Development of the coach-athlete relationship in the course of a career Roberta Antonini Philippe & Roland Seiler Semantic consideration

of the word to train (French: entraner) leads us to investigate the original meaning of the term. The various definitions, as set out in the dictionary, are interesting because of their powerful connotations. First of all, in its most literal sense, to train (entraner) means to carry/drag along. It also means to influence anothers feelings, and finally to be the cause of something or have a certain consequence. Logically, then, a trainer/coach is someone who acts somewhat violently on the body, as well as influencing the mind, the purpose of this dual action being to achieve improved performance. Some definitions refer to the trainers technique, his task in planning and programming the athletes efforts: to exercise another person, to prepare him methodically. The trainer/coach is therefore an organizer and teacher. For this reason, he needs to have a hold over the athletes he trains: the capacity to lead, to direct, to manage, to urge on. Other definitions draw on military metaphors. The coachs role in this case is to mould the athlete, adopting a very directive approach: to toughen up, to season, to harden. Various definitions also emphasize the emotional dimension of the relationship: to persuade, to charm, to conquer, to seduce (Lvque, 2005). In other words, the coach takes advantage of his close relationship with the athlete to charm and lead him towards the shared ideal of [enhanced] performance. It is this facet of the relationship that we intend to analyze. It was not until the late 1970s that coach-athlete interactions in sport received scientific attention. Conceptually and empirically the majority of research has maintained a steady momentum in areas such as coach leadership (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978), and coach behaviours (Smith, Smoll, & Hunt, 1977). Subsequently, researchers called for further investigation (e.g., Iso-Ahola, 1995; Wylleman, 2000). Wylleman (2000) argued that the lack of empirical evidence is due to several reasons. First, because interpersonal relationships do not belong to one single scientific discipline but are rather situated at the crossroads of various scientific fields. The second reason involves the conceptualization of this relationship: the manner in which the relationship between the coach and the athlete becomes the central and exclusive focus, without diverting attention to other relationship members engaged in the performance of sport (e.g. parents, spouses). The third reason is methodological in that until recently there was a lack of suitable psychometric instruments available to researchers (for a 1

recently developed scale, see Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2004). Lastly, the study of relationships is a delicate area as it targets relationship members innermost feelings and thoughts, and ethical issues, such as confidentiality, are also implicated. Recently, Jowett and colleagues (Jowett, 2003; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett & Meek, 2000) have undertaken to analyze the relationship, conducting qualitative studies to investigate its principal components. They came up with initially three subsequently four constructs: closeness, co-orientation, complementarity and commitment (i.e., according to the authors, affective attachment, the sharing of knowledge and understanding, and finally cooperative actions and interactions). However, the results of a study by Antonini Philippe & Seiler (2006) show that a number of responses could not be classified along the three a priori dimensions. In addition, the assignment of these three domains or constructs to emotional, cognitive and behavioural aspects of the relationship as proposed by Jowett and Meek (2000) proves to be difficult. Consequently, the conceptual framework may require further development. In the present study, the authors propose to build on theoretical assumptions about interpersonal relations using the action theory developed by Nitsch and Hackfort (1984). Nitsch and Hackforts (1984) model of social relations provides a useful framework from which to study the coach-athlete relationship. Nitsch and Hackfort distinguished three distinct dimensions of social relations: The power dimension is defined through authority and accountability; the co-operation dimension through the distribution of tasks; and the dimension of bonds through sympathy and antipathy (p. 156, translated by R.A.P.). It was argued that conflicts in the interaction between members may result from differences in one or more of these dimensions. According to the Nitsch and Hackfort model, the relationship is based on an underpinning agreement, which has both intentional and instrumental aspects. The intentional aspect implies a mutual agreement and acceptance of the goals and purposes of the interaction process; the instrumental aspect implies mutual agreement and acceptance of the conditions under which the interaction takes place. Each of these two aspects of the interaction contains two sub-aspects: the intentional aspect is composed of interaction purpose (intended effects of the interaction) and interaction themes (restricting the possible contents of the interaction). The instrumental aspect is composed of interaction principles (providing a theoretical underpinning for the interaction) and interaction rules (defining the interaction in a more concrete way). This conceptualization was utilized by Seiler, Kevesligeti, and Valley (1999) to investigate the social relations between coaches and their athletes. Interviews with 15 female athletes and their respective coaches revealed that social relations included both intentional aspects (interaction 2

purpose and interaction themes) and instrumental aspects (interaction principles and interaction rules). Mutual agreement and acceptance of goals and conditions were important components of the coach-athlete relationship. The coach-athlete relationship is a very complex phenomenon which influences, and is influenced by, a number of variables. This interactivity needs to be taken into account but, for the purposes of this study, it seems to us more important to describe its development. First, we used interviews to explore the development of the coach-athlete relationship. Secondly, we analyzed underlying factors in relation to the four dimensions of the action theory. Method Participants In conducting this study, we investigated the dyad [i.e. the partnership between coach and athlete] as a whole. Eight swimmers (4 males and 4 females) and two coaches (1 male and 1 female) from the Swiss national swimming team volunteered to participate in the study. The choice of these subjects was made on the basis of their level of expertise. All eight athletes held international titles; these criteria ensured that participants were and still are the best athletes in Switzerland. The mean age of the athletes was 18.6 (SD = 3.1), that of the coaches 46.0 (SD = 5.7). To guarantee anonymity the athletes were assigned the letter A and the numbers 1-8 were used to identify them. The coaches were assigned the letter C and the numbers 1 and 2. Instrumentation The study was based on non-directive interviews. Each interview started with an introductory section composed of ten questions covering demographic details and information such as number of training hours and length of relationship with coach. A question was then asked going straight to the heart of the matter: What type of relationship do you have with your coach / swimmer? Since the purpose of the study was to investigate the development of this relationship, we asked about the nature of the relationship from their first meeting right up to the time of the interview. The final question was: What has really changed in your relationship? Procedures On consenting to participate in the study, each participant was interviewed separately. The interviews began with a presentation of the study objectives. The study was presented as an investigation into the nature of the relationship between the coach and the athlete. Permission to 3

record and transcribe the interviews was obtained from all participants. The interviews took place at a sports institute where the Swiss national swimming team stayed over a weekend to carry out activities such as physical tests and career planning. The interviews were scheduled to accommodate the teams main activities and lasted over sixty minutes. Due to the cultural background of Switzerland as a multi-lingual country, the interviews were conducted in either French or German, the choice of language depending on the participants preference. Data analysis After verbatim transcription, situations and generalizations concerning coach-athlete interactions were selected. The first author segmented the swimmers' responses into phrases or statements with a single thematic aspect. Subsequently, a number of sub-domains and themes were created based on the collected data and using a deductive-inductive content analysis mode (Bardin, 1991). Several measures were taken to establish the validity and consistency of the data. Agreement was reached concerning the number and designation of sub-categories by two researchers with experience in qualitative methods. The small numbers of participants in this study, limited of course by the relatively few swimmers active at this competitive level, required the use of a case study style analysis of the data. 3. Findings Six principal categories were examined during the analysis. First category Development of the type of relationship: from functional to personal
Functional Confidence Admiration Appreciation Behaviour Adaptation Complementarity Personal Friendship Love Examples The admiration I had for him has changed into a kind of feeling of love, dating from the time when we became much closer to each other. (A1) I had to adapt to his behaviour, to his style It took time for us to get to know each other, and then it was no longer a question of adaptation since there was unity between us. (A3) Table 1. Development of the type of relationship

Affect

The transition from a functional type of relationship to a more personal one is based essentially on developments in two sub-categories: the sub-category we refer to as affect and the subcategory of behaviour. Where the first of these sub-categories is concerned, deepening feelings between athlete and coach lead to the development of affects, with confidence and admiration leading to friendship and even love. So, from an activity-based relationship develops one which is much more personal. Both members of the dyad testify to the change in the type of relationship, which becomes increasingly based on feelings. For example, one coach said: In the beginning, I saw him as just a good swimmer whom I appreciated for his technical qualities, but over time deeper feelings emerged. (C1). These feelings become more and more intimate with the result that, for some swimmers, their coach occupies a very important place in their lives. In this case, the coach is not so much a teacher of performance-related skills; his role becomes important in the personal development of the athlete. Similarly, the woman coach asserted that one swimmer had become part of her family: He often comes to our house for dinner we exchange text messages almost every day. (C2). This growth in positive feelings is important not only in building a social relationship but also in improving performance. The second sub-category is concerned with behaviours which belong initially to the field of technique and are the province of the coach: He is the one with the knowledge that will help me to swim better, and in the beginning I had to just listen to him and adapt (A4). It is in the functional domain that adaptive behaviour is most evident, the essential thing being to follow what the coach tells the athlete with a view to improving his performance. As time goes by, the swimmers say that they have become increasingly expert in terms of performance and do not really need the coach in order to improve physically or technically. Rather, they need him more as a person, in the private sphere: Even though I know I could train on my own, I still need him; he is an integral part of my life (A2). Athlete and coach trainer relate increasingly in the personal sphere and see themselves as complementing each other. This complementarity enables the two to feel increasingly close as they strive for improved performance, not only in the field of training but above all in the private sphere. Second category Mode of cooperation: from prescriptive to cooperative
Communication Objective Prescriptive Monologue Cooperative Dialogue Examples Over time, we came to have a dialogue, not just one-way communication! (A8) Its much more motivating for me if we decide on the seasons objectives together. (A1)

Set by the coach Decided on together

Support/Assistance Respect for

Verbal exchange Problem solving Now when I have a problem, he helps me to solve Imposed (Coach) Freely (Athlete) it. Before, that was impossible. (A6) chosenI comply all the more willingly, having decided to perform the tasks myself. (A3)

tasks Table 2. Mode of cooperation

The need to establish communication based on dialogue, with shared objectives, assistance and respect for tasks, is of vital importance. The mode of cooperation therefore progresses from a prescriptively defined one, with everything directed by the coach, to a more shared form of cooperation involving both partners. Evidence of this was provided by both parties. The swimmer emphasizes the importance of the coachs communication skills. The ideal coach is seen as someone with a great capacity for listening, and so the mode of cooperation between athlete and coach becomes a truly cooperative one based on dialogue involving a great deal of sharing. The feeling that the style of communication has changed is shared by both partners. Indeed, the participants in the study affirm that, in the beginning, their communication was geared mainly to achieving improved performance (technical instructions, advice intended to solve problems inherent in the activity, etc.). As the relationship progressed, communication tended increasingly to become a personal and sometimes intimate - exchange between the members of the dyad: It was always him who told us what to do. We were very rarely allowed to give our opinion Now the opposite is true: we take an active part in the exchange. We have a dialogue, not only about swimming but about lots of other things. (A5). The affective dimension of this sharing is increasingly in evidence. Instructions strictly linked to the activity itself are set aside in favour of an ever closer relationship. According to the coaches, the technical instructions themselves have changed: at the beginning of the relationship, they were strict and precise, with the coach not allowing the swimmer any room for manoeuvre. They were given in the form of orders, the coach having the know-how and wanting to imprint it on his athlete. This is a uni-directional way of working. As the relationship develops, after several years of working together, this way of conveying know-how changes, with more emphasis on the integration of the athlete himself. Now I increasingly involve my swimmers in the achievement of the tasks they have to perform; cooperation is important. (C2). The swimmer occupies an increasingly important place in the build-up of know-how; he therefore participates increasingly in the build-up of his own performance. These remarks apply equally to the objectives to be achieved, which at the beginning of the relationship are set and imposed by the coach, but over time come to be decided on together. Both parties in the dyad take an active part in setting the objectives. Things have changed a lot.

It is no longer she who decides what result I must achieve in the course of the season; I now play an integral part in the planning (A6). In the category referred to as support/assistance, the coach plays a vital role in helping to solve problems. According to the swimmers, at the beginning of the relationship only verbal exchanges were possible, understood here as discussion. Genuine help on the part of the coach has to be worked towards over time. Only as the years go by do the swimmers feel they are really helped by their coach: Only now does my coach help me when I have problems In the past, our discussions were far more superficial As time has gone by, I often find myself thanking him; I now know what to do. (A8). Where respect for tasks is concerned, both partners agree that the athlete accepts them all the more willingly if he has chosen to respect them: I myself decide what I must do and what I want to do! I am no longer doing what the coach wants, but what I want. Of course, that is always in accordance with the objectives we have set together, or almost. (A7). Results show a major change where respect for tasks is concerned. Everything which before was imposed by the coach, even though put into practice by the athlete, is no longer imposed by the coach as there has been a big change in the way he cooperates with the swimmer. He has understood that it is no longer necessary to impose, as the swimmer is capable of fulfilling tasks without having them imposed on him.

Third category Change in goals

Activity Apprenticeship/learn Useable in the ing Performance activity Sporting success Well-being Maturity Understanding Examples Now we know why we are doing it. The final goal is no longer to do what he teaches us but also to understand why. (A6) The most important thing was always the stop-watch, being able to swim faster. As time has gone by, feeling good about myself, having good feelings, has become a factor alongside performance. (A7) Table 3. Change in goals

Development towards maturity in the terms of the goals one sets oneself is represented by two sub-categories: apprenticeship/learning and performance. Learning-related or performance-orientated behaviour patterns tend towards maturity as the swimmer assumes increasing responsibility for what he is doing. Goals change. Indeed, this phase is characterized by growing understanding of the activity on the part of the swimmer (both the physical and the psychological factors). So, when the swimmer learns something new, he is also able to understand it: Before I did what he told me because I had to; now I am convinced of the reason I understand the point of it (A6). This is also true from the coachs point of view: Only when he understands the thing he is doing can he do it effectively (C1). His increased understanding of the activity enables the swimmer to ascribe greater legitimacy to what he is doing and to achieve better results. The performance sub-category is concerned with the achievement of personal well-being on the part of the athlete. Sporting success goes beyond just beating the clock, achieving good results. Good feelings assume primary importance: A good performance is when I feel good about myself. Of course, that often goes hand in hand with a good result, but not always (A1). Achieving a good result of course remains the main consideration, but the swimmers seem to ascribe increasing importance to good feelings, for example the feeling that I have swum well (A8).

Fourth category Development of values

Specific In the activity Transposable Applicabl e to other fields Conduct Conduct training/ competition Table 4. Development of values inConduct in life Examples In the beginning everything revolved around the technique of swimming, training methods. Then he taught us lots of other things applicable to other situations. (A4) Everything I have learned, such as the need for being strict with oneself in training, always giving of ones best, has been useful to me in daily life. (A7)

Norm

The development of values moves from the specific and restricted field of swimming to a much broader sphere. The values learnt in training can be transposed to the situations of daily life. In this category, we distinguish two sub-categories: norms and conduct. Where norms are concerned, our subjects affirm that the content specific to the field of swimming can be transposed to other fields and to the situations of daily life: Everything our coach teaches us has an application beyond swimming itself. For example, regarding the rules that govern training, you soon realize they are also valid in the relationship you have with a boyfriend or girlfriend, one way or another (A7). The swimmers realize that the world of swimming is just a springboard enabling them to take off into wider fields, with their acquired baggage. As the coach-swimmer relationship develops, this baggage, rich in content specific to the world of swimming, becomes applicable in many other fields. The other sub-category, referred to as conduct, exhibits a similar tendency. Here, the swimmers assert that everything they have learned regarding correct behaviour (rigour, discipline, etc.) in the context of training and competition has been useful in teaching them about life. In this case, the coach serves as an exemplary figure, setting an example to be followed even in the personal sphere. Everything you do, you must always do to the best of your ability, was what my coach always taught me. If you train to your utmost, you will win And thats also true of everyday life: you must always give of your best (A6). The swimmers claim to have learned things useful for their personal progress, in the family context, in professional life, and in other areas. Fifth category Role of the trainer
Technician role Autocratic Imposed Supportive Free Examples I had to swim the way he wanted; now I can choose.

Organizing role Leadership role

Imposed

Shared

(A1) At training camp, she decided who I should share a room with; now she also takes my opinion into account. (A3) He decided everything, and sometimes it was hard to accept. Now I feel I am master of the situation. (A8)

Imposed

Accepted / Reversed

Table 5. Role of the trainer

Tasks relating to technique, organization and leadership tend to take on increasingly flexible forms. There is progress from an autocratic style of leadership on the part of the coach to a more supporting role, in which the athlete enjoys greater freedom. The sub-categories technician role, organizing role and leadership role have been formulated bearing in mind the accounts of both partners coach and swimmer - in this performance-orientated relationship. In the technical sphere, where he was the sole repository of knowledge, the coach gives greater freedom to his swimmer and, at the same time, shows greater trust in him/her: Before, I gave the orders on how she should swim, but as time went by I realized this was pointless She needs to be able to express herself as she wishes and, above all, as she feels to do I have learned that the swimmer needs to be able to express his/her feelings in the water. Thats the only way he/she will swim well. (C1) The coach retains his role as technician, but no longer imposes his authority. Rather, he makes it available to his swimmers, who are now at liberty to take from him what they need. His role as organizer and leader also progresses from being imposed to being freely accepted. The coach is no longer the one who decides everything, but shares these tasks with the athlete: With time, I perceived that I was giving my swimmer more freedom; I involve him in the organization of various things (C2). The coachs mission is not based solely on achieving the principal objective: making progress and improving performance. Over time, his mission comes to have two distinct aspects. The coach ceases to concentrate solely on planning and supervising training, managing the tasks associated with organizing training sessions and competitions, and focuses more on the person of the athlete, taking into account the individuality of each swimmer and his or her expectations. The coach learns to devote more time to the second aspect of his mission, i.e. he pays greater attention to the swimmer as a human being and his or her related needs. Sixth category Role of the swimmer
Expertise Dependence Technical Autonomy Freedom Examples In the beginning, I swam the way he wanted; I have

10

dependence Psychological Psychological dependence

in action

greatly changed my swimming style. Now I feel I am

expert in what I do and I no longer need his help. (A2) Assumption ofI always needed him to be present during a competition, psychological to motivate me. For me that was important. During the independence last few years, I have put in some good performances without him being there. I know why I swim and I can provide my own motivation. (A2) My role was to do everything he asked of me; now Im the one who decides: I take my own decisions. (A1)

Responsibility

Obedience

Freedom

Table 6. Role of the swimmer

The swimmer gradually abandons his state of dependence to achieve autonomy. This process can be broken down into the following sub-categories: technical expertise, with the swimmer feeling increasingly capable and master of what he does; assumption of psychological independence; and sense of responsibility, i.e. he does his duty because he considers it advantageous to his own personal development. As far as the expertise sub-category is concerned, the swimmer progresses from technical dependence to autonomy in what he does. He feels he is master of his technique, having attained to a high level of technical precision: I know how I should swim; from a technical point of view, I think I have nothing more to learn (A3). The same observations apply to the swimmers psychological development. With growing experience, he comes to assume psychological independence and is capable of motivating himself, no longer depending on his coach: Even if he is absent (from a competition) it does not matter. I have plenty of determination and I know how to motivate myself (A1). We have given the heading responsibility to the category describing the transition from obedience to freedom. The swimmer becomes autonomous in the sense that he takes responsibility for his decisions. He claims to be responsible for his actions and is no longer willing to accept what is imposed on him by his coach: If I do something, it is because I have decided to do it (A2). The athletes freedom vis--vis his coach emerges and increases over the years. As it develops, it contributes to the athletes sense of psychological well-being. Discussion and conclusion Case studies conducted with Olympic athletes and coaches (Jowett, 2003; Jowett and Cockerill, 2003; Jowett and Meek, 2000a) have shown that the coach-athlete relationship affects athletes in terms of their performance and also as human beings. Moreover, this study shows that both athletes and coaches come under this kind of influence, which is often positive and rich in learning potential. For instance, we can demonstrate that developments within the 11

relationship enable both of those engaged in seeking improved performance to find enrichment in various areas. To gain a better understanding of the coach-athlete relationship and its development we shall rely on the action theory of Nitsch & Hackfort (1984), which exemplifies the four aspects making up a social relationship. Principles of interaction. These are concerned with the respective roles of coach and athlete in the interaction. We would emphasize the principle of unity, understood as the sharing of the personal sphere with ones athlete/coach. Contrary to Seiler et al. (1999), in whose study coaches summarize their relationship with athletes as: Dont come too close to me, but trust me. (Seiler et al., 1999, p. 72), in our study the protagonists emphasize the importance of establishing a more personal style of relationship allowing them to venture into the private sphere. The emergence of more or less intimate feelings in fact leads to a transformation of the relationship, which goes far beyond a straightforward professional one. These results confirm those of earlier studies (Bloom, Durand-Bush, Schinke & Salmela, 1998; Poczwardowski, Sherman & Henschen, 1998; Antonini Philippe & Seiler, 2006). Thus, the transition from a mainly functional type of relationship to a more personal one clearly illustrates this principal of interaction. This principle is also illustrated by the development of the roles of the two protagonists, in which the coach abandons his autocratic role to give greater freedom to the swimmer and allow him to become autonomous. Purpose of interaction. This is clearly illustrated by the categories change in goals and development of values, in which sporting performance ceases to be a simple matter of beating the clock and involves both partners in a quest for well-being. This search for good feelings is associated with understanding, i.e. the swimmers maturity and the extent to which he has assumed responsibility or himself and his actions. Fulfilment of the principle is possible, depending on the qualities of the coach. However, these qualities must go beyond the technical sphere. It is the coachs human and social qualities which make it possible to instil confidence in the athlete regarding his development and to create in him a sense of responsibility. We agree with Crevoisier (1985) that the purposes of the coach-athlete relationship go beyond the field of athletics. The swimmers themselves reported that other related interpersonal qualities of the coach can be instrumental for their development (e.g., coaches capacity to motivate and encourage, to provide support and inculcate a sense of responsibility). Thus, the coachs capacity to provide social support (informational and emotional) seems to facilitate the development of athletic performance (Sarason, Levine, Basham & Sarason, 1983; Sarason,

12

Shearin, Pierce & Sarason, 1987; Rosenfeld, Richman & Hardy, 1989; Antonini Philippe & Seiler, 2006). Rules of interaction. The mode of collaboration category perfectly illustrates this aspect of the interaction between coach and athlete. The rules lose their power and become more flexible, in the sense that coach and athlete cooperate more closely in fulfilling their duties. Verbal exchanges. (Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, Medbery, and Peterson, 1999, Antonini Philippe and Seiler, 2006) demonstrated that effective communication is associated with success in sport. Thus, the coachs capacity to provide social support (informational and emotional) seems to facilitate the development of athletic performance (Sarason, Levine, Basham & Sarason, 1983; Sarason, Shearin, Pierce & Sarason, 1987; Rosenfeld, Richman & Hardy, 1989). Thus, the transition from a prescriptive mode of cooperation to a genuinely cooperative one makes for a form of communication focused on problem solving, the shared setting of objectives, and respect for tasks that have to be performed. Themes of interaction. ?????????????????????????? The aim of our study was to analyze the genesis of relational processes by comparing the points of view of coaches and athletes. Our results enable us to identify a three-fold development in the coach-athlete relationship. Firstly, there is development in cooperation, whereby a functional type of relationship tends towards a more personal one, breaking with the old prescriptive formula and involving genuine cooperation. Thus, a relationship based on sharing of responsibility is sought. The roles of both members of the dyad seem to develop in parallel. Indeed, it is when the coach assumes the status of supporter that the swimmer becomes aware of his autonomy and is eventually capable of working independently. The dynamic of the relationship consists in the acquisition of freedom on the part of the swimmer, enabling him to move into a much more active role in the relationship. Finally, where development in content is concerned, swimmers and coaches claim to have reached a stage of maturity, in which they have learned to transpose their knowledge and skills into much wider areas. It is proposed that, with the aim of developing the theoretical and conceptual framework, further exploratory studies be conducted. Once the theoretical framework is established, comparative investigations should be conducted in which the quality of the coach-athlete relationship is investigated considering other variables, such as the gender composition of the dyad or the different levels of expertise. In conclusion, our study represents a first step in achieving greater

13

understanding of the development of the coach-athlete relationship. This development deserves further investigation with a view to the optimization of athletic performance. References

14