks.PipePatrolERTTMraisessensor
alarmforgradualleaksofsufficientsize.Seealso:SensorAlarm,SuddenLeak.
HalfDuplexProtocol:Amodeofoperationforapointtopointorpointtomultipointlinkwithtwo
stations,inwhichmessagescanbesentinonedirectionortheotherbutnotbothatthesame
time.Seealso:FullDuplexProtocol,SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
HeadStation:Measuringstationatthepipelineinletoroutlet.Seealso:MeasuringStation,Substa
tion.
HeadStationMonitoring:ThisconfigurationofPipePatrolERTTMusesmeasurementsfromthe
headstationsofapipelinetocalculatetheflowresidualsandmonitorthepipelineforleaks.See
also:PipePatrolERTTMLDS,SectionalMonitoring,andSubstationsMonitoring.
B Definitions
54
H(Continued)
HypothesisTest:Familyofmethodfromstatisticaldecisiontheory,oftenusedbyStatisticalLDS.
Examplesarelikelihoodratiotestandsequentialprobabilityratiotest.Seealso:LikelihoodRatio
Test,SequentialProbabilityRatioTest,andStatisticalLDS.
Imbalance:Differencebetweenmass(orvolume)enteringapipelineandmass(orvolume)leavingit,
observedoversometimeperiodt.Changeofmassinventorymayadditionallybeconsidered.
Seealso:MassBalance.
Inlet:Thepointwherethefluidentersthepipelineinforwardoperation.Seealso:Outlet.
InternalLDS:Accordingto[APIRP1130],LDSsthatuseexistingmeasurementsensorsforflow,pres
sure,temperatureetc.PipePatrolERTTMLDSandPipePatrolSLBLDSbelongtothatLDSfamily.
Seealso:ExternalLDS.
Inventory:Synonym:PipelineInventory.
InventoryCompensation:Synonym:PipelineInventoryCompensation.
KROHNEOil&Gas:NetherlandssubsidiaryofKROHNEMesstechnikDuisburgGmbH&Co.KG.
PipePatrolistheLDSFamilyofKROHNEOil&Gas.Seealso:PipePatrolLDS.
LeakAlarm:Declarationofaleakevent.PipePatrolERTTMLDSwillraisethistypeofalarmincaseof
asuddenleak.Seealso:PipePatrolERTTMLDS,SuddenLeak.
LeakDetection:Processofdecidingifthereisaleakornot.UsuallyLDSareusedforthispurpose.
Seealso:LeakDetectionSystem(LDS),LeakLocalization,andLeakMonitoring.
LeakDetectionLimit:Theoreticalvalueofthesmallestdetectableleakfloworrate.Synonym:Detec
tionLimit.Seealso:LeakFlow,LeakRate.
LeakDetectionSystem(LDS):Aninternalorexternalbasedsystemtodetectleaksinpipelines,which
mayalsocalculateleaklocation.InGermany,LDSmustmeettherequirementsofthe[TRFL].See
also:CPMSystem,LeakDetection,andLeakLocalization.
LeakFlow:Massorvolumeflowoftheleak.Seealso:LeakRate.
LeakLocalization:Processofdeterminingthepositionofaleak,commonlycalculatedbyanLDS.See
also:LeakDetection,LeakDetectionSystem(LDS),LeakMonitoring.
LeakMonitoring:Monitoringprocessinvolvingleakdetectionandleaklocalization.Seealso:Leak
Detection,LeakLocalization.
B Definitions
55
L(Continued)
LeakRate:Leakflowrelatedtoareferencevalue,e.g.nominalflowofthepipeline.Seealso:Leak
Flow.
LeakSignature:Specificsignatureinsignalswhichoccursincaseofaleak,e.g.step(forsuddenleaks)
ordrift(forgradualleaks).Seealso:LeakSignatureAnalysis.
LeakSignatureAnalysis:MethodusedbyPipePatrolERTTMtoavoidfalsealarmswhereresiduals
areanalyzedforleaksignatures.Incaseofaleak,aleakalarm(forasuddenleak)orsensoralarm
(foragradualleakormeasurementdriftandoffset)israised.Seealso:ERTTMLDS,LeakAlarm,
LeakSignature,SensorAlarm,PipePatrolERTTMLDS.
LikelihoodRatioTest:Statisticalmethodtodecidebetweentwopredefinedhypotheses(e.g.leak
no/yes)basedonasetofmeasuredvalues.SomestatisticalLDSusethisprincipleforleakdetec
tion.Thesequentialversioniscalledsequentialprobabilityratiotest.Seealso:HypothesisTest,
SequentialProbabilityRatioTest,andStatisticalLDS.
LineBalance:Generictermcoveringallbalancingmethods(massbalanceandvolumebalance).See
also:MassBalance,CompensatedMassBalance,UncompensatedMassBalance,andVolume
Balance.
LocalProfiles:Flowandthermodynamicvaluessuchasmassflow,pressure,temperatureanddensi
ty,calculatedforeverypointalongthepipeline.
MassBalance:Methodsthatusetheconservationofmassprincipleforleakdetection.Synonym:
MaterialBalance.Seealso:Imbalance,LineBalance,CompensatedMassBalance,Uncompen
satedMassBalance,andVolumeBalance.
MasterStation(MS):ASCADAdevicesuchasaPLCwithI/Omodulesthatsendsdatatoandcollects
datafromremotestations.Seealso:ProgrammableLogicController(PLC),RemoteStation(RS),
andSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
MaterialBalance:Synonym:MassBalance.
MeasurementDrift:Verylowfrequencyerrorinmeasurements.PipePatrolERTTMraisessensor
alarmformeasurementdrift(flow,pressure,temperature)ofsufficientsize.Synonym:Drift.See
also:MeasurementError,MeasurementOffset.
MeasurementError:DeviationE x - x
tuc
betweenanactualmeasurementxandtheunknown
truevaluex
tuc
iscalledabsolutemeasurementerror.Ifdividedbysomereferencevaluex
c]
(e.g.x
tuc
ormeasurementrangex
mux
-x
mn
),itiscalledrelativemeasurementerror.Seealso:
MeasurementDrift,MeasurementOffset.
MeasurementOffset:Constanterrorinmeasurements.PipePatrolERTTMraisessensoralarmfor
measurementoffsets(flow,pressure,temperature)ofsufficientsizes.Synonym:Offset.Seealso:
MeasurementDrift,MeasurementError.
B Definitions
56
M(Continued)
MeasurementStation:Astationatonespecificpointofthepipeline,equippedwithsensorsand
SCADAdevices.Atinletandoutlettheyarecalledheadstations,otherwisesubstations.Seealso:
HeadStation,Substation,andSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
MissedAlarm:Afailuretodeclareanalarmwhenthereisarealleak.MissedalarmprobabilityP
MA
specifiestheexpectednumberofmissedalarms,e.g.peryear.Seealso:FalseAlarm,LeakAlarm.
Modbus:Aserialcommunicationsprotocolfirstpublishedin1979forusewithitsprogrammable
logiccontrollers(PLCs).Oneofthedefactostandardcommunicationsprotocolsintheindustry.
Seealso:OLEForProcessControl(OPC),SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
MultiProductPipeline:Pipelinethattransportseveraldifferentproducts.Seealso:SingleProduct
Pipeline.
MultipointToMultipoint:Communicationlinkbetweenthreeormorestationswherethereisno
communicationarbitrator(master)andanystationcaninitiatecommunicationswithanyother
station.Seealso:PointtoPoint,PointtoMultipoint,andSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisi
tion(SCADA).
NominalFlow:Flowatnominalconditions,e.g.inm
3
/h.
Offset:Synonym:MeasurementOffset.
OLEForProcessControl(OPC):Communicationstandardspecifyingthecommunicationofrealtime
plantdatabetweencontroldevicesfromdifferentmanufacturers.Seealso:Modbus,Supervisory
OrificePlate:Differentialpressuregeneratingflowmeteringdevice.Orificeplatesarenotdirectly
eithermassorvolumetricflowmeters.Seealso:CoriolisMassMeter,Flowmeter,OrificePlate,
PositiveDisplacementMeter,TurbineMeter,UltrasonicMeter,andVolumetricFlowmeter.
Outlet:Theendofapipelinewherethefluidleavesinforwardoperation.Seealso:Inlet.
PausedFlowConditions:Conditionswherenofluidispumpedthroughthepipeline.Flowmaybe
unblockedorblocked(shutinconditions)byvalves.[TRFL]assumesspecialLDSforthesecondi
tions.Seealso:PumpingConditions,ShutinConditions.
Pipeline:Alongdistancelineforfluid(product)transport.Seealso:Fluid,Product.
PipelineController:Apersonwhoisresponsibleforthemonitoringanddirectcontrolofapipeline.
Synonym:PipelineOperator.

B Definitions
57
P(Continued)
PipelineInventory:Massstoredwithinapipelinesegment.Synonym:Inventory.Seealso:Pipeline
InventoryCompensation.
PipelineInventoryCompensation:Methodtocompensateforchangesofpipelinecontentsinmass
balance.PipePatrolSLBoptionallyappliesRTTMbasedcompensation.Synonym:InventoryCom
pensation.Seealso:MassBalance,PipelineInventory,andPipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance
(SLB)LDS.
PipelineObserver:SWModulewithinPipePatrolERTTM(andSLB),whichcalculatesresidualsbased
onmeasuredvalues.Itisusedtoeliminatecompressibilityandelasticityeffects.Itmayalsobe
usedforvirtualflowcalculation.Synonym:VirtualPipeline.Seealso:LeakSignatureAnalysis,
PipePatrolERTTMLDS,PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)LDS,andVirtualFlow.
PipelineOperator:Synonym:PipelineController.
PipelineRupture:Occurswhenthereisasignificantbreachofthepipewallormajorlossofcontain
mentoftheproductwithinthepipeline.Mayleadtoalarge,suddenleakflow.Synonym:Rup
ture.
PipelineSection:Asubdivisionofacompletepipelinenetwork,whichmayconsistofoneormore
pipelinesegments.Seealso:PipelineSegment.Synonym:Section.
PipelineSegment:Asingleconnectionbetweentwonodesinapipelinenet.Ingeneralasubdivision
ofapipelinesection.Synonym:Segment.Seealso:PipelineSection.
PipePatrolERTTMLDS:PipePatrolExtendedRealTimeTransientModelLDSbyKROHNEOil&Gas
basedonERTTMtechnology(pipelineobserver)andleaksignatureanalysis.ProvidesLeakde
tectionandlocationinpumpingconditions(PipePatrolERTTM/PC)andshutinconditions
(PipePatrolERTTM/SC)forsteadyandtransientstatesasdefinedin[APIRP1130]and[TRFL].
Raisesleakalarmforsuddenleaks,andsensoralarmforgradualleaksormeasurementdriftor
offsets.Differentconfigurationsareavailablefordifferentpipelinenetstructures:Headstation
monitoring,substationmonitoring,andsectionalmonitoring.PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance
(SLB)mayserveasabackupLDSincaseofpressureand/ortemperaturesensorfailure.Seealso:
ERTTMLDS,HeadStationsMonitoring,LeakAlarm,LeakSignatureAnalysis,PipelineObserver,
PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB),SectionalMonitoring,SensorAlarm,andSubstations
Monitoring.
PipePatrolERTTM/PC:ConfigurationofPipePatrolERTTMforpumpingconditions.Seealso:
PipePatrolERTTM,PumpingConditions.
PipePatrolERTTM/SC:ConfigurationofPipePatrolERTTMforshutinconditions.Seealso:PipePa
trolERTTM,ShutinConditions.
PipePatrolLDS:FamilyofLDSbyKROHNEOil&Gas.AtthistimeconsistsofPipePatrolERTTMLDS
andPipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB).Seealso:KROHNEOil&Gas,PipePatrolERTTMLDS,
PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)LDS.

B Definitions
58
P(Continued)
PipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)LDS:LDSbyKROHNEOil&Gasprovidingleakdetectionus
ingmassandvolumebalancetogetherwithRTTMbasedpipelineinventorycompensation(pipe
lineobserver).Differentconfigurationsforuncompensatedmassbalance,compensatedmass
balanceandvolumebalanceareavailable.MayserveasabackupLDSforPipePatrolERTTMin
caseofpressureand/ortemperaturesensorfailure.Seealso:LineBalance,PipelineInventory
Compensation,PipelineObserver,PipePatrolERTTM.
PointtoMultipoint:Anetworkwhereconnectionsexistbetweenonemasterstationandmultiple
remotestations.Seealso:MultipointtoMultipoint,PointtoPoint,andSupervisoryControland
DataAcquisition(SCADA).
PointtoPoint:Anetworkwhereaconnectionismadebetweentwoandonlytwoterminalinstalla
tions.Seealso:MultipointtoMultipoint,PointtoMultipoint,andSupervisoryControlandData
Acquisition(SCADA).
Poll:Procedurewheremasterstationsendsamessagetoaremotestationthatrequirestheremote
stationtoreturnaresponsetothemasteroranotherremotestation.Seealso:SupervisoryCon
trolandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
PollingTime:TimeintervalbetweentwoconsecutivepollsonaSCADAcommunicationlink.Syno
nym:ScanTime.Seealso:Poll,SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
PositiveDisplacementMeter:Flowmeasuringdevicethatmeasuresflowbymovingtheliquid
throughmeasuringchambersofknownvolume.Belongstovolumetricflowmeters.Seealso:Cor
iolisMassMeter,Flowmeter,OrificePlate,TurbineMeter,UltrasonicMeter,andVolumetric
Flowmeter.
PressureMonitoring:Asimpleleakdetectionmethodwherepressureismeasuredatasingleloca
tiononthepipeline;pressuredropsincaseofaleak.Seealso:FlowMonitoring.
PressureResidual:Differencebetweenmeasuredpressureandthevaluecalculatedbypipelineob
serverassumingaleakfreepipeline.UsedforparticularconfigurationsbyPipePatrolERTTM/PC
andgenerallybyPipePatrolERTTM/PC.Seealso:FlowResidual,PipelineObserver,Residual,and
PipePatrolERTTM.
PressureTemperatureMethod(PTMethod):Pressurewithinatightlyclosedpipelinesegmentis
analyzed,andtemperaturecompensatedusingandequationofstateforthefluid.PipePatrolE
RTTM/SCusesamodelbasedversionofthismethod.Seealso:DifferentialPressureMethod(DP
Method).
PrivateLeasedLine(PLL):Adedicatedvoicebandtelephonelinebetweentwoormorelocations
primarilyusedfordatatransmission.Seealso:DigitalDataService(DDS),PublicSwitchesTele
phonenetwork(PSTN),andSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
ProbabilityDensityFunction(PDF):Functionofprobabilitytheory,whichenablescalculationof
probabilityforanevent.Seealso:Gaussian(Normal)Distribution.
Product:Afluidflowingthroughapipeline,includingallgasesandliquids.Seealso:Batch,Fluid,
Pipeline.
B Definitions
59
P(Continued)
ProgrammableLogicController(PLC):Digitalcomputerusedforautomation.Unlikegeneralpurpose
computers,thePLCisdesignedformultipleinputandoutputarrangements,extendedtempera
tureranges,immunitytoelectricalnoise,andresistancetovibrationandimpact.Maybepartof
SCADAmasterstationsandremotestations.Seealso:MasterStation(MS),RemoteStation(RS),
andSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
Protocol:Synonym:CommunicationProtocol.
PublicSwitchedTelephoneNetwork(PSTN):Thestandarddialuptelephonenetworkoriginallyused
forvoicecommunication.Seealso:DigitalDataService(DDS),PrivateLeasedLine(PLL),andSu
pervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
PumpingConditions:Conditionswherefluidispumpedthroughthepipeline.[TRFL]assumesspecial
LDSfortheseconditions.Seealso:ShutinConditions,PausedFlowConditions.
PVTEquation:Synonyms:EOS,ThermodynamicEquationofState.
RarefactionWave:Hydraulicwavelikeeffectincaseofaleakpropagatingwithspeedofsound.See
also:RarefactionWaveMethod.
RarefactionWaveMethod:LDSevaluatingrarefactionwavescreatedbysuddenleaks.Seealso:
RarefactionWave.
RealTimeTransientModel(RTTM):Simulationmodelofflowinpipelinescoveringthesteadystate
aswellasthetransientstate.Calculatedinrealtimebydigitalcomputers.Seealso:ERTTMLDS,
RTTMLDS.
Reliability:WithinthecontextofLDS,performancecriteriondefinedby[APIRP1130].Abilityofa
leakdetectionsystemtorenderaccuratedecisionsaboutthepossibleexistenceofaleakonthe
pipeline,whileoperatingwithinanenvelopeestablishedbytheleakdetectionsystemdesign.Di
rectlyrelatedtoprobabilityofafalsealarmandprobabilityofamissedalarm.Seealso:Accuracy,
Robustness,andSensitivity.
RemoteStation(RS):ASCADAdevicesuchasaPLCwithI/Omodulesthatislocatedinasiteremote
fromthemasterstationandthatcontrolsI/Opointsattheremotesite.Aremotestationaccepts
commandsfromandmaysenddatatoamasterstationviaanetwork.Seealso:Programmable
LogicController(PLC),MasterStation(MS),RemoteTerminalUnit(RTU),andSupervisoryControl
andDataAcquisition(SCADA).
RemoteTerminalUnit(RTU):Remotestationonlyacquiringdata.Seealso:RemoteStation(RS),
SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).

B Definitions
60
R(Continued)
Repeatability:Closenessofagreementbetweenindependentmeasurementreadingsobtainedwith
thesamemeasurementsystemunderthesameconditions(sameflow,sameenvironmentalcon
ditionsetc.).Veryoftenrepeatabilityisdefinedasthevaluebelowwhichtheabsolutedifference
|x| |x|k] - x|k -1]|betweentwosuccessivesinglemeasurementsx|k]andx|k -1]ob
tainedunderthesameconditionsmaybeexpectedtoliewithaspecifiedprobability(e.g.95%).
Seealso:Accuracy.
Residual:Differencebetweenameasuredvalue(e.g.pressureorflow)andacorrespondingvalue
calculatedbypipelineobserverassumingaleakfreepipeline.ForPipePatrolERTTM,inputfor
leaksignatureanalysis.PipePatrolusesflowandpressureresidualsdependingontheconfigura
tion.Residualsareanalyzedbyleaksignatureanalysisforleakalarmdeclarationandleaklocaliza
tion.Seealso:FlowResiduals,LeakSignatureAnalysis,PipelineObserver,PipePatrolERTTMLDS,
andPressureResiduals.
Resolution:Withinthecontextofdataacquisition,thesmallestincrementofsignalchangethatcan
bedeterminedbyaconverternormallyspecifiedinbits.Seealso:DataAcquisition,Supervisory
Robustness:WithinthecontextofLDS,performancecriteriondefinedby[APIRP1130].Abilityto
continuetofunctionandprovideusefulinformationevenunderchangingconditionsofpipeline
operation,orinconditionswheredataislostorsuspect.Asystemisconsideredtoberobustifit
continuestofunctionundersuchnonidealconditions.Seealso:Accuracy,Reliability,andSensi
tivity.
RTTMLDS:LDSbasingonaRealTimeTransientModel(RTTM).Seealso:ERTTMLDS,RealTime
TransientModel(RTTM).
Rupture:Synonym:PipelineRupture.
ScanTime:Synonym:PollTime.
Section:Synonym:PipelineSection.
SectionalMonitoring:ThisconfigurationofPipePatrolERTTMsplitspipelinesintosegmentsbound
edbymeasurementstations(headstationsandsubstations),andmonitorseachsegmentinde
pendently.Substationsmayprovideflow,pressureandtemperature;usingthevirtualflow
method,flowandtemperatureofasubstationmaybereplacedbyvaluescalculatedfromthe
pipelineobserver.Seealso:HeadStationsMonitoring,PipelineObserver,PipePatrolERTTMLDS,
SubstationsMonitoring,andVirtualFlow.
Segment:Synonym:PipelineSegment.
Sensitivity:WithinthecontextofanLDS,aperformancecriteriondefinedby[APIRP1130].Compo
sitecriterion,combiningsmallestdetectableleakflowaswellastimetodetectaleak.Example:
Lostvolumeormassbyleakflowfrombeginningofleakflowtillleakalarm.Seealso:Accuracy,
Reliability,andRobustness.

B Definitions
61
S(Continued)
SensorAlarm:PipePatrolERTTMwillraisethistypeofalarmincaseofagradualleakormeasure
mentdriftandoffset.Seealso:GradualLeak,LeakAlarm,PipePatrolERTTMLDS.
SequentialProbabilityRatioTest(SPRT):Asequentialversionofthelikelihoodratiotest.Somesta
tisticalLDSusethisprincipleforleakdetection.Seealso:LikelihoodRatioTest,StatisticalLDS.
SettlingTime:Timerequiredfortheresponsecurveofasensortoreachandstaywithinarangeof
certainpercentage(usually5%or2%)ofthefinalvaluefollowingastepchangeinthemeasured
variable.
Shutdown:Transitionphaseofpipelineoperationwhereoperationmodechangesfrompumping
conditionstopausedflowconditions.Seealso:Startup,TransientState.
ShutinConditions:Pausedflowconditions,wherepumpsareswitchedoff,andflowisblockedby
valves.Seealso:PumpingConditions,PausedFlowConditions.
SingleProductPipeline:Pipelinewhereonlyonesingleproductistransported.Seealso:Multi
ProductPipeline.
SlackLine:Conditionswhereasegmentofaliquidpipelineisnotentirelyfilled,sometimesasaresult
ofvaporizationofthetransportedproduct.
SpeedofSound:Propagationspeedofpressure,densityandflowdynamicsinfluids.Leaklocation
byTimeofFlightMethodisbasedonthespeedofsound.
StandardConditions:Combinationoftemperature(e.g.10C)andpressure(e.g.1.101325bar)at
whichfluidstandardvolumesareexpressed.
Startup:Transitionphaseofpipelineoperationwhereoperationmodechangesfrompausedflow
conditionstopumpingconditions.Seealso:Shutdown,TransientState.
StatisticalLDS:FamilyofLDSwithafocusonstatisticalmethods.Seealso:HypothesisTest,Leak
SignatureAnalysis,LikelihoodRatioTest,andSequentialProbabilityRatioTest(SPRT).
StatisticalLeakClassification:StatisticalmodulewithinPipePatrolStatisticalLineBalance(SLB)for
preventingfalsealarmswhilemaintainingthehighestpossiblesensitivity.Seealso:PipePatrol
StatisticalLineBalance(SLB).
SteadyState:Processconditionsforapipeline,wherephysicalvalues(e.g.flowandpressure)do
NOTchangesignificantlyovertime.[TRFL]requiresanLDStobecapableofmonitoringpipelines
forleaksundersteadystateconditions.Seealso:TransientState.
Substation:Allmeasurementstationsotherthantheinletandoutlet(whicharecalledheadsta
tions).Seealso:HeadStation,MeasurementStation.
SubstationMonitoring:ThisconfigurationofPipePatrolERTTMusesmeasurementsfromthesub
stationsofapipelinetocalculatepressureresidualsandmonitorthepipelineforleaks.Seealso:
HeadStationsMonitoring,PipePatrolERTTMLDS,SectionalMonitoring.

B Definitions
62
S(Continued)
SuddenLeak:Asuddenleakidentifiablebyastepsignature,oftentheresultofapipelinerupture.
PipePatrolERTTMraisesleakalarmforsuddenleaksofsufficientsizes.Seealso:GradualLeak,
LeakAlarm.
SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA):ThefieldinformationnecessaryforinternalLDS
usuallywillbeprovidedbyaSupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA)system;thisisa
computerbaseddatacommunicationsystemthatmonitors,processes,transmits,anddisplays
pipelinedataforthepipelinecontroller.SCADAsystemsmaybeuseddirectlyforleakdetection,
theymayprovidesupportforanLDS,oranLDSmayoperateindependentlyofSCADA.Generally,
apipelineLDSwillusethedatageneratedbyaSCADAsystem.Seealso:CommunicationProtocol,
DataAcquisition(DAQ),DataCommunicationEquipment(DCE),DigitalDataService(DDS),Mas
terStation(MS),MeasurementStation,Modbus,OLEForProcessControl(OPC),PrivateLeased
Line(PLL),ProgrammableLogicController(PLC),PublicSwitchedTelephoneNetwork(PSTN),and
RemoteStation(RS).
ThermodynamicEquationofState:Thermodynamicrelationbetweenpressure,temperatureand
density,whichistrueforafluid.Forcrudeoil,refinedproductsandlubricatingoils,correspond
ingrelationsandparametersaregivenby[APIMPMS11].Synonyms:EOS,PVTEquation.
TimeTag:ASCADAfeaturerecordingthetimethatameasurementoreventoccursalongwiththe
data.Seealso:SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
TimeofFlightMethod:Leaklocationmethodwherethedifferenceintraveltimeofasuddenpres
suredroppropagatinglikeawaveisdetectedatdifferentlocationsalongthepipeline.PipePatrol
ERTTMusesamodelbasedversion,whichisabletolocatealeakevenintransientconditions.
Seealso:GradientIntersectionMethod,LeakLocalization.
Topology:Geometricarrangementofnodesandlinksthatmakeupanetwork.Example:aring,bus,
orstarconfiguration.Seealso:SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA).
TransientState:Stateofapipelinewherephysicalvalues(e.g.flowandpressure)DOchangesignifi
cantlyovertime.[TRFL]requiresanLDStobecapableofmonitoringpipelinesforleaksintransi
entconditions.Seealso:SteadyState.
TRFL:TechnischeRegelnfrRohrfernleitungsanlagen(TechnicalRulesforPipelines).Germanregu
lationrequiringLDSsforpipelines.AppliestomostliquidandgaspipelinesinGermany.Seealso:
APIRP1130.
TurbineMeter:Flowmeasuringdevicewitharotorthatsensethevelocityofflowingfluidinaclosed
conduit.Belongstovolumetricflowmeters.Seealso:CoriolisMassMeter,Flowmeter,Orifice
Plate,PositiveDisplacementMeter,UltrasonicMeter,andVolumetricFlowmeter.
UltrasonicMeter:Flowmeasuringdevicebasingonthemeasurementoftimedelaysofultrasonic
impulses.BelongstovolumetricFlowmeters.Seealso:CoriolisMassMeter,Flowmeter,Orifice
Plate,PositiveDisplacementMeter,TurbineMeter,andVolumetricFlowmeter.
B Definitions
63
U(Continued)
UltrasonicMeter:Flowmeasuringdevicebasingonthemeasurementoftimedelaysofultrasonic
impulses.BelongstovolumetricFlowmeters.Seealso:CoriolisMassMeter,Flowmeter,Orifice
Plate,PositiveDisplacementMeter,TurbineMeter,andVolumetricFlowmeter.
UncompensatedMassBalance:Massbalancemethodwithoutcompensationforchangeofmass
inventoryinapipeline.Seealso:LineBalance,MassBalance,CompensatedMassBalance,and
VolumeBalance.
VirtualFlow:Unmeasuredflowatsubstationsboundedbytwosegments,calculatedbythePipeline
Observersofthesesegments.Seealso:PipelineObserver,SectionalMonitoring.
VirtualPipeline:Synonym:PipelineObserver.
VolumeBalance:Specialformofmassbalancewheredensityatinletandoutletareequalsothat
volumeimbalancesummedupoverasufficientlongtimeisideallyzeroforleakfreepipelines.
Anotherapproachistoconsidertheimbalancefortheleakfreepipelineandtousestatistical
methodstodetectchangesintheimbalancecausedbyaleak.Seealso:LineBalance,MassBal
ance,CompensatedMassBalance,UncompensatedMassBalance,andVolumeBalance.
VolumetricFlowmeter:Flowmeterwhereflowismeasuredasvolumeflow.Todeterminemass
flowthedensityofthefluidsneedstobeknown;flowcomputerarenormallyusedforthispur
pose.Seealso:Flowmeter,FlowComputer.
AbouttheAuthor
64
AbouttheAuthor
GerhardGeigerwasborn1954inKaufbeuren,Germany,graduatedfromtheUniversityofDarmstadt
in1979,andwasawardedaPhDin1985forhisworkonanewapproachtotechnicaldiagnostics.He
cofoundedanengineeringcompanyactiveinthefieldofmicroelectronicsandautomationin1987,
andremainedCEOuntil1995.Herehewasresponsiblefordevelopment,salesandmarketingof
pipelineleakdetectionsystems,amongotherthings.Hewasappointedtoaprofessorshipatthe
WestphalianUniversityGelsenkirchen(Germany)in1995.Sincethen,themainfocusofhisworkhas
beenmodelbasedpipelineleakdetectionmethods.Hehaspublishedmorethan50articlesabout
leakdetection,anddevelopedtheExtendedRealTimeTransientModel(ERTTM)technology.
In1998,ProfessorGeigerandKROHNEMesstechnikinDuisburgstartedaclosecooperation.Togeth
er,theydevelopedKROHNE'sverysuccessfulPipePatrolleakdetectionsystemfamilybasedonE
RTTMtechnology.

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GerhardGeiger,Prof.Dr.Ing.

Symbol Meaning SIUnit

Symbol Meaning SIUnit

Complexity Static Dynamic

AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

Complexity Static Dynamic

AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

Complexity Static Dynamic

AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

Complexity Static Dynamic

AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

Complexity Static Dynamic

AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

Complexity Static Dynamic

AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

Complexity Static Dynamic

AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

Complexity Static Dynamic Pumping Dynamics AlarmThreshold Liquid Gas

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