INDEX: KEY DIAGRAM INTRODUCTION TO SUBSTATION TRANSFORMER CURRENT TRANSFORMER FUSE ISOLATOR LIGHTENING AREESTOR POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT

CIRCUIT BREAKER BUS BAR CAPACITOR BANK

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OR KEY DIAGRAM:- A Single Line Diagram

(SLD) of an Electrical System is the Line Diagram of the concerned Electrical System which

includes all the required ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT connection sequence wise from the point of entrance of Power up to the end of the scope of the mentioned Work

EQUIPMENTS SHOWN IN SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

As these feeders enter the station they are to pass through various instruments. The instruments have their usual functioning. They are as follows in the single line diagram. Current transformer Isolators with earth switch Circuit breaker Bus bar Potential transformer Isolator Current transformer Circuit breaker Lightening arrestors Transformer

A capacitor bank attached to the bus.

INTRODUCTION TO SUB STATION:-

An power substation is a subsidiary

station of an electricity generation, transmission and distribution system where voltage is

transformed from high or medium to low or the reverse using transformers. Electric power flows through several substations between generating plant and consumer changing the voltage level in several stages. A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage with decreasing current, while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage with increasing the current for domestic and commercial distribution. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. Substations usually contain transformers in order to change voltage levels; they are connected to a "bus" via a circuit breaker. Specifically, substations are used for some or all of the following purposes: connection of generators, transmission or distribution lines, and loads to each other; transformation of power from one voltage level to another; interconnection of alternate sources of power; switching for alternate connections and isolation of failed or overloaded lines and equipment; controlling system voltage and power flow; reactive power compensation; suppression of over voltage; and detection of faults, monitoring, recording of information, power measurements, and remote communications. Minor distribution or transmission equipment installation is not referred to as a substation. Substations generally contain one or more transformers and have switching, protection and control equipment. The 66 KV OCM substation is situated opposite to OCM Mill has its incoming from 132 KV Naraingarh substation. It can step down voltage to 11 KV according to the load demand and give to different outgoing feeders.

TRANSFORMER:-

An electrical transformer is a device for stepping down, stepping

up or isolating AC voltages or AC currents. A transformer usually consists of a primary coil and one or more secondary coils wound around a common core. The core is generally iron or directional silicon steel for low frequencies. Ferrite cores are used in high frequency applications,

and air cores are used in very high frequency transformers. The output signal obtained from an AC transformer generally has the same wave-shape as the voltage or current being measured. However, the transformers introduce measurement errors of amplitude, phase and wave-shape due to frequency range limitations.

BASIC PRINCIPLE:The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil. Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both primary and secondary coils.

INDUCTION LAW:The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic field strength B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage

PROPERTIES OF TRANSFORMER:Transformers have many properties due to construction. The Ideal transformer is lossless. An ideal transformer is shown below. N1 and N2 are the number of turns of each winding, e1 and e2 are the input and output voltages, and is the flux.

When a load is attached to the output, the currents are represented by i1 and i2.

Primary Induced Electro Magnetic Force (E.M.F.) is and the Secondary E.M.F is The transformation ratio (a) of the Transformer is defined by

the

turns

ratio:

The Voltage and current relationship is: The changing Flux relationship , where which is the angular is the time of the measurement, and

frequency in radians/second, is the power line frequency, is the magnetizing Flux density.

The Load Impedances is defined as:

CURRENT TRANSFORMER:- Current transformers are basically used to take the

readings of the currents entering the substation. The instrument current transformer (CT) steps down the current of a circuit to a lower value and is used in the same types of equipment as a potential transformer. This is done by constructing the secondary coil consisting of many turns of

wire, around the primary coil, which contains only a few turns of wire. In this manner, measurements of high values of current can be obtained. A current transformer should always be short-circuited when not connected to an external load. Because the magnetic circuit of a current transformer is designed for low magnetizing current when under load, this large increase in magnetizing current will build up a large flux in the magnetic circuit and cause the transformer to act as a step-up transformer, inducing an excessively high voltage in the secondary when under no load. This transformer steps down the current from 800 amps to 1 amp. This is done because we have no instrument for measuring of such a large current. The main use of this transformer is (a) distance protection; (b) backup protection; (c) measurement.

FUSE:-

Fuse blows out on short circuits, over current etc. Thus, they limit over current and

protect power apparatus. An enormous variety of fuses are available today. Fuses are characterized by thermal and interrupting characteristics. Thermal characteristic are quite intuitive and relate to the following. -current rating -melting characteristics Interrupting characteristics refer to :-voltage rating -interrupting rating Fuse refers to a device that opens a circuit with fusible part, which is heated and severed by current flowing through it. The fusible part is also called the Element. When current flows in a fuse, heat is generated and its element temperature rises. If the current within(less or equal to) its continuous rated value, then the new steady state temperature is such that fuse does not melt. However, if the current has sufficient magnitude, the higher current will lead to the fuse element to melt before the steady state temperature conditions are achieved. After melting, the fuse must interrupt the current. It should be obvious that larger magnitude currents will lead to higher power dissipation (I2R) and hence faster rise in temperature. This would imply that melting time of the fuse should be inversely proportional to magnitude of square of current. The relationship between the magnitude of the

current that causes melting and the time needed for it to melt is given by the fuses melting time current characteristics (TCC).

ISOLATOR:- Isolators are used to isolate the incoming high voltage or the high incoming
current from the incoming feeder which enters the bus. The isolator prevents damage to the instruments by just isolating the line current or the voltage. The rotating isolator has triple pole construction and shall be suitable for Horizontal upright mounting. Each pole consist of galvanized steel base, solid core or post type insulators of reputed make, EC grade copper fix and moving contacts. G.I. coupling pipe of adequate length for rotating operation, required length of G.I. pipe for operation from ground level and operating handle is specially design for smooth operation. Adjustable pins are provided to limit over travel of moving post. Ferrous parts are hot dip galvanized and non-ferrous parts are heavily tinned to withstand weather.

FEATURES:

Low Contact resistance through the life of switch. Sturdy design of current carrying parts. Smooth and trouble free operation.

OPERATION:- The handle, fabricated from channel, lever and turned pipe gripper, are
designed for smooth, sturdy and trouble free operation. The handle is provided with locking arrangement in both ON and OFF position.

LIGHTENING ARRESTOR:- Lightening arrestors are used to prevent the lightening

from damaging the instruments in the substation. Lightening arrestors are the instrument that are used in the incoming feeders so that to prevent the high voltage entering the main station. This high voltage is very dangerous to the instruments used in the substation. Even the instruments are very costly, so to prevent any damage lightening arrestors are used. The lightening arrestors do not let the lightening to fall on the station. If some lightening occurs the arrestors pull the lightening and ground it to the earth. In any substation the main important is of protection which is firstly done by these lightening arrestors. The lightening

arrestors are grounded to the earth so that it can pull the lightening to the ground. The lightening arrestor works with an angle of 30 to 45 making a cone. Lightening arrestors can resist or ground the lightening if falls on the incoming feeders. The lightening arrestors can work in a angle of 30 degrees around them. They are mostly used for protection of the instruments used in the substation. As the cost of the instrument in the station are very high to protect them from high voltage from lightening these lightening arrestors are used.

Fig. Lightening arrestor It is a device used on electrical power systems to protect the insulation on the system from the damaging effect of lightning.

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER:- The instrument potential transformer (PT) steps

down voltage of a circuit to a low value that can be effectively and safely used for operation of instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters, and relays used for various protective purposes. There are two potential transformers used in the bus connected both side of the bus. The potential transformer uses a bus isolator to protect itself. The main use of this transformer is to measure the voltage through the bus. This is done so as to get the detail information of the voltage passing through the bus to the instrument. There are two main parts in it (a) Measurement. (b) Protection.

Potential Transformer is designed for monitoring single-phase and three-phase power line voltages in power metering applications. The primary terminals can be connected either in line-to-line or in line-to-neutral configuration. Fused transformer models are designated by a suffix of "F" for one fuse or "FF" for two fuses. A Potential Transformer is a special type of transformer that allows meters to take readings from electrical service connections with higher voltage (potential) than the meter is normally capable of handling without at potential transformer.

CIRCUIT BREAKER:-

The circuit breakers are used to break the circuit if any fault

occurs in any of the instrument. These circuit breaker breaks for a fault which can damage other instrument in the station. For any unwanted fault over the station we need to break the line current. This is only done automatically by the circuit breaker. In this substation oil circuit breaker is used.In oil circuit breakers, the arc is drawn in oil. The intense heat of the arc decomposes the oil, generating high pressure that produces a fluid flow through the arc to carry energy away. At transmission voltages below 345 kV, oil breakers used to be popular. In minimum oil circuit breakers the contacts are separated in an insulating housing (interrupter) filled with dielectric oil. MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more than 100 A. Its tripping characteristics normally not adjustable.

BUS BAR:-

A conductor or an assembly of conductors for collecting electric currents and

distributing them to outgoing feeders. In electrical power distribution, a bus bar is a strip of Copper or Aluminium that conducts electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation or other electrical apparatus. The size of the bus bar determines the maximum amount of current that can be safely carried. Bus bars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes allow heat to dissipate more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio. The skin effect makes 5060 Hz AC bus bars more than about 8 mm (1/3 in) thick inefficient, so hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in higher current applications. A hollow section has higher stiffness than a solid rod of equivalent current-carrying capacity, which allows a greater span between bus bar supports in outdoor switchyards.

CAPACITOR BANK:- The capacitor banks are used across the bus so that the voltage
does not gets down till the require place.

CAPACITOR CONTROL
It is usually done to achieve as many as possible of the following goals: Reduce losses due to reactive load current, reduce KVA demand, decrease customer energy consumption, improve voltage profile, and increase revenue. Indirectly capacitor control also results in longer equipment lifetimes because of reduced equipment stresses. Experience shows that switched feeder capacitors produce some of the fastest returns on equipment investment.

SOURCES OF ENERGY LOSSES

Energy losses in transmission lines and transformers are of two kinds: resistive and reactive. The former are caused by resistive component of the load and cannot be avoided. The latter, coming from reactive component of the load, can be avoided (Fig. 1). Reactive losses come from circuit capacitance (negative) and circuit inductance (positive). When a heavy inductive load is connected to the power grid, a large positive reactive power component is added, thereby increasing observed power load (Fig. 1). This increases losses due to reactive load current, increases KVA demand, increases customer energy consumption, usually degrades voltage profiles, and reduces revenue.

REACTIVE COMPENSATION
When capacitors of appropriate size are added to the grid at appropriate locations, the above mentioned losses can be minimized by reducing the reactive power component in Fig. 1, thereby reducing the observed power demand. There are many aspects to this compensation and its effects, depending on where capacitors get to be located, their sizes, and details of the distribution circuit. Some are discussed below.

ENERGY LOSS REDUCTION

More than one half of system energy loss is caused by the resistance of the feeders. To minimize energy losses it is, therefore, important to locate feeder capacitors as close to the loads as possible. Substation capacitors cannot do the job - the reactive load current has already heated feeder conductors downstream from the substation. Reducing reactive current at the substation can not recover energy losses in the feeders. Another way to minimize energy losses is to use capacitor banks that are not too large. This makes it possible to put the banks on-line early in the load cycle. Since energy saved is the product of power reduction and the time the banks are on-line, the overall energy reduction is usually greater than when using large banks which are turned on for shorter amounts of time (Fig. 2).

TYPES OF CONTROL
VAR control is the natural means to control capacitors because the latter adds a fixed amount of leading VAR to the line regardless of other conditions, and loss reduction depends only on reactive current. Since reactive current at any point along a feeder is affected by downstream capacitor banks, this kind of control is susceptible to interaction with downstream banks. Consequently, in multiple capacitor feeders, the furthest downstream banks should go on-line first, and off-line last. VAR controls require current sensors. Current control is not as efficient as VAR control because it responds to total line current, and assumptions must be made about the load power factor. Current controls require current sensors. Voltage control is used to regulate voltage profiles. however it may actually increase losses and cause instability from highly leading currents. Voltage control requires no current sensors.

Temperature control is based on assumptions about load characteristics. Control effectiveness depends on how well load characteristics are known. Not useful in cases where those characteristics change often. Temperature control does not require any current sensors. Time control is based on assumptions about load characteristics. Control effectiveness depends on how well load characteristics are known. Not useful in cases where those characteristics change often. Time control does not require any current sensors. Power factor control is not the best way to control capacitor banks because power factor by itself is not a measure of reactive current. Current sensors are needed. Combination control using various above methods is usually the best choice. If enough current, and/or other sensors are available, a centrally managed computerized capacitor control system taking into account the variety of available input parameters can be most effective, though expensive to implement.