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    Kenneth
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    A fascinating look at the heart, brain, bone, muscle, skin, and much more-told in easy-to-read text and lavishly illustrated in full color.

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    A fascinating look at the heart, brain, bone, muscle, skin, and much more-told in easy-to-read text and lavishly illustrated in full color.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    2K views52 pages

    Human Body, The

    Uploaded by

    Kenneth
    A fascinating look at the heart, brain, bone, muscle, skin, and much more-told in easy-to-read text and lavishly illustrated in full color.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 52

    Your Amazing Body ....................... .

    The Body's Building Blocks .................. .


    Your Skin-Jack of All Trades ................. .
    Your Skeleton-Support and Protection ............ ii
    Teeth-Food Cutters, Crushers, and Grinders ........ ib
    Your Muscles-the Tissue That Moves You .... . . .... iB
    Your Thirty-foot Digestive System ...............
    Lungs-Your Breath of Life ......... . ..... . ... b
    Your Body's Blood Pump ..... . .. . ............ B
    Kidneys-Your Body's Filtration Plant ............. J4
    Brain, Nerves-Your Communication System ........ Jb
    Seeing, Hearing, and Other Senses ............... JJ
    The Endocrine System-Chemical Control .......... 44
    More of a Kind ..... . ....... . . ............ 4b

    A GOLDEN EXPLORING EARTH BOOK


    THE HUMAN BODY
    All about the inside and outside of the body that
    is you. A fascinating look at the heart, brain, bone,
    muscle, skin, and much more-told in easy-to-read
    text and lavishly illustrated in full color .
    By George b. Fichter
    Illustrated by Ralph b. Ricketts
    Cover by Rod Ruth

    GOLDEN PRESS
    B
    WCStCtn FubIShng Oomany, lnC., HaCnC, WISConSIn
    Copyright T by Western Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved.
    No part of this book may be reproduced or copied in any form without
    written permission from the publisher. Printed in U.S.A.
    GOLDEN PRESS, GOLDEN, and A GOLDEN EXPLORING ERTH BOOK are trademarks of
    Western Publishing Company, Inc.
    &
    Your Amazi ng Body
    From thc timc of your birth, and for
    as Iong as you Iivc, your body is ncvcr
    compIctcIy at rcst. Evcry sccond, your
    body is using cncrgy. Moving your arms
    and Icgs takcs cncrgy. Thc bcating of
    your hcart, thc bIinking of your cycIids,
    thc rcading of this bookcvcry kind of
    activity rcquircs at Icast somc cncrgy,
    which comcs from thc food you cat. You
    aIsonccdfoodforgrowingandforrcpair-
    ing your body. What is most amazing is
    how your body providcs cncrgy, growth,
    and rcpairs, using onIy food you cat.
    Your body is composcd of biIIions of
    tiny Iiving units caIIcd ccIIs. Thcrc arc
    many kinds of ccIIs in your body. Thosc
    ccIIs that arc aIikc and work togcthcr
    form tissucs. Tissucs, intum, form Iargcr
    units caIIcd organs. Organs arc groupcd
    intoIargcrunits caIIcd systcms. Togcthcr,
    thc systcms form your body.
    Onc of thcsc systcms is thc skin, thc
    protcctivc outcr covcring of thc body. In
    addition, thcskinaIsocontainsimportant
    gIands, scrvcs as a pIacc for thc storagc
    offoodrcscrvcs,hcIpstorcguIatcthcbody
    tcmpcraturc, and contains many ncrvc
    cndings that rcspond to touch, prcssurc,
    pain, hcat, and coId.
    Thc skcIctaI systcmthc boncs of your
    bodygivcsyourbodyitsshapcandform.
    It protccts vitaI parts, such as your brain,
    hcart, and Iungs, and it givcs anchoragc
    nd Icvcragc for aII thc musclcs you usc
    . .
    m movmg.
    hc uscur yscm consists of scv-
    craI typcs of muscIcs. Thosc attachcd di-
    rcctIy to thc big boncs of your skcIcton,
    as inthc arms andIcgs, canbc movcd at
    wiII. OthcrmuscIcsarcthin,eIasticshccts
    that hcIp givc your body itsrmncssand
    J
    -
    shape. Still others, such as the heart, do
    t t automatically. You have no
    control over them.
    In the digestive system, foods are
    changed into simpler forms that can be
    used by the body. The principal parts of
    this system are the mouth, stomach, and
    intestines.
    The lungs, windpipe, and parts of the
    nose and throat form the respiratory sys
    tem. Its job is to provide the blood with
    oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, a
    waste gas.
    The circulatory system consists of the
    heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, and blood.
    This system carries the oxygen and food
    substances to cells throughout the body.
    It also carries away waste products from
    the cells.
    Wastes are removed from the body by
    the excretory system. Many wastes are re
    moved from the blood by the kidneys.
    The lungs and the skin also eliminate
    wastes, and solid wastes pass from the
    digestive tract.
    The brain, spinal cord, and nerves make
    up the nervous system. This is the complex
    communications network with which you
    see, hear, taste, touch, and sense your
    surroundings. Also, the brain is capable
    of thinking and remembering. Without
    these abilities, you would not be able to
    read this book. Scientists feel that the
    brain is, for many reasons, probably the
    most important organ in the body.
    The endocrine system is sometimes re
    ferred to as the body's chemical control.
    This system is composed entirely of small,
    special glands found in various places in
    your body. The secretions of the glands
    are called hormones, which determine
    your rate of growth and control many oth
    er body activities.
    Finally, the reproductive system makes
    it possible for human beings" to create
    new human beings. It consists of the testes
    in the male and the ovaries and uterus in
    the female.
    These various systems, each composed
    of millions and millions of individual
    cells, work in miraculous harmony to
    keep your body functioning.
    Although we are similar in structure, each of us is a unique person.
    We are made of bi l l i ons of cel l s of
    diferent kinds. Some of them l ook
    cytopl asm
    cel l --
    membrane
    The Body' s Bui l ding Bl ocks
    Alllivingthingsarcorganizcdintovcry
    smalIunitscaIlcdccIIs.ThcsimplcstpIants
    and animals consist ofa singlc cclI. Your
    body is composcd of billions of ccIIs.
    Onc drop of bIood, forcxampIc, contains
    morc than a miIIion rcd bIood ccIIs.
    CcIIs arc composcd principaIIy of pro-
    topIasm, a grayish, cIIyIikc, amazingIy
    compIcx substancc. Many cIcmcnts arc
    invoIvcdinthccompositionofprotopIasm,
    butthcmostcommon arc carbon, hydro-
    gcn, nitrogcn, and oxygcn.
    About scvcnty pcrccnt of protopIasm
    is watcr. Thc ncxi most abundani sub-
    stanccsarcthcdicrcntkindsofprotcins.
    Protcins arc caIIcd thc buiIding bIocks of
    aII Iifc. Sugars, starchcs,andfats, thcoth-
    crmainsubstanccsofprotopIasm,arcthc
    foodsihatthcccIIuscstoproducccncrgy.
    Salts, vitamins, and a numbcr of othcr
    substanccs occur in protopIasm in Icsscr
    and ocn minutc amounts, but thcy arc
    of vitI importancc.
    Most cclIs arc largc cnough to bc sccn
    with an ordinary microscopc. Thc typicaI
    animaI ccII consists of thrcc major parts:
    thc nucIcus, cytopIasm, and mcmbrancs.
    Within thc ccII is found a dcnsc, tiny
    mass of protopIasmthc nuclcus, hcId
    togcthcr by its mcmbranc. Surrounding
    thc nucIcus and making up thc buIk of
    cvcry ccII is a watc protopIasm caIIcd
    cytoplasm. Holding ihc cytoplasm to-
    gcthcrisanoutcrwaII, orccIImcmbranc.
    ThcnucIcusisthccontrolccntcrof thc
    ccII. In it arc a numbcr of sIcndcr, dark
    thrcads caIIcd chromosomcs. Thcsc arc
    composcdofstiIIsmaIIcrunits, thcgcncs.
    J
    A single cell Howa Cell
    Divides |Mitosis
    that about two million red blood cells die
    and are replaced ever second.
    Body cells divide by a process called
    mitosis, which occurs continuously in the
    body. First the chromosome materials in
    the nucleus of the cell become well or
    ganized into distinct threads. Each chromo
    some thread divides and forms identical
    pairs. Then the membrane around the
    nucleus disappears. The pairs of chromo
    somes separate, one from each pair mov-
    Chromosome pairs separate. Nucl eus membranes form; cell divides. Two cel l s
    Genes are so tiny that they cannot be seen
    even when magnifed thousands of times.
    Genes determine the characteristics of the
    cell. These features are passed on when
    the cell divides. They are also passed on
    from parents to their young.
    The cytoplasm contains fats, sugars,
    starches, proteins, salts, and other sub
    stances. In the cytoplasm, too, are bubble
    lke spaces called vacuoles. Some of these
    vacuoles contain foods that will be used
    by the cell. Others contain wastes to be
    eliminated.
    The exact composition of the cytoplasm
    is always changing, for each cell acts like
    a little chemical factory. It accepts raw ma
    terials and converts them into usable sub
    stances, and it eliminates the wastes that
    form. In parts of the body that are grow
    ing or that are replacing themselves as old
    cells die, the cells are dividing constantly.
    In the blood, for example, it is estimated

    ing toward the opposite end of the cell.


    When the chromosomes reach the opposite
    ends of the cell, they form tiny clusters.
    A membrane forms around each cluster,
    forming a new nucleus. A cell wall the
    _
    n
    appears between the two nuclei. Now there
    are two separate cells, each containing an
    exact duplication of the chromosome ma
    terials in the original cell. All this hap
    pens in an hour or less.
    The body is composed of many difer
    ent kinds of cells, each type having a spe
    cial function. Muscle cells have the ability
    to contract or change shape, which makes
    movement possible. Nerve cells receive
    and transmit impulses or stimuli. Gland
    cells produce various kinds of secretions.
    Red blood cells carry large quantities of
    oxygen and release it for use where
    needed. White blood cells absorb and di
    gest disease organisms. So despite their
    similarities in basic composition, the cells

    of thc body dodicrin thcir appcarancc


    and function.
    CcIIs of about thc samc sizc andshapc
    and having thc samc function arc
    groupcd togcthcr to form tissucs. Many
    muscIc ccIIs groupcd togcthcr, for cxam-
    pIc, form muscIc tissuc. Thc groups of
    muscIc ccIIs arc hcId togcthcr by ccIIs of
    anothcr typc that form conncctivc tissuc,
    which is common throughout thc body.
    BIood is a Iiquid tissuc.
    Tissucs form stiIIIargcr, morc compIcx
    units known as organs. Thc hcart, stom-
    ach, Iivcr, and intcstincs arc cxampIcs of
    organs. Most organs consist of scvcraI
    kinds of tissuc, but onc gcncraIIy dom-
    inatcs. Thc brain is principaIIy ncrvc tis-
    suc; thc stomach and thc hcart consist
    mainIy of muscIc tissuc.
    Oroups of organs form body systcms.
    Thc digcstivc systcm consists of thc
    mouth, stomach, thc smaII and Iargc in-
    tcstincs, and various othcr digcstivc or-
    gans, aII working togcthcr to acccpt and
    digcst food.
    So simiIar ccIIs form tissucs that arc
    groupcd togcthcr to formorgans. Organs
    makc upthcsystcms that form thcbody.
    Each ofthc maor systcms of thc body is
    dcscribcd in thc foIIowingchaptcrs.
    A Few of the Many Ki nds of Cells Found in the Body
    gl and cel l s
    (stomach)
    smooth
    muscl e cel l s
    (stomach)
    cel l s
    1
    fatty
    tissue
    Your Skin-Jack of Al l Trades
    Your skin is onc of thc most rcmark-
    abIc of aII thc body systcms. TotaIIy, an
    aduIt's skinwcighsaboutsixpounds,and
    if strctchcd out, itwouId mcasurcscvcraI
    sguarc fcct. It consists of many biIIions
    of ccIIs.
    Yourskincovcrsandprotcctsthccntirc
    outcr surfacc of your body. Ii cvcn cx-
    tcndsinsidcinsomcarcasintoyourcars,
    for instancc. Thc skin is thickcst on thc
    soIcs of your fcct, and it may bc cvcn
    thickcr if you go barcfootcd a Iot.
    Ovcr most of your body, cvcry square
    inch of skin contains many swcat gIands,
    8
    scvcraI dozcn oiI gIands, about thrcc fcct
    of tiny capiIIarics carrying bIood to and
    from thc skin, as many as twcIvc fcct of
    ncrvcs forscnsing hcat, cold, touch, prcs-
    surc, and pain, and many housands of
    skin ccIIs.
    Your skin is composcd of two Iaycrs.
    Thcihinioplaycrisihccpidcrmis,which
    consists mostIyofdcadccIIsthat arccon-
    stantIybcingsIoughcdo.Evcryday,you
    Iosc IitcraIIy milIions of oId skin ccIIs. In
    a Iifctimc, you shcdyour outcr skin scvcn
    or cight timcs, bit by bit. Gctting rid of
    thcsc dcad ccIIs is a naturaI proccss. Thc
    nerve
    bundle
    vcry outcr portion of your skin is aIso
    thcpartthatpccIs owhcnyou sunbum.
    Thc ccIls immcdiatcIy bcncath this Iaycr
    arcaIivcandarcconstantIydividing.Thcy
    providc thc ncw cc|Is that kccp thc skin
    cIcan and bright.
    Sprcad ovcr thc outcr Iaycr of thc skin
    isathinImofoiIthatcomcsfromgIands
    around thc hairs. Somc pcopIc producc
    morc of this oiI than do othcrs. Thc oiI
    acts as a Iubricant tat kccps thc skin
    so, pIiabIc, and watcroof.
    Thc much thickcr Iaycr of skin undcr
    thccpidcrmisis caIIcdthcdcrmis. Itcon-
    tains thc bIood vsscIs, ncrvcs, swcat
    gIands, and conncctivc tissuc that oins
    thc dcrmis to thc cpidcrmis. SmaII raiscd
    arcas, or ridgcs, arc formcd by this con-
    ncctivc tissuc. Thcsc ridgcsarc what givc
    cach pcrson his distinctivc ngcrprints,
    unlikc anyonc cIsc's. Thcsc ridgcs aIso
    contain thc ncrvc cndings for touch and
    simiIar scnsations.
    Whcn you arc hot, you pcrspirc. Morc
    thantwomiIIionIittIcswcatgIadsinyour
    skin pour out liquids. As thc pcrspiration
    cvaporatcs,youarccooIcd.!fyoupcrspirc
    much,youwilIfccIthcnccdforadrinkof
    watcr as your body dcmands a rcpIacc-
    mcntofthclost0uids. !fyoudidnotpcr-
    spirc,yourbodywouIdbccomcovcrhcatcd.
    On cooI days, thc swcat porcs rcmain
    closcd, andyoupcrspirc vcry IittIc or not
    at aII.
    Pcrspiraiionisnotustwatcr,ofcoursc.
    !t aIso contains various wastc saIts, acids,
    and othcr substanccs, most of thcm morc
    or lcss harmful to thc body. Whcn thc
    wat cr cvaporatcs from thc pcrspiration,
    thcscsubstanccsarcIcasasaItyrcsiduc
    on thc surfacc of thc skin.
    You arc aIso cooIcd by thc action of
    thc tiny bIoodvcsscIs inyour skin. Whcn
    you arc hot, thcsc IittIc bIood vcsscIs
    diIatc, or cnIargc, cxposing a grcatcr
    amount of bIood to thc cooIing air. This
    is what makcs you ushcd, or rcd in thc
    facc, whcn you arc hot. In cooI wcathcr,
    thcbIoodvcsscIscontractandrcmaindccp
    in thc skin.
    Thc skin is coIorcd by a pigmcnt
    calIcd mcIanin. PcopIc who havc a Iot of
    mcIanin in thcir skin arc brown to bIack.
    McIanin and anothcr pigmcnt makc a
    rcddish or ycIIowish skin. PcopIcwith Iit-
    tIc or no mcIanin in thcir skin arc whitc
    or cvcn pinkish, if thcir blood vcsscIs
    showthrough.FrcckIcdpcopIchavcspots
    l oop
    arch
    whorl
    Each person has uni que
    fngerprints. However,
    al l fngerpri nts can be
    grouped i nto one of three
    types: arch, whorl , and
    l oop.
    9
    ofmcanininthcirskin.Asuntanncdpcr-
    son has morc than thc usua amount of
    mcanin bccausc thcskin has produccdit
    as a protcction against bumg from thc
    sun's rays.
    McIanin is aIso thc pigmcnt that givcs
    hair its coor. Thc morc mcIanin, thc
    darkcr thc hair. Whcn mcanin is mixcd
    witharcdpigmcnt,thcrcsutsarcvarious
    shadcs of brown. If mcIanin is acking,
    thc hair may bc bIond or rcd.
    Hair consists of thc hair sha, an oiI
    gand, and a tiny muscc that can crcct
    thchairandaIsoforccoifromthcgIand.
    If you bccomc frightcncd, your hair wiII
    When you are fri ghtened1
    hai r muscl es contract,
    causi ng the hair to i
    on end" and "goosf bu
    to form.
    "stand on cnd," or you wi gct "goosc
    bumps" ovcr your body. This happcns
    whcnthcmusccsaroundthcbascsofthc
    hairs contract and tightcn.
    Hairstarts itsgrowth fromspccia ccIIs
    in thc dcrmis. Soon thc ncw hair pushcs
    throughthccpidcrmis, growing ina ittc
    pockct, or tubc,cacd afoIicc. Thchair
    itscIf is a rod of dcad ccIs,but thc basc,
    or root, is Iiving and is suppIicd with
    bIood vcsscs.
    YouprobabIyhavcatIcastaquartcrof
    a miIIionhairs on yourbody. Somc pco-
    pIchavcmorcthanothcrsuptoasmany
    as haIf a miIion. Most of thcsc hairs arc
    vcry sma and whitish; othcrs arc argc.
    Thc hair on your hcad grows about so
    inchcs a ycarmorc than that on somc
    pcopc, Icss onothcrsand a bit fastcr in
    summcr than in wintcr.
    Most hairs arc shcd and rcpaccd at
    rcguIar intcrvaIs. About four ycars is thc
    avcragc cngth of Iifc for a hair on your
    hcad.EycIashcsIastonIyaboutsixmonths.
    Your ngcmaiIs arc asooutgrowthsof
    yourcpidcrmis. ThcoutcrpartofthcnaiI
    is dcad, butthc rootis aIivc and is richy
    suppIicdwithbIoodvcsscs. Itisconstant-
    y producing ncw ccIs and pushing thc
    nail outward. In a hcaIthypcrson,ngcr-
    nails grow about two inchcs a ycar. If
    you ncvcr cut your naiIs, thcy would bc
    about tcn fcct ong by thc timc you
    rcachcd thc agc of sixty!
    Your Skel eton-Support and Protection
    !fyou wcrc givcnthc taskofputting a
    body togcthcr, you wouId start with thc
    boncs. Put togcthcr propcrIy, thcy wouId
    formthcskcIcton,thcframcworkthatsup-
    ports thc body and givcs it shapc.
    Parts of your skcIcton aIso scrvc im-
    portantIy as protcction for dcIicatc parts
    of yourbody. Yourbrain,forcxampIc, is
    cncascd in thc boxIikc cranium of your
    hcad, and your hcart, Iungs, and somc
    othcrvitaIorgansarc containcdinacagc
    ofboncsformcdbyyourribs. Inaddition,
    thc muscIcs you usc in moving arc at-
    tachcdtothcboncsofyourskcIcton,aIso
    givingthcmusclcsthcirIcvcragc. FinaIIy,
    thc marrow in thc hoIIow boncs of your
    body manufacturcs both rcd and whitc
    bIood ccIIs.
    TotaIIy, your skcIcton consists of 200
    boncsor 20, if thc tiny, bony parts of
    thc inncr car arc countcd scparatcIy.
    Many pcopIc arc surpriscd to Icarn that
    thcir boncs arc not soIid, dry, hard, and
    dcad. Rathcr, most boncs arc hoIIow or
    at Icast spongy insidc, and, though rm,
    many arc cxibIc. Furthcr, thcy arc vcry
    much aIivc, containing bIood vcsscIs and
    ncrvcs as wcII as activc, dividing bonc
    ccIIs. Bonc is indccd a Iiving tissuc.
    Bonc ccIIs dividc constantIy to rcpIacc
    thosc that arc oId and worn-out. !f you
    brcakorfracturcabonc, thcbodybcgins
    immcdiatcIy to makc rcpairs. Doctors
    hcIp by"sctting" thc bonc and hoIdingit
    inpIaccwithspIintsoracasttomakcccr-
    tain that it hca|s straight.
    Thcboncsofyourbodycan bcdividcd
    into two groups: (I) thosc that providc
    mainIy support and protcction and havc
    IittIc or no movcmcnt, such as thc skuII,
    backbonc,andchestboncs; and(2) thosc
    pivot-turns
    hi nge and
    pivot j oi nt
    el bow
    bal l-and-socket
    j oi nt, many
    movements-hi p
    thatarc movabIc, such asthc hand, arm,
    and Icg boncs.
    Thc point whcrc two boncs mcct is
    caIIcd a oint. MuscIcs and Iigamcnts,
    whicharctoughstrandsofconncctivctis-
    suc, arc attachcd from onc bonc to an-
    othcracrossaoint.Thishclpstoholdthc
    boncsinpIacc.WhnthcmuscIccontracts,
    oncbonc movcs toward thc othcr. Whcn
    thcmuscIc rcIaxcs, thcbonc movcs back.
    You can scc this casily by Iiing your
    IowcrarmtowardyourshouIdcr.Tobcnd
    yourarmatthcIbow,youusc thcbiccps
    muscIc in your uppcr arm.
    7
    sl i ghtly movabl e
    j oi nt-backbone
    Thccndsofthc boncsarccovcrcdwith
    a tough mcmbranc that prcvcnts thcm
    from rubbing dircctIy against cach othcr
    at thc oints. Most oints aIso contain
    cushions madc of cartiIagc, pIus a smaII
    amount of uid, pcrmitting thc oint to
    opcratc smoothly without doing damagc.
    ThcmostfamiIiarandmostfrccIymov-
    ing typc of oint is thc baII-and-sockct
    typc. This is thc typc you havc in your
    hip and in your shouldcr. Thc kind of
    oints in your cIbows and ngcrs opcratc
    IikcsimpIc hingcs.Thcycanmovcupand
    down but in onIyonc dircction. Thc two
    boncsofyourlowcrarmarc]oincdat thc
    clbow by a pivot ]oint that allows thc
    boncstorollovcrcachothcr. Thisiswhat
    pcrmits you to tum your hands palm up
    or palm down.
    Your skuIl consists of thrcc parts: thc
    cranium, thfacc,and thcIargc,movablc
    Iowcraw. Thccranium, housingthcvitaI
    brain, is formcd of six smooth-surfaccd,
    curvcd boncs. Thc aggcd cdgcs of thc
    boncs t tightIy togcthcr so that it is dif-
    cuIt to scc thc scparatc boncs. (In ncw-
    bornbabics,thcscboncsarcnotyctgrown
    togcthcr in somc pIaccs. Thcsc arc thc
    "so spots" in thc baby's hcad.) At thc
    basc of thc cranium in thc rcar is a Iargc
    opcning, thc foramcn magnum, through
    which thc spinaI cord and Iargc artcrics
    and vcins pass. Thc front of thc cranium
    forms thc forchcad.
    A numbcr ofsmall boncscompnsc thc
    facc. Insidc somc ofthc facc boncs arc a
    numbcr of cavitics, or sinuscs, most of
    thcmconncctcdtothcnasalpassagcs.Thcy
    hclp to warm and to ltcr thc air. Somc-
    timcs thc sinuscs bccomc blockcd or in-
    fcctcd,whichiscspcciallycommonamong
    pcopIc with aIIcrgics.
    Thc Iowcraw, or mandiblc, is a largc
    horscshoc-shapcdbonc.Itishingcdtothc
    skuII and is thconly movabIc skull bonc.
    An important supporting unit of your
    skcIcton is your backbonc or vcrtcbral
    coIumn. It consists of thirty-thrcc small
    boncs or vcrtcbrac. Thcrc arc scvcn ncck
    vcrtcbrac, twcIvc in thc chcst or thorax,
    hvc in thc Iowcr back, vc morc that arc
    fuscdtoformthcsacrumtowhichthcpcI-
    vis is attachcd, and four (orrarcIy morc)
    smaIboncsthatarcfuscdandformashort
    The Skull ot W Adult
    The porti on that covers the brai n i s cal l ed t he
    crani um. Face bones and l ower jawbone make up
    t he bal ance of the skul l . The lower jawbone i s
    the only movabl e bone.
    atl as, frst cervical
    vertebra-supports skul l
    thoracic vertebra
    intcmatai,orcoccyx. Bctwccnthcvcrtc-
    bracarcshock-absorbingdiscsofcartiagc.
    If thcscdiscssidcout of pacc, or "sip,"
    thcy may pinch thc ncrvcs. This is cx-
    trcmc|ypainfuandsomctimcscanbccor-
    rcctcd ony by surgcry.
    Thc rst ncck vcrtcbra is caIcd thc
    atlasbccauscitsupportsthcwcightofthc
    hcad. It isaring of bonc with two broad
    procctions on thc uppcr sidc. Thc hcad
    canmovc backandforth ornod on thcsc
    procctions.
    Amostaof thc vcrtcbrachavcahoIc
    through which thc spina cord passcs.
    Ncrvcs conncct to thc spina cord by cn-
    tcringthroughopcningsaIongcachsidcof
    thcvcrtcbrac. Anctworkof boodvcsscs
    aso foows thcsc channcs.
    AIso part of thc main, or supporting,
    skcIctonisthcribcagc,formcdoftwcnty-
    four scndcr, at, curvcd ribstwcIvc on
    cach sidc. A arc attachcd to thc back-
    I4
    cervical vertebra
    l umbar vertebra
    bonc. In front, thc rst scvcn arcoincd
    to thc brastbonc, or stcmum. Thc ncxt
    thrccarcoincdtoaatpicccofcartiagc
    thatis intumattachcdtothcbrcastbonc.
    Thcasttwoarcthcso-caIcd0oatingribs,
    which arc not attachcd at aI in front.
    Ncithcr is as Iong as thc othcr ribs. This
    bonycagcsurroundsthchcart,Iungs,and
    othcr vita organs of thc chcst.
    In cach shoudcr arc found two boncs
    thccoIarbonc(cavicc)andthcshoudcr
    badc (scapua). ThccoIarboncisoincd
    tothcbrcastbonc.Exccptforthisconncc-
    tion, thcsc two boncs that form cach
    shoudcrarchcdinpacconybymusccs.
    Thcarmboncsattachtothc scapuIa bya
    baI-and-sockct oint at thc armpit. This
    jointaowsagrcatdcaofmovcmcnt,and
    thc arms can bc pivotcd in amost cvc
    dircction.
    Thc big bonc of thc uppcr arm is thc
    humcrus. Bcowitarctwoboncs,thcuna

    and thc radius, forming thc Iowcr arm.


    Thcsc arc thc boncs that can bc pivotcd
    acrosscachothcr, pcrmitting youto twist
    yourIowcrarm. EightsmaIIboncs, caIIcd
    carpaIs,form thc wrist, and thc paIm of
    thc hand contains vc Iong mctacarpaIs.
    Attachcd to cach of thc mctacarpaIs arc
    thc boncs of a ngcr. Thcrc arc thrcc
    boncs,orphaIangcs,incachngcrandtwo
    in thc thumb.
    Thc thumb is uniquc. Thc mctacarpal
    bonc to which it is attachcd is sct in a
    dicrcnt dircction from thc othcr mcta-
    carpaIs, and it can movc frccIy. This op-
    posabIcpositionofthcthumb aIIowsyou
    to grasp and to manipuIatc obccts. This
    is onc of thcoutstanding fcaturcs thatsct
    man apart from aII othcr anim

    Is.
    Yourhipboncs arc sturdy in structurc,
    Bones of
    the Hand
    for thcy support thc buIk of thc body
    wcightas wcIIasaIIowing forattachmcnt
    of thc Icgs. Thc hips arc formcd of two
    Iargc, soIid boncs, thc pcIvics. Thcy arc
    oincd to thc sacrum, thc fuscd boncs of
    thcvcrtcbraIcoIumn. IncachpcIvicbonc
    thcrcisabaII-and-sockctointforconncc-
    tion with thc Ieg boncs.
    Thc hcavy, topmost bonc of thc Icg is
    thc fcmur. It is thc Iargcst bonc in your
    body. ThcIowcrIcgconsistsoftwo boncs
    thc sIim, rodIikc buIa and thc largcr,
    at tibia, or shinbonc. Bctwccn thc tibia
    and thcfcmuristhcsmaII,atpatclIa, or
    kncccap. Thc buIa and tibia arc bound
    cIoscIytogcthcrandcannot rotatconcon
    thc othcr as thc Iowcr arm boncs can.
    Thc boncs of thc fcct arc much Iikc
    thoscinthchands. ThcrcarcscvcntarsaI,
    oranklcboncs.Conncctcdtothcscarcthc
    mctatarsalsandthcnthcphalangcsortoc
    boncs. Thc Iargctoc, Iikc thc thumb, has
    onIy two boncs. A thc othcr tocs havc
    thrcc boncs. Bccausc thc foot is archcd,
    muchofthc shock is absorbcd whcnyou
    waIk. Shocs with high hccIs throw thc
    wcight of thc body forward and dcstroy
    much of thc ccctivcncss of this arch.
    Bones of
    the Foot
    bones of ankl e,
    or metacarpal s
    toe bones,
    or phal anges
    metatarsal
    bones
    J
    Teeth-Food Cutters, Crushers, Grinders
    You wcrc bom toothIcss. Your rst
    tooth probabIy appcarcd whcn you wcrc
    about six months oId, and it may havc
    bccnasIongas twoycarsbcforcyou had
    your compIctc sct of tcmporary tccth
    I
    twcnty in aII. By thc timc you wcrc six
    ycars oId, you bcgan to Iosc this sct of
    tccth and gct your pcrmancnt tccth, but
    somctimcsthcIastofthctcmporarytccth
    arc not shcd untiI agc tcn or cIcvcn.
    Thctcmporary tccth arcpushcdout as
    pcrmancnttccthcomcintorcpIaccthcm.
    Thissct is aImost compIctc at agc twcIvc
    or thirtccn. OnIy thc so-caIIcd wisdom
    tccth, onc on cach sidc at thc rcar of thc
    uppcr and Iowcr jaws, havc not yct ap-
    pcarcd. Thcy usua|Iy push through thc
    gumssomctimcs painfuIIy and nccding
    hcIpduring thc Iatc tccns. Ocn thcy
    comc in crookcd bccausc thcrc is not
    cnough spacc for thcm in thcaw. Somc
    pcopIc ncvcr gct thcir wisdom tccth, but
    if thcy do, thcir pcrmancnt sct of tccth
    consists of thirty-two tccth.
    TcctharcanchorcdrmIyinsockcts in
    ourjaws. Thchardcstpartof thc toothis
    thc outcr covcring, orcnamcI. This is thc
    part of thc tooth that shows. Thc roots
    arccovcrcdwithasimiIarhardsubstancc
    caIIcd ccmcntum. Bcncath thc cnamcI of
    cach tooth is thc ivorylikc dcntin, which
    makcs up thc buIk of thc tooth. In thc
    ccntcr is thc pulp cavity, containing ar-
    tcrics, vcins, and ncrvc cndings.
    Yourcight fronttccthfour abovc and
    fourbcIowarccaIIcdincisors.Thcyhavc
    0at, wcdgc-shapcd cdgcs for cutting or
    slicing. On cach sidc of thc incisors in
    boththcuppcrandIowcrjawsisapointcd
    cuspid, or caninc. Thc canincs hcIp tcar
    food for chcwing. Ncxt to thcm arc thc
    bicuspidscight totaIIy, two in cach haIf
    of thc uppcr and Iowcraws. Thcsc tccth
    hcIptotcar,grind,andcrushfood.Butthc
    principaIo ofgrinding food is donc by
    thcbroadmoIars. ThcmoIars arcthc Iast
    C. Mol ars-used to gri nd food
    B. Cuspi ds and bi cuspi ds-used
    to tear and crush food
    tccth. Thcrc arc two on cachsidc in thc
    uppcr and Iowcraws, and ifthc wisdom
    tccth appcar, anothcr moIar is addcd to
    cachaw on cachsidc.
    In an idcaI sct of tccth, thc uppcr
    tccthovcrIapthc Iowcrtccth sIightIy. Of-
    tcn tccth comc in crookcd or arc not
    spaccd propcrIy. Evcn sIight mists that
    canatrstbctoIcratcdmaycausctroubIc
    in Iatcr Iifc. In modcm dcntaI practicc,
    thcsc conditions arc corrcctcd as soon as
    possibIc. Tccth that t togcthcr propcrly
    arcnccdcdforgoodhcaIth. ltisimportani
    forgooddigcstionthatfoodbcwcIlchcwcd
    bcforciiisswallowcd. Evcnlyspaccdand
    propcrIy tting tccth aIso coniributc
    grcatIy to a good appcarancc.
    Cavitics arc tooth dccay causcd by an
    acidthatformsasarcsuItofbactcriafccd-
    ingonparticIcsoffoodinthcmouth.This
    Teeth of
    WW Adult
    A. i ncisors
    B. cuspi ds and
    bi cuspi ds
    C. mol ars
    A. I nci sors-used to cut food
    usuaIIyoccurswhcnfoodbccomcsIodgcd
    bctwccnthc tccth or at thc gum Iinc, but
    itmaystartwhcrcvcrthcrcisatinycrack
    in thc cnamcI. Thc bactcria, which arc
    normaIIy prcscnt in thc mouth, fccd aI-
    mostimmcdiatcIyonsugars. Forthisrca-
    son, it is important to brush your tccth
    acr cvcry mcaI. If this is not possibIc,
    you shouId rinsc your mouth wcII with
    watcrtogctridoffoodparticIcs,cspcciaIIy
    thc sugars.
    Aftcr thc acid cats away thc cnamcI,
    thcdccaycanmovcintothcsocrdcntin.
    Thcrcthcdccaycontinucsatamuchmorc
    rapid ratc. If not stppcd, it rcachcs thc
    puIp cavity and bcgins to bc painfuI. It
    isimportanttohavctccthchcckcdrcguIar-
    Iy by a dcntist. Prcvcntion is much wiscr
    and Icss costIy than waiting until scrious
    troubIcs dcvcIop.
    l1
    Your Muscles-the Tissue That Moves You
    somconc asks you to show your
    muscIc, you wiII usuaIIy cx your arm to
    show o thc sizc of your biccps, thc big
    muscIc inyouruppcr arm. You probabIy
    ncvcrthinkabouthowmanyothcrmuscIcs
    you havc inyourbody. TotaIIy, thcrcarc
    about . AImost aII of thc "csh" of
    yourbody ismuscIc. Musclcs account for
    roughIy haIf your wcight.
    You dcpcndon your muscIcsforcvcry
    movc you makc. MuscIcs opcn and shut
    your cycs and movc your cycbaIIs; thcy
    kccpyour bIood moving, hcIp you digcsi
    your food, movc your arms and Icgs and
    your ngcrs and tocs. Lvcr kind of mo-
    tion invoIvcs at Icast onc muscIc.
    YouhavcthrccdicrcntkindsofmuscIcs
    inyourbodyvoIuntary,invoIuntary,and
    hcart, or cardiac, muscIc.
    Voluntary muscIcs arc thosc thatmovc
    onIywhcnoudccidctomovcthcm.Each
    ofthcmany,many IongcclIsformingthc
    muscIccontainsmanynucIci,somctimcsa
    hundrcd or morc. This kind of muscIc is
    aIsocaIIcdastriatcdmuscIcbccausc,whcn
    sccnundcr amicroscopc, thcccIIs appcar
    to havc stripcs or bands.
    Thc muscIcs of your arms and Icgs arc
    voIuntarymuscIcs. Yourbiccps,asatypi-
    caI cxamplc,consists of an cnIargcd mid-
    dIc portion, or"bcIIy," andtapcrcd cnds.
    Thc part attachcd to thc most stationary
    portionofthcskcIctoniscaIIcdthcorigin.
    I8
    muscl e
    i nvol untary,
    or smooth
    Muscle Cells
    vol untary, or
    stri ated
    cardiac
    fnsertion
    Thcothcrcnd,attachcdtothcmorcmov-
    abIc part ofthc skcIcton, is knownas thc
    inscrtion. ThcscmuscIcsarcconncctcd to
    thc boncs by tcndons, which arc strong
    and cxibIc but do not strctch.
    InvoIuntarymuscIcsarcthoscthatmovc
    withoutyourcontroI.Thoscthatmovcfood
    through thc digcstivc tract or that diIatc
    or rcstrict thc sizc of bIood vcsscIs arc of
    this sort. Thcsc arc aIso caIIcd smooth
    muscIcs, bccausc thcir ccIIs do not havc
    crossstripcs.EachsmoothmuscIcccIIcon-
    tains onIy onc nucIcus.
    Hcart, or cardiac, muscIc is a spcciaI
    typc. It is cross-stripcd, or striatcd, yct it
    is invoIuntary. You havc no controI ovcr
    its movcmcnts.
    YourhcartisthcmostrcmarkabIcmus-
    cIc in your body. It opcratcs twcnty-four
    hoursaday,pumpingbIoodthroughyour
    body with cach bcat. Evcry ycar your
    hcart bcats or contracts about forty miI-
    Iion timcs, and it may opcratc for cighty
    ycars or Iongcr without dmcuIty. In that
    Icngth of timc, it wiII pump about scv-
    cnty miIIion gaIIons of bIood through
    your body.
    MuscIcs causc movcmcnt by contract-
    ing. Whcn you Ii your arm, thc big bi-
    ccps muscIc in your uppcr arm contracts
    andpuIIsthcforcarmupward.Atthcsamc
    timc, thc triccps muscIconthc undcrsidc
    of your arm is rcIaxcd. MuscIcs causc
    movcmcntinonIyoncdircction; thcycan
    puII, but thcy cannot push. So to Iowcr
    yourarm,yourcIaxthc biccpsand atthc
    samctimccontractthctriccpstopuIIyour
    arm back to its originaI position.
    Thc Iiing rcquircs morc cncrgy, and
    so thc biccps is thc Iargcr and strongcr
    of thc two muscIs. Most carpcntcrs and
    othcr workmcn who usc thcir arms a Iot
    dcvcIop Iargc and powcrfuI biccps. InaI
    cascs, howcvcr,thc muscIcthatbnngs an
    appcndagc cIoscr to thc body is much
    strongcr than thc onc that puIIs it away,
    as in thc casc of thc biccps and thc tri-
    ccps. As anothcr cxampIc, thc muscIcs
    cIosing youraws arc muchstrongcr than
    thoscthatopcnthcm. MuscIcsncvcrrcIax
    totaIIy. Evcn at rcst, muscIcs arc in a
    sIight statc of contraction, caIIcd tonc."
    WhatmakcsyourmuscIcsstartmoving
    Ncrvcsarc conncctcdto cachmusccand
    rcccivc mcssagcs or stimuIi transmittcd
    from your brain via thc spinaI cord or
    somctimcs dircctIy from thc spinaI cord.
    Thc ncrvcs triggcr thc muscIc tocontract
    ortorcIax. YoucontroIthcactionofvo-
    untary muscIcs by your thoughts.
    I
    Muscles of the Body
    A l arge part
    of your body
    i s muscl e
    about one half
    of your total
    wei ght.
    Invounta musccs arc sct into opcr-
    ation by factors ovcr which you havc no
    dircctcontro.Asfood movcsthroughthc
    digcstivc tract, for cxampc, it appics
    prcssurctothcwasatvariouspoints.This
    causcs thc musccs to contract and rcax,
    crcatingarippingmovcmcnt,cacdpcri-
    stasis, that kccps thc food moving.
    Whcn you bccomc hot, thc musccs in
    thcwalsofbood vcsscsncarthc surfacc
    of thc skin automaticay rcax. This a-
    Iows morc blood to cntcr thc vcsscs,
    which aso movc coscr to thc surfacc.
    Z
    Thcsc actions hclp to coo you o. In
    contrast, whcn you arc cod, thc musccs
    around thc bood vcsscs tightcn, con-
    strictingthcirsizcandrcducingthcamount
    of bood brought cosc to thc surfacc. At
    thcsamctimc,thcboodvcsscsarcpucd
    farthcr bcow thc surfacc.
    Thc movcmcnt of any muscc rcquircs
    cncrgy. This comcs from thc foods you
    cat. Thcsc foods arc digcstcd and thcn
    carricd

    thc bood tothcmuscc tissuc.
    Thc foods thatsuppy cncrgy for moving
    amuscccomcnormayfromsugars and

    starchcs.ThcscarcconvcrtcdintoasimpIc
    sugar,caIIcdgIycogcn,thatisstorcdinthc
    body.Bccausc.of thisstorcdcncrgyinyour
    systcm, you can run or cxcrcisc in othcr
    wayswithoutavingtotakcinfoodatthc
    samc timc. You rcpIacc thc suppIy Iatcr.
    You bccomc tircd whcn you havc cx-
    haustcd your cncrgy rcscrvcs and wastc
    productsinthcmuscIccclIshavcbuiItup
    to ahihIcvcI.Asyourcst, mostofthcsc
    wastcs arc changcd into carbon dioxidc
    and watcr, which arc carricd away from

    thc muscIcs by thc bIood.


    Working muscIcs arc richIy suppIicd
    with bIood vcsscIs, for oxygcn is ncccs-
    sary in thc proccss of changing thc gIy-
    cogcn into cncrgy. Thcsc arc thc "rcd"
    muscIcsofthcbody. Pcrhapsthcbcstcx-
    ampIcofa rcdmuscIcisthc hcart,which
    gets a spcciaI suppIy of bIood cnrichcd
    withoxygcn.IfthcoxygcnsuppIytomus-
    clcs is cut o, thc musclc dctcrioratcs ra-
    pidly. Thisis why, for cxamplc, a toumi-
    quctmust bcIooscncd cvcry fcwminutcs
    to aIIow bIood to ow through to fccd
    oxygcn-starvcdmuscIcsbclowthcbinding.
    MuscIcs do not usc a hundrcd pcrccnt
    of thc cncrgy thcy gcncratc. In fact, onIy
    about twcnty-vc pcrccntof thc cncrgy
    is convcrtcd into work. Thc rcmaindcr is
    not totaIIy wastcd, howcvcr, for it kccps
    thcbIoodandtissucswarm.Whcnyoucx-
    crciscordohcavywork,youarcproducing
    morchcatthanyourbodycanutiIizc.You
    bccomc hot and must cooI ofrom timc
    to timc.
    Any body movcmcnt invoIvcs many
    muscIcsandmanyncrvcs.This combincd
    action bctwccn muscIcs and ncrvcs to
    producc thc dcsircd movcmcnt is known
    asmuscuIarcoordination. WhcndcvcIop-
    ing muscuIar coordination, onc must rst
    lhBK about thc movcmcnt. Thc athlctc,
    thcmusician,thccarpcntcranyoncnccd-
    ingmuscuIarskiIIandcoordination
    practicc for many hours, untiI thc
    mcntsrcquirca minimumofthinking

    and
    bccomc almost automatic. I
    Muscul ar coordi nation is requi red for al l activiti es.
    Your Thirty-foot Di gesti ve System
    You probabIy cat thrcc mcaIs a day,
    cach mcaI at a rcgular timc. Your digcs-
    tivcsystcmisadustcd tothisschcdulc. If
    youmissamcaI,youhavchungcr"pains"
    or your stomach "growIs." Thcsc signaIs
    tcII you that your stomach is cmpty and
    rcadyformorcfood. Yourstomachisthc
    storagc sac whcrc food is hcId in rcscrvc
    bcforc bcing fcd into your Iong Iowcr di-
    gcstivctract.Ifstrctchcdoutintoonctubc,
    yourdigcstivctractwouIdcxtcndtoabout
    thirty fcct.
    Digcstion bcgins whcn you takc food
    into your mouth and bcgin chcwing it.
    Thc food is mixcdwith saliva thatcomcs
    from thrcc pairs of glands insidc your
    mouth. Thc saIiva contains thc cnzymc
    ptyalin that brcaks down thc starchcs in
    thc food you cat into a sugar. Enzymcs
    arc vcq compIcx chcmicaI substanccs.
    ZZ
    Without thcm, digcstion of food couId
    not occur.
    Thc moist, chcwcd mass of food in
    your mouth is caIIcd a boIus. Whcn it is
    swaIIowcdyour tonguc hcIps not onIy
    inmovingthcfoodbctwccnthctccthbut
    aIso in squcczmg it down thc throatthc
    boIusmovcsdownthccsophagus,thctubc
    Icadingtoyourstomach.Itisstorcdinthc
    stomachuntiIthcsmaIIintcstinc,thcncxt
    portion of thc digcstivc tract, is rcady to
    rcccivc it. Bccausc you havc this storagc
    arca, thc mcaIs you cat can providc your
    digcstivctractwithworkforscvcralhours.
    Somc digcstion of food aIso occurs in
    thc stomach. Thc stomach's waIIs arc
    IIcd with digcstivc gIandsmorc than
    J,ofthcm.ThcyconstantIypourthcir
    sccrctions into thc food mass, which is
    slowIy churncd by thc stomach muscIcs.
    Thcsc sccrctions contain hydrochIoric
    acid.ThcrcarcaIsotwodigcstivccnzymcs
    thatact on protcins, brcakingthcmdown
    into simpIcrsubstanccs.Anothcrcnzymc
    inthc stomachjuiccsstartsa wcak digcs-
    tivc action on somc fats.
    Also produccd in thc stomach is a
    mucusthat Iubricatcsthcfoodand,atthc
    samc timc, makcsa protcctivc Iining that
    prcvcntsthc acid and thc digcstivcuiccs
    from cating into thc stomach waII. Thc
    gIands inyourstomachpourfromonc to
    two quarts of digcstivc uiccs into thc
    stomach cvc day.
    By thc timc thc food is rcady to movc
    into thc smaII intcstinc, it is a scmiIiquid
    rcfcrrcdtoaschymc,whichmcans"uicc."
    !uicc from thc ncarby pancrcas is mixcd
    with thc food as it cntcrs thc smalI intcs-
    tinc. Thc pancrcatic juicc contains thrcc
    digcstivc cnzymcs that act on protcins,
    , .. .
    Salivary gl ands-produce -l'1
    sal iva, ' which begi ns di gestion.
    Di aphragm ( not part
    of di gestive system)
    separates di ge$tive
    or
    S
    ans from chest
    cavity.
    phagus-passageway for
    food, leads to stomach.
    Liver-produces bi l e
    Mouth, teeth, and tonguereceive
    and chop foad, mix sal iva with
    foad, push foad down throat.
    Stomach-receives and
    stores food, prepares
    foad for di gestion ( some
    di gestion occurs) .
    Pancreas ( not shown, l ies
    behi nd stomach)-produces
    several digestive j uices for
    use in smal l i ntesti ne.
    Gal l bl adder-stores bile,
    :
    -
    -
    -
    -: whi ch is necessary for
    dgestion of fo|soau
    Rectum-stores wastes
    unti l el i mi nated.
    which empties i nto smal l
    i ntesti ne.
    5moII intestineroduces
    ond receives several digestive
    juices, digests ond absorbs
    of the md.
    intestineeceives
    indigestible fod mixed
    wm wotet, absrbs
    the water.
    starchcs,andfats,changingthcmtomuch
    simpIcr substanccs. Fat digcstion is com-
    pIctcIy succcssfuI onIy whcn biIc is prcs-
    cnt, howcvcr. This ycIIowish grccn uid
    comcs into thc smaII intcstinc from thc
    gaIIbIaddcr,whcrcit isstorcdacrbcing
    produccd in thc Iivcr.
    Thc Iivcr scrvcs primariIy as a storagc
    placcforsugar,whichitrcmovcsfromthc
    bIood and thcn rctums to thc blood in
    timcs of nccd. It is cstimatcd that at any
    momcnt about twcnty pcrccnt of thc
    body's bIood suppIy is in thc Iivcr.
    Digcstivc cnzymcs arc aIsoaddcd from
    thc smaII intcstinc. Thcsc cnzymcs com-
    pIctcthcdigcstionofprotcins,brcakdown
    varioussugars to thcsimpIcst sugars,and
    furthcr digcst fais.
    Loopcdbackandforththroughthcab-
    domcn,thcsmaIIintcstincmaybcasmuch
    7+
    as twcnty fcct Iong. Thc grcatcst amount
    of digcstionand absorption of foodtakcs
    placcwhiIc thc food is travcIing through
    thc smaII intcstinc.
    Muscu|arcontractionsofthcwaIIofthc
    smaIIintcstinc movcthc foodmass aIong
    sIowIy. SIuggishIy, it makcs its way bc-
    twccn and among thc many tiny, ngcr-
    Iikc procctions caIIcd viIIi. Thcsc procc-
    tionsincrcascthctotaIsurfaccarcaofthc
    smaIIintcstincbymany,manytimcs.Thc
    digcstcdfoodsarcabsorbcdintothcbIood
    that 0ows through smaII bIood vcsscIs
    caIIcdcapiIIarics.ThccapiIIaricsarccIosc
    to thc surfacc in thc viIIi. Thc digcstcd
    food is thcn carricd by thc bIood to aII
    parts of thc body.
    By thc timc thc food cntcrs thc |argc
    intcstinc, about aII that rcmains is somc
    indigcstibIc dcbris mixcd with watcr. As
    thc mass movcs on,much of thiswatcr is
    rcabsorbcd into thc systcm through thc
    Iargc intcstinc's waIIs. Thc matcriaIs that
    cvcntualIypassoutofthcbodyarcmainIy
    soIids.Thcyarcwastcrcmainsoffoodthat
    was catcn onc or two days carIicr.
    In the smal l intestine, digested food is absorbed by
    tiny, fngerl ike projections cal l ed vil li, which contain
    many capil l aries.
    Lungs-Your Breath of Li fe
    You can survivc for scvcraI days with-
    out watcr and for pcrhaps as Iong as a
    month without food. But you cannot Iivc
    muchIongcrthanvcorsixminutcswth-
    out oxygcn.
    You gct thc oxygcn from thc air you
    brcathc. At thc samc tmc, you gct rid
    of carbon dioxidc, a wastc gas. Ths im-
    portant cxchangc of gascs takcs pIacc n
    your Iungs.
    You brcathc wthout thmng about t
    and continuc whcn you arc asIccpat aI-
    most thc samc ratc as whcn you arc
    awakc.YounhaIcandcxhaIcaboutcgh-
    tccn timcs cvcry minutcsomc pcoplc
    morc, somc Icss. In this pcriod you takc
    in about cight quarts of ar. You brcathc
    morc sIowIy whcn you arc rcsting and
    fastcr whcn you arc working, cxcrcsng,
    orcxctcd.Yourratcofbrcathngchangcs
    7J
    with your incrcascd usc of oxygcn. You
    wiII aIso brcathc morc timcs pcr minutc
    at high atitudcs, whcrc thc air is "thin-
    ncr"andcontainsIcssoxygcnthanitdocs
    at sca IcvcI. `
    You inhaIc, or takc in air, whcn thc
    chcst, or thoracic, cavity bccomcs largcr
    as a rcsuIt of two actions that happcn at
    thc samc timc. Thc diaphragm, a thin,
    strongshcctofmuscIc, contracts. Thcdia-
    phragm cxtcnds across thc basc of your
    chcst and is domc-shapcd. Whcn it con-
    tracts, it 0attcns, pushing downward. At
    thcsamctimc,othcrmuscIcs puIIthcribs
    outward.Thcscactionsincrcascthcsizcof
    yourchcstcavity.Bccauscofthisincrcascd
    spacc, air movcs intothc Iungs from out-
    sidcthcbody.Nosooncristhisdoncthan
    thcmuscIcsrcIax.Thisdccrcascsthcspacc
    in thc chcst cavity and forccs thc air out
    of thc Iungs.
    Thc controI ccntcr for your brcathing
    is your brainspccicaIIy, thc Iowcr part
    of thc brain, or mcduIIa. A portion of its
    ccIIs arc scnsitivc to thc amount of car-
    bon dioxidc inyour bIood. Whcn carbon
    dioxidc contactsthcscccIIs,thcyscndout
    puIscs that contract thc muscIcs of your
    diaphragm and thosc that Ii your ribs.
    So,oddIycnough,whiIcwcbrcathctogct
    oxygcn, it is thc carbon dioxidc that scts
    thcactioninmotion.Evcnrpidbrcathing
    is brought about bccausc your systcm is
    carryingancxccssofcarbondioxidc,caus-
    ingmorcpuIscstobcscntfromthccontroI
    ccntcr in thc brain.
    Incoming air 6rst passcs through thc
    channcIsofyournostriIs. Itgocsthrougha
    nctwork of rst coarsc hairs and thcn a
    carpct of cxtrcmcIy nc hairs. Thcy Itcr
    outanysoIidparticIcsthatmightbcinthc
    air. Thcsc air chambcrs aIso havc moist
    Iinings that hcIp to coIIcct dust or othcr
    2
    Ri bs move
    down and i n,
    di aphragm up;
    chest cavity
    contracts; ai r
    forced out
    of l ungs.
    particIcs. Thc Iinings havc many smaII
    bIoodvcsscIscIosctothcsurfacc,hcIping
    towarmthcairbcforcitrcachcsthcIungs.
    !n thc phanx, thcarca at thcback of
    thc throat, thc incoming air sharcs for a
    short distancc thc samc path which food
    travcIs on its way to thc stomach. If you
    shouId swaIIow food whiIc taIking, thc
    foodsomctimcsgctsstuckinthc cntrancc
    to thc windpipc and you wiII cough and
    chokc untiI it disIodgcs. This docs not
    usuaIIy happcn, bccausc as you swaIIow,
    amuscularap,callcdthccpiglottis,hclps
    tocIoscohthc cntranccto thc windpipc,
    or trachca.
    Thispathway bctwccnyourmouthand
    your rcspiratory tract is what aIIows you
    to brcathc through your mouth. Air
    brcathcdthroughthcmouthisnotItcrcd;
    Structure of a Lung
    bronchi ol e and
    cl uster of ai r
    sacs, or al veol i
    nor is it warmcd as it is whcn it gocs
    throughthcnasaIchambcrs.TakcscvcraI
    brcaths of air through your mouth on a
    cooI day and comparc thcm with thosc
    brcathcd through your nosc. Thc dicr-
    cncc is vcry noticcabIc.
    Thc windpipc, or trachca, is a Iargc
    muscuIartubcthatissticncd byrings of
    cartiIagc. ItIcads from your ncckto your
    chcst, whcrc it dividcs into two bronchiaI
    tubcs, onc to cach Iung. In your ncck, at
    thcvctopofthcwindpipc,isthcIarynx,
    or voiccbox. You taIk or makc noiscs by
    making air go ovcr thc vocaI cords in
    your Iarynx.
    Insidc cach Iung, thc bronchiaI tubcs
    dividcagainandagainintoancnctwork
    of tubcs caIIcd bronchioIcs. Each cnds
    cvcntuaIIy in a tiny, vc thin-waIIcd air
    ai r
    ai r
    ai r sac,
    or alveol us
    sac,oraIveoIus,whichcontainsnumcrous
    capiIIarics. Each lung consists of IitcraIIy
    thousandsofthcscIittIcsacs. Itis inthcsc
    IittIc sacs that thc bIood rcIcascs carbon
    dioxidc and takcs on oxygcn.
    BIoodcomingintothcIungsisdarkrcd.
    It is pumpcd in from thc ncarby hcart.
    This bIood contains vcrylittIcoxygcnbut
    has a Iargc amount of carbon dioxidc.
    Rcd bIood ccIls havc thc abiIity to ab-
    sorbIargcamountsofoxygcn.Atthcsamc
    timcthatthcrcdbIoodcclIsarctakingon
    a ncw suppIy of oxygcn in thc Iungs, thc
    bIood is rcIcasing thc carbon dioxidc it
    has bccn carrying. ThischangcsthccoIor
    ofyourbIoodfromdarkrcdtobrightrcd.
    Loadcdwith oxygcn, thcbIood is camcd
    by vcins backtothchcartandis pumpcd
    from thcrc to aII parts of thc body.
    7!

    ~
    i n
    oxygen
    7
    Your Body' s Bl ood Pump
    arteries
    red
    veins
    bl ue
    ThchcartisaboutthcsizcofacIcnchcd
    st. This important organ is Iocatcd bc-
    t

    ccn thc Iungs, aImost in thc ccntc of


    thc chcst cavity. !t is tippcd sIightIy, so
    that its tapcrcd Iowcr cnd points somc-
    what to thc Icft.
    Your hcart is thc most hardworking
    muscIc in your body. !t bcgan bcating
    about vc months bcforc you wcre born.
    !t bcats from sixty to cighty timcs cach
    minutc. !n this bricf pcriod, thc cntirc
    bIoodsuppIyof yourbodyfromthrccto
    vc quartspasscs through your hcart,
    having madc onc compIctc trip through
    your body. !f you cxcrcisc, your hcart
    bcats fastcr, and thc bIood movcs morc
    rapidIy.
    ThchcartisamuscuIarfour-chambcrcd
    pump.ltconsistsofarightauricIcandvcn-
    triclcandaIcauricIcandvcntricIc. Thc
    rightsidcofthchcartisscparatcdfromthc
    lcsidcbyawaIlofmuscIccalIcdthcscp-
    tum.Thcauriclcsarcthin-waIIcd,andthcir
    primaryobistorcccivcbIood. Thc vcn-
    triclcs arc thick-wallcd, and thcy pump
    blood to all parts of the body.
    AIlblood vessels eventually lead to the
    heart andthen awayfrom the hcart.These
    blood vessels, plus the heart, make up
    the circulatory system. This vital system is
    composed of two major divisions-the sys
    temic circulation and the pulmonary cir
    culation. The systemic circulation is made
    up of all blood vessels found in the body,
    exccptthoseinthcIungs.Thcpulmona
    circulation is made upof all blood vessels
    found in the lungs and those leading to
    and from them. It is much shorter than
    the systemic circulation.
    Blood from the systemic circulation en
    ters the right auricle through two major
    to
    right
    l ung
    from
    upper
    body
    to upper body
    vcins. Atthc point whcrc thcsc vcins cn-
    tcrthcauricIc,thcrcarcvaIvcs.Thcsconc-
    way vaIvcs aIIow bIood to ow into thc
    auricIc butnot backintothcvcins. BIood
    cntcring thc right auricIc is a dark rcd
    coIor bccausc it docs not contain much
    oxygcn. Howcvcr, this bIood docs con-
    tain a grcat dcaI of carbon dioxidc.
    Asthcauriclccontracts,thcbloodmovcs
    through anothcr onc-way vaIvc that scp-
    aratcsthcauriclcfromthcvcntriclc.Thcn,
    asthcvcntricIccontracts,itcIoscsthcvaIvc
    connccting thc two chambcrs and forccs
    thc blood through a Iargc blood vcsscl
    l . Auricles receivi ng blood
    2. Vea|t|cIes pumqng bl ood
    Aat|c|es pumpi ng b|m
    2. Ventricl es receiving blood
    caIIcd thc pulmonaryartcry. Thcrcis an-
    othcronc-wayvaIvcwhcrcthisancryoins
    thcvcntricIc.ThisvaIvcprcvcntsthcbIood
    from owing back into thc vcntricIc.
    ThcbIoodcirculatcsthroughthcIungs,
    Iosingthccarbondioxidcandacquiringa
    rich suppIy of oxygcn. This oxygcn-rich
    bIood rcturns to thchcart and cntcrs thc
    lcauriclc.Fromthcrc,itowsdowninto
    thcIcvcntriclc, thcnis pumpcd outand
    through thc rcst ofthc body.
    Thc vcins that cntcr thc lc auriclc
    aIso contain onc-wayvalvcs,andthcrc is
    a largc, onc-way valvc that connccts thc
    2
    cava
    Front View of Adul t Heart
    from _
    to head, neck,
    upper
    shoul ders, and arms
    cauriccwiththccvcntricc.Thcrcis
    anothcr onc-way vavc whcrc thc artc
    oins thc cft vcntricc.
    Thc hcart is mosty muscc but not of
    thc samcthickncssthroughout. Thc mus-
    ccs of thc vcntriccs arc much thickcr
    than thosc of thc auriccs. Thc vcntricIcs
    mustpumpthcbIoodthroughoutthcbody,
    so thcy nccd thc grcatcr muscIc powcr.
    Thchcartconstantyrcccivcsandpumps
    out bIood. Thc two auriccs work ncarIy
    in phasc, as do thc two vcntriccs. Whcn
    both auriccs arc Icd, thcy wcakIy con-
    tract, amostat thcsamc timc. Thc bIood
    movcs into cach vcntricc and s thcsc
    chambcrs.ThcnthcvcntricIcscontract,aI-
    mostinunison.Ahcartcontractionbcgins
    u thcrightauriccandthcnsprcadsacross
    anddown,cndingatthcbottomofthcvcn-
    tricIcs.Whcnthccontractioniscompctcd,
    J
    thc hcart rcsts for a fraction ofa sccond
    andthcnrcpcatsthccycc,ovcrandovcr.
    Whatmakcsyourhcart bcatThccon-
    tro ccntcr inthc hcartis cacdthc pacc-
    makcr. Itisaknotofncrvctissuc, ocatcd
    inthcrightauncc.Wavcs,or puscs,scnt
    out from thc paccmakcr causc thc hcart
    muscc to contractrhythmicay. Thc ratc
    ofyourhcartbcatischangcdbytwoncrvcs.
    Oncofthcscncrvcsisthcvagus.Impuscs
    from this ncrvc makc your hcart bcat
    morcsIowy.Mcssagcsfromanothcrncrvc
    makcyourhcartbcatmorcrapidy.Thcsc
    ncrvcs function automaticay.
    Doctors Iistcntoyourhcartwithan in-
    strumcnt cacd a stcthoscopc. Thcy hcar
    not ony thc bcat but aso thc cosing of
    thc vavcs bctwccn thc auriccs and vcn-
    triccs and thc vavcs in thc argc bood
    vcsscs.Ifthcscvavcsarcnotcosingcom-
    pctcy,doctorswitcyouthatyouhavc
    a "murmur."
    artery vei n capill ar
    Thc bigartcryIcaving thcIcvcntricIc
    is caIIcd thc aorta. Ncar its basc arc two
    smaIIbranchcsthatsuppIythchcartmus-
    cIcitscIfwithoxygcn-richbIood.!ustout-
    sidcthchcart,thcaortadividcsintothrcc
    Iargc branchcs, which dividc again and
    againasthcnctworkofvcsscIssprcadsto
    thc various parts of thc body.
    Thc aortaisaboutan inchindiamctcr.
    ItisthcIargcstbIoodvcsscIinyourbody.
    Thc smaIIcstofthcartcrics,thcartcrioIcs,
    havc about thc samc diamctcr as a hair
    on yourhcad. But thcwaIIsofcvcn thcsc
    smaII artcrioIcs, as wcII as thosc of thc
    Iargcr artcrics, consist partIy of muscIcs.
    Thcycancontracttoshutoorrcduccthc
    amount of bIood owing through thcm,
    or thcycan rcIax and strctch toaIIow thc
    vcsscI to carry Iargcr amounts of bIood.
    ArtcrioIcsbranch to form capiIIarics.
    Thc vast nctwork of capiIlarics com-
    pIctcIyIaccsthctissucsofthcbody,push-
    ingamongthcccIIs. SinccthcwalIsofthc
    capiIIaricsarc onIy a singIcccII thick, thc
    Iiquid portion of thc bIood and uids of
    thctissucsintcrmingIchcrc.Foodmatcrials
    dissoIvcdinthcbIoodandoxygcncarricd
    by thc rcd bIood ccIIs arc cxchangcd for
    carbon dioxidc and thc various wastcs
    from thc ccIIs.
    CapiIIarics oin thc artcrioIcs with thc
    vcrysmaIIvcins,orvcnuIcs.VcnuIcscom-
    binc to form Iargcr and stiII Iargcr vcins,
    carrying bIood back to thc hcart.
    CapiIIaricsarcthcsmaIIcstofthcbIood
    vcsscIs.EachcapiIIaryisonIyabout /7J
    of an inch in diamctcr, but most of thc
    bIood vcsscIs in your bodyarc capiIIarics
    -a totaI of about , milcs of thcsc
    minutcvcsscIs.Ifthcywcrccombincdinto
    onc tubc, it wouId havc a diamctcr
    timcs grcatcr than thc aorta.
    Thc smaIIcr thc bIood vcsscI, thc morc
    sIowIy thc bIood ows through it. Thc
    Compositi on
    of Blood
    l i qui d, 55 percent
    (water and di ssol ved
    materi al s)
    sol i ds, 45 percent
    (red and white blood
    cel l s, pl atel ets)
    red blood cel l s
    Various ki nds of
    white blood cel l s
    Red bl ood cel l s and many white bl ood
    pl atel ets
    A white blood cel l
    approaches a bacteri um.
    The white bl ood cel l
    engulfs the bacteri um.
    The bacteri um i s destroyed .
    manysmaIIvcsscIscarrythcsamcquantity
    of bIood as do fcwcr Iargc vcsscIs, but it
    is sprcad ovcr a much grcatcr arca. It is
    Iikc thcwatcrfromagardcnhosc,sprcad-
    ingovcrasidcwaIkor apatio. ItwiII stiII
    movc but at a muc sIowcr spccd.
    If you scratch your skin, you wiII cut
    through many capiIIarics, but thc bIood
    onIy oozcs from thc scratch. If you cut
    dccpcr and happcn to cut through an
    artcrioIcorcvcnaIargcrartcry,thcbIood
    comcs out fastcrusuaIIy in spurts cor-
    rcsponding to your hcartbcat. lf you cut
    Ihrough a vcnuc or a vcin, thc bood
    ows from thc wound smoothIy.
    J7
    BIood consists mainIy of a ycIIowish
    0uidcaIIcdpIasma,whichisaboutnincty
    pcrccnt watcr. In thc pIasma arc thc rcd
    bIood ccIIs, whitc bIood ccIIs, pIatcIcts,
    and various saIts, foods, and othcr sub-
    stanccs, in soIution. Most abundant of
    thcsoIid matcriaIsarcthcrcdboodccIIs,
    smaII discs that arcconcavc, or hoIowcd,
    on both sidcsIikc back-to-back sauccrs.
    Rcd bIoodccIIs arc onIy about I/3500 of
    aninch indiamctcr, andyouhavctwcnty
    to twcnty-vctriIIion ofthcsctinyccIIs in
    your body. If thcy wcrc Iaid cnd to cnd,
    thcthin inc wouId circIcthc carth about
    thrcc timcs.
    The Heal i ng of a Smal l Cut
    Bl ood cl ot
    dries, formi ng
    a scab. White
    blood cel l s
    attack bacteri a.
    Heal i ng is
    compl eted;
    scab fal l s
    of.
    Bl ood fows
    out of cut
    and begi ns to
    cl ot; bacteria
    enter wound.
    Scar ti ssue
    forms under
    scab; bacteria
    are destroyed.
    Thc avcragc Iifc of a rcd bIood ccII is
    onIyaboutthrccmonths,soarcpIaccmcnt
    suppIy is nccdcd constantIy. Rcd bIood
    ccIIs arc produccd in thc marrow of thc
    Iong boncs of thc body. Thcy gct thcir
    coIor from hcmogIobin, thcir main con-
    stitucnt. This compound, consisting of
    iron and a protcin, can takc on Iargc
    amounts of oxygcn, which it docs in thc
    Iungs, whcrc thc bIood bccomcs much
    rcddcrasitiscnrichcdwithoxygcn.Whcn
    thisbIoodrcachcspartsofthcbodywhcrc
    oxygcn is nccdcd in thc ccIIs for thc
    "buming," or oxidizing, of foods for cn-
    crgy,thcoxygcnis quickIy rcIcascd from
    its Ioosc union with thc hcmogIobin and
    is absorbcd by thc ccIIs.
    Whitc bIood ccIIs arc not so numcrous
    onIyaboutoncccIIforcvcry50 or00
    rcdbIood ccIIs. ThcrcarcscvcraItypcsof
    whitc bIood ccIIs, most of thcm abIc to
    changc shapc and movc indcpcndcntIy.
    Whitc bIood ccIIs attack discasc or-
    ganisms whcrcvcr thcy invadc thc body.
    ThcydissoIvc,or"cat,"thcm.Whcnthcrc
    arcinfcctionsIHthcbody,thcwhitcbIood
    ccIIs arc produccd in grcatcr numbcrs.
    Largc numbcrs of thcsc ccIIs and thc
    organisms thcy havc kiIIcd form thc pus
    around an infcction. Likc thc rcd bIood
    ccIIs,manywhitcbIoodccIIsarcproduccd
    in thc bonc marrow.
    BIood aIso contains numcrous smaII,
    soIid bodics caIIcd pIatcIcts. PIatcIcts arc
    smaIIcr than cvcn rcd bIood ccIIs, but in
    Iargc numbcrs, thcy maystop thc 0ow of
    bIood from a wound by simpIy bIocking
    thc opcning. This ocn happcns in thc
    capiIIarics. Whcn thcskinis cut,pIatcIcts
    cIumptogcthcrandformasubstancccaIIcd
    brin that quickIy bccomcs a mass of
    thrcadIikc matcriaI in which othcr bIood
    ccIIsbccomctangIcd.Thisbccomcssticky
    andformsacIotthatstopsthc0owofthc
    bIood from thc cut. Whcn thc cIot drics,
    it is caIIcd a scab.
    CoscyassociatcdwiththcbIoodcircu-
    IationsystcmisthcIymphsystcm. Lymph
    is thcIiquidportionof bIoodthatcscapcs
    thc capiIIarics and movcs through Iymph
    vcsscIs. Thcy arc oincd onc to anothcr,
    howcvcr, and incrcasc in sizc from tiny
    vcsscIs to Iargcr vcsscIs that cmpty into
    Iargcvcinsncarthcncckrcgion. EnIargc-
    mcnts in thc vcsscIs, caIIcd Iymph nodcs,
    contain conccntrations of whitc bIood
    ccIIs. BactcriaI organisms arc commonIy
    trappcd and kiIIcd in thcsc nodcs.
    33
    fow
    Cross Secti on of Ki dney
    i nner
    portion
    ( medul l a)
    or uri ne
    Shown enl arged
    i s the maze of
    capi l l aries and
    tubes necessary
    to purify the
    bl ood. Thi s enti re
    structure i s cal l ed
    a nephron.
    Ki dneys-Your Body' s Fi l trati on Pl ant
    Wastes of several kinds are eliminated
    by the body. Carbon dioxide is released
    from the blood and exhaled from the lungs
    in breathing. Solid, indigestible materials
    pass through and out of the digestive
    tract. Liquid wastes, containing dissolved
    salts, are fltered from the blood as it
    passes through the kidneys. They are then
    eliminated from the body as urine.
    The kidneys are two bean-shaped or
    gans, each about the size of a small fst.
    They are located at the back of the body,
    one on each side of the spinal cord, just
    above the hips.
    The inside of a kidney is composed of
    an outer layer called the cortex and an
    inner layer, the medulla. Each layer is a
    maze of small arteries, veins, capillaries,
    and thousands and thousands of tiny
    tubes. It is estimated that if all the tubes
    in a single kidney were placed end to end,
    they would measure over forty miles. These
    J4
    tiny tubes eventually connect with the
    large ureter, which empties into an elastic
    sac, the bladder. The bladder holds the
    urine until it is eliminated from the body.
    A large arter brings blood into each kid
    ney, and a large vein carries the purfed
    blood away.
    The artery entering the kidney divides
    into many smaller blood vessels, or arteri
    oles, and fnally into capillaries that look
    like a tangled knot of red yarn. This tan
    gled collection of capillaries is called a
    glomerulus, and it is held inside a tiny
    structure called a Bowman's capsule. There
    are about one million of them in each kid
    ney. From each Bowman's capsule runs
    a very tiny tube, surrounded by capil
    laries. This entire structure is called a
    nephron. As the blood passes through
    these tiny mazes, it becomes purifed
    that is, fltered of many of its wastes, some
    of which are very poisonous to the body.
    . . ^
    Brai n, Nerves-Your Communi cati on Syste.m
    !f you couId rcmovc aII thc parts of
    yourbodycxccptthcncrvoussystcm,you
    wouId stiII scc thc shapc ofyour body as
    a gauzcIikc nctwork of tiny ncrvc ccIIs
    and thrcadIikc bcrs Icading from thcm.
    Hcrc and thcrc wouId bc knotIikc swcII-
    ings, or gangIia, whcrc many ncrvc ccIIs
    arc asscmbIcd. Thc ncrvcs conncct with
    thc spinaI cord, which in tum connccts
    withthcbrain.ThcbrainIIsthccranium
    ofyourskuIIandisitscIfoncargcmassof
    ncrvc ccIIs and gangIia.
    Your ncrvous systcm rcccivcs sounds,
    sights, smcIIs, and othcr physicaI and
    chcmicaI stimuIi from thc worId around
    youandfrominsidcyourownbody.Thcsc
    impuIscs arc passcd aIong ncrvc bcrs.
    Thcspccd atwhichthcscmcssagcs travcI
    varics with thc sizc of thc ncrvc. !nIargc
    ncrvcs, mcssagcs movc as rapidIy as J7J
    fcctpcrsccond.!nsmaIIncrcsthcymovc
    morc sIowIy.
    Thc basicunit ofthc ncrvoussystcm is
    a ncrvc ccII, or ncuron. A typicaI ncrvc
    ccII consists of a ccntraI body with root-
    IikccxtcnsionscaIIcddcndritcsandaxons.
    Thcrc arc scvcraI branchcd dcndritcs,
    Iong or short, dcpcnding on thc kind of
    ncrvc ccII. !t is thc dcndritc that rcccivcs
    thc mcssagc. Thcrc is usualIy onIy onc
    axon, and it, too, is branchcd at thc cnd.
    Thc axonisthcpartofthcncrvcccIIthat
    transmitsthcmcssagc. Ncrvc ccIIs aImost
    conncct with cach othcr. Thc cnd of an
    axonfromoncncrvcccIIwiIIaImosttouch
    thccnd ofa dcndritcfromanothcr ncrvc
    ccII. This cxtrcmcIy smaII spacc bctwccn
    thccndsofanaxonanddcndritciscaIIcd
    a synapsc.
    Somc axons and dcndritcs arc vc
    short; othcrs may bc scvcraI fcct Iong .
    . ^
    '
    '
    '
    t
    -
    '
    v
    *
    .
    They may be bound together like the small
    wires in a large cable. These form large
    nerves, which are distinctly white in color.
    Collections of nerve-cell bodies, in con
    trast, arc grayish.
    Your nervous system consists of your
    brain and spinal cord plus ahuge numbcr
    ofothcrncrvcs.Thcbrainandspinacord
    form thc ccntra ncrvous systcm.
    The spina cord starts from thc basc of
    the brain and cxtcnds amost thc cngth
    of thc backbonc, protcctcd by thc bony
    vcrtcbrac. Thcccntcrofthcspinacordis
    gray, consisting ofncrvc ccI bodics. Thc
    outsidciswhitc,madcupofthcdcndritcs
    and axons of thc ccI bodics. Thc spina
    cord is thc ccntcr for rc0cx actionsthat
    is, dircct and immcdiatc rcactions, as
    whcn you touch somcthing hot and crk
    back instanty, without thought.
    Rc0cx actions occur whcn impuscs
    from scnso ncrvcs arrivc at thc spinaI
    cord and arc transmittcd dirccty to a
    shortncrvcthatconncctstoamotorncrvc.
    A mcssagc thcn movcs aIong thc axon of
    thcmotor ncrvctothcmuscIcthatbrings
    When you touch a hot object,
    nerves i n the ski n send a
    message to the spi nal cord.
    The spi nal cord i mmediatel y
    sends a message to the biceps
    muscl e, which then contracts,
    causi ng the hand to jerk back.
    The message al so travel s to the
    brai n and regi sters as pai n.
    about the needed action, such as jerking
    back. This happens with great speed, and
    the brain is not involved. The message does
    continucaongthcspinalcordtothcbrain,
    where a mcmory rccord is made to re
    mind you not to touch any hot things in
    thc futurc.
    Whatsctshumanbcings apart fromal
    othcr animas is thcir brain. Most of thc
    systcms in thc human bodycirculatory,
    rcspiratory, and othcrsarc much ikc
    thc samc systcms in dogs, cats, and othcr
    mammaIs. Evcn thc vitaI spinaI cord and
    othcrpartsofthcncrvoussystcmrcscmbIc
    thosc of Iowcr animas. But thc human
    brainis proportionatcy Iargcr and bcttcr
    dcvcIopcd,particuIarIythoscpartshaving
    todowith thinking and rcmcmbcringor
    intcIigcncc. It is this compIcx mass of
    ncrvctissuc,wcighingaboutthrccpounds,
    that makcs you so vcry dicrcnt from aI
    othcr animaIs.
    Your brain consists of scvcra basic
    parts. Thc mcduIa is thc cnargedcxtcn-
    sionof thespinaIcordatthcvcrybasc of
    thcbrain.ItcontroIsmanyimportantbody
    cerebrum ( largest portion of brai n)
    activitics, such as brcathing, hcartbcat,
    andothcrinvounta,rc0cx-typcactions.
    Abovcthc mcdua arc thc midbrain and
    pons. Thcy contro ccrtain body movc-
    mcnts and act as a rcay ccntcr. Ncxt is
    thcdicnccphaon. Onc portionofit rcgu-
    atcs body tcmpcraturc, hungcr, thirst,
    and somc of thc basic cmotions, such as
    angcr and fcar.
    Locatcdundcmcath and at thc rcar of
    thc ccrcbrum is thc ccrcbcum, or "ittc
    brain."Itisanothcrprimariyrc0cxccntcr,
    hcping mainy to coordinatc thc movc-
    mcnts of musccs. If it is not functioning
    propcry,movcmcntsbccomccrky,wak-
    di encephal on
    ing is unstcady, and thcrc is a gcncra
    trcmbling. Thc ccrcbcum aso hcps to
    maintainbaancc,rcccivingimpuscsfrom
    thc scmicircuar canas in thc cars.
    Thc argcst portion of thc brain is thc
    ccrcbrum, accountingforthrcc-fourths or
    morc of thc brain's total wcight. This is
    thc grcat domc-shapcd, wrinkcd and
    groovcd mass that occupics most of thc
    bonycranium. Itisdividcdintorightand
    c havcs, or hcmisphcrcs, and cach of
    thcsc havcs has four obcs with spccic
    functions. Of thcroughly tcnbiion ccls
    comprisingthcncrvoussystcm,abouthalf
    arc found in thc ccrcbrum.
    J!
    Thc ccrcbrum is thc part of thc brain
    withwhichyoudoyourtmgandrca-
    soning. It is aso thc ccntcr for mcmo
    and spccch and for thc scnscs of sight,
    hcaring, smc,tastc, andtouch. Impuscs
    fromthcccrcbrumaso gotothcmusccs
    of thc arms, cgs, ncck, facc, tonguc, and
    othcrparts. Evcnthcwiggingofyourit-
    tc toc is controcd by this part of thc
    humanbrain. Intcrcstingy, thc right half
    of thc ccrcbrum contros movcmcnts on
    thc c sidc of thc body, whic thc lc
    hafcontrosmovcmcntsonthcrightsidc
    of thc body.
    Thcsc arc thc vcry simplcst functions
    of thc brain, which is activc twcnty-four
    hours a daycvcn whcn you arc aslccp.
    Its impuscs, calcd brain wavcs, can bc
    mcasurcd. Thcir pattcm is as distinctivc
    forcachindividualasarcthcngcrprints.
    Ri ght si de
    of brai n
    control s
    left side
    of body.
    of brain
    control s
    ri ght side
    of body.
    Conncctcdtothcbrainarctwcvcpairs
    of crania ncrcs. Thcy arc thc pathways
    bctwccn thc brain and your scnscs of
    thchcadsmcl, sight,hcaring, tastc,and
    baanccand hcp to contro thc movc-
    mcnt ofthccycsand thcvariousmusccs
    of thc facc. Ony thctcnthcraniancrvc,
    or vagus, gocs to thc intcrnal organs of
    thc body. Itcontrosdigcstion,hcartbcat,
    brcathing,andsimilarfunctionsallauto-
    matically, without your having to think
    about thcm.
    Thc vagusncrvc mcrgcs withthc auto-
    nomic ncrvous systcm. Thc autonomic
    systcm, ncrcs that lic outsidc thc spinal
    cord, functions automatically. It has con-
    troovcr thcsizc of boodvcsscls, thc ac-
    tion of thc musccs in thc digcstivc tract,
    thc sccrctions of thc digcstivc and swcat
    glands,thchcartratc,andothcractivitics.
    t
    vitreous umor
    optic ( a clear j el lyl i ke
    + materi al that fl l s -
    enti re cavity)

    coveri ng)
    (col ored
    portion)
    scl era -
    (outer layer)
    Seeing, Hearing, and Other Senses
    Your cycs arc spccia scnsc organs.
    Rays of Iight that cntcr thcsc two win-
    dows faI on thc rctina, thc vcry ight-
    scnsitivctissucthatIincsthcbackofcach
    cycba. Thc ight stimuatcs thc cndings
    of ncrvcs found within thc rctina. Thcsc
    ncrvcs Icad dirccty to thc brain, whcrc
    thc impuIscs arc transatcd into sight.
    Thc scnsitivc rctina consists of two
    typcs of ncrc ccsrods and concs.
    Thcrc arc morc than miion rods in
    cach rctina, and about 8 milion concs.
    Concscnabcustoscccoorandfunction
    onIy in bright ight. Thc rods arc scnsi-
    tivc to smaIIcr amounts of ightthan arc
    thcconcs. Rodsfunctionbcstindimight
    and cnabc us to scc obccts as back or
    whitc. Rodsarc found mostyaround thc
    cdgcs of thc rctina.
    Thc fovca,asmaarcainthcccntcrof
    thc rctina, contains ony concs coscy
    packcd. This is thc part of thc cyc that
    providcsgood vision forsccing coor and
    for making out nc dctais.
    Both rods and concs arc abscnt in a
    smaIovaarcaust o-ccntcratthc back
    of cach cyc, whcrcthc bcrs of thc optic
    ncrvc arc ocatcd. This is thc optic disc,
    or "bind spot," whcrc no vision is rcgis-
    tcrcd at a.
    JV
    farsighted
    bl urry vision
    when looking at

    close objects
    --
    ( i mage does not
    focus on reti na)
    nearsi ghted
    bl urry vision
    convex l ens
    focus corrected
    when l ooki ng at
    distant objects
    (focus i n front
    of reti na)
    concave l ens
    focus corrected
    The optic nere from each eye con
    nects directly to the brain. Nerve fbers
    from the lef half of each eye go to the
    lef side of the brain; those from the right
    half of each eye to the brain's right side.
    Because of this crossing over of the optic
    nere fbers, each half of the brain re-

    Accommodati on-Abi l ity of Lens to Change Shape


    distant
    si ght
    l ens thi ck
    when l ooki ng i nto your eye.
    ceives half a picture from each eye. This
    enables us to perceive depth or distance.
    Our eyes can thus distinguish height,
    width, and depth and can see three
    dimensionally.
    Muscles attached to each eyeball per
    mit you to tum your eyes to the right or
    Icandupordown. EycIidsprovidcpro-
    tcctivc covcrs for your cycs, which arc
    kcpt moist by sccrctions from thc tcar
    gIandsandarc"swcpt"cvcryIcwscconds
    by aninvoIuntarybIink.

    MuscIcs aIso controI thc shapc of thc
    Icnsofthccyc,sothatitfocuscsautomati-
    caIIyoncloscordistantob]ccts.Othcrmus-
    clcs controI thc iris, which is thc colorcd
    porton of thc cyc. Thc opcning in thc
    iris s thc pupiI. Thc opcning or cIosing
    ofthc pupil in dim or bright Iight Icts in
    morc or Icss light. Thc pupiI appcars as
    thc dark ccntcr of thc iris.
    Thc scnsc ofhcaring isaIso cIoscIy as-
    sociatcd with thc brain. Sounds arc pro-
    duccd by vibrations in thc air. Thosc
    withinthc rangc of our hcaring arc from
    as Iow as up to7, or cvcnJ,
    vibrations pcrsccond. Thc rangcofhcar-
    ingvaricswithdicrcntpcopIc.Somcani-
    maIscannothcaraswcIIashumanbcings,
    othcrs can dctcct sounds at a Iowcr or
    cvcnahighcrpitch. "SiIcnt"dogwhistlcs,
    for cxampIc,producc sounds thatarc too
    highforustohcar,butdogscanhcarthcm
    and can bc traincd to rcspond.
    Lach car consists ofthrcc maor parts.
    Thc outcr car, onc on cach sidc of thc
    hcad, is madc mostIy of cartiIagc. It is
    rcaIly thc Icast important part for actuaI
    hcaring, scrving onIy to hcIp dircct thc
    sound wavcs into thc car. Somc anmas
    cantumthcircarstopickupsoundsmorc
    dircctly. Wchavctoturnourhcadstodo
    this. AIso part of thc outcr car is a short
    canaI Iincd with skin. A thin mcmbranc.
    thccardmm, isIocatcd atthccnd ofthis
    funncI-shapcd canaI. Whcn sound wavcs
    strikc thc cardrum, it vibratcs at thcir
    samc frcqucn.
    Thc vibrations of thc cardrum arc
    pickcd up by thc thrcc boncs that com-
    priscthc middIc car. Thcsc arc thc ham-
    mcr, anviI, and strrup, which go aIso by
    thc Latin namcs of maIIcus, incus, and
    stapcs. Thcsc smaII boncs, arrangcd in a
    chain, transmit thc sound vibrations to
    thc cochIca, a coiIcd, or spiracd, uid-
    lIcd chambcrof thcinncrcar.
    +
    The cochlea contains numerous cells
    that end in hairlike structures. These hair
    cells are connected to endings of the audi
    tor nere that transmits impulses directly
    to the brain. In the brain, the vibrations
    are translated into the sounds we hear.
    The middle ear is connected directly to
    the throat by the eustachian tube. This
    makes it possible to equalize the pressure
    on each side of the eardrum, which would
    otherise be ruptured when you go sud
    denly from one altitude to another. In an
    airplane, or even in an elevator that
    whisks you rapidly upward or downward,
    you swallow to "open your ears" and to
    releve the discomfort or pain caused by
    _
    the diference u pressure on the two sides
    of the eardrum. Tle eustachian tube is
    closed except when you swallow or yawn.
    Also located in the inner ear are three
    semicircular canals and two small pouch
    es attached to them. They have nothing to
    +Z
    eustachi an tube
    (opens into the throat)
    auditor
    cochl ea
    do with hearing, but they do control bal
    ance. A of the canals are flled with a
    fuid. The two pouches contain very small
    stonelike bodies called otoliths and are
    also flled with fuid. Movement of the
    head or body causes motion of the oto
    liths and of the fuid in the semicircular
    canals. Nerves are stimulated and mes
    sages are sent to the brain, which then
    recognizes the kind of movement made
    by the body.
    Another important sense is that of
    taste. In addition to helping to form
    sounds, the tongue is the center of taste.
    The tongue has about J,U taste buds.
    Those in diferent pars of the tongue pick
    up diferent tastes. Sweet, sour, bitter, and
    salt are the four basic tastes.
    Taste buds at the rear of the tongue
    are more sensitive to bitter tastes; those
    at the front, to sweet tastes. Salty tastes
    are registered along the front edges on
    =
    cachsidcofthctonguc; sourtastcs,aong
    thc rcar cdgcs.
    Foods vary a grcat dca in tastc. Somc
    arc too band and othcrs too strong, and
    othcrstastcustright.Tastcsasovawith
    thc tcmpcraturc of thc food or drink. A
    so drink isswcctcr at roomtcmpcraturc
    than whcn it is cod, as onc cxampc.
    In addition to thcsc basic tastcs, odors
    pay an important part u our "tasting"
    food.Ifyoucoscyourcycsandhodyour
    nosc,youwihavcdimcutyindistinguish-
    ing an onion from a potato or an appc,
    if you arc givcn sma cnough picccs so
    that thctcxturc docs notgivc thcm away.
    Butifyoudonothodyour nosc, youcan
    tcthcmapartimmcdiatcy.Ocnyouarc
    smcing food you think you arc tasting.
    Cel l s that detect
    smel l are l ocated
    i n the roof of the
    nose cavity.
    Thcscnscofsmclisocatcdnacham-
    bcrthatisabovcthcmainpassagcwayfor
    air through thc nostris. Ony vcry smal

    amountsofsomcfoods,suchasgaric,arc
    nccdcdtobcsmccd. Acrthcinitiadc-
    tcction of thc odor, howcvcr, thc smc
    bccomcs css and css noticcabc. Largcr
    amounts of othcr foods arc rcquircd bc-
    forc thcir odor can bc dctcctcd.
    Pain, hcat, cod, prcssurc, touchthcsc
    arc scnscs ocatcd in thc skin. Thcy
    scnscsof "fcc." Eachtypcofscnsationis
    rcgistcrcdbydm crcntncrvccndingsfound
    ingrcat numbcrs in thc skin. On a smaI
    patchofskin,forcxampc,youcanfccthc
    touch of a pin in onc pacc but notpain.
    Anothcr spot givcs thc scnsation of pain
    but not touch.
    Thcsc scnscs arc cxtrcmcy important
    to thc protcction of your boy. Thcy tcII
    you whcn you'vc comc in contact with a
    hotorsharpobcct, andthusthcyhcpto
    prcvcnt scrious accidcnts. Aso, thcy cn-
    abc you to fcc or grasp obccts without
    having to scc thcm.
    2 . touch
    Shown, enl arged, are fve sensory nerve
    bundl es and where they are l ocated in
    the ski n.
    The Endocri ne System-Chemi cal Control
    thyroid
    gl and
    ovaries
    (femal e) W
    isl and of
    Langerhans
    ( located in
    pd crea )
    Thc cndocrinc systcm is composcd of
    a numbcrofsma, spccia gands ocatcd
    invariouspartsofthcbody. Thcyhcpto
    controIbodyactiviticsandfunctionsbya
    dicrcntmcthodthanthatofthcncrvous
    systcm.Ncrcsarcconncctcdonctoanoth-
    cr, and mcssagcs arc scnt aIong thcm as
    though thcy wcrc wircs. Ncrvcs govcm
    immcdiatc and fast-moving actions, such
    as thccontraction ofa muscc. Thccndo-
    crincgIandscontroIactiviticsthatarcgcn-
    craIIy sIowcr but havc a Iongcr, or somc-
    +
    timcspcmancnt,ccctonthcbody.Thcir
    ontrol is indircctby thc rccasc ofspc-
    cialchcmicalsintothcbood.Thcscchcmi-
    cals arc calIcd homoncs.
    Hormoncs dctcminc your ratc of
    growh and dcvcopmcnt. Thcy hcp to
    control your bchavior and havc much to
    do with your pcrsonaity and cmotions.
    Thc so-calcd mastcr cndocrinc gand
    is thc pituita, a sma gand ocatcd at
    thc bascofthcbrain. Apanofthcgand
    is, in fact, attachcd to thc brain. Scvcra
    hormoncs arc produccd by thc pituita
    gand, and thcy arc of such vita impor-
    tancc that you woud not survivc long if
    thc gand wcrc rcmovcd.
    Onc hormonc from thc pituitary con-
    tros thc growth and functioning of thc
    thyroid and adrcnaI gands, also in thc
    cndocrinc systcm. Anothcr dctcrmincs
    your growth pattcm. Too much of this
    hormonc produccs giants; too ittlc pro-
    duccs dwarfs. An cxccss in atcr ifc may
    rcsut in big fcct and hands, a "antcm"
    aw, and an cxccptionaIy ong nosc and
    big cars. In aduts, hormoncs from thc
    pituitary acctthc sccrctions ofmaIcand
    fcmacscxhormoncs,andthcycontroIthc
    amountofwatcrstorcdinthcbody,which
    accts thc bIood prcssurc.
    Thc thyroid gIand is Iocatcd in thc
    throat,ustabovcthcvoiccbox,orarynx.
    Thc thyroid is somctimcs rcfcrrcd to as
    thc"paccscttcr"bccauscitshormonccon-
    troIs thc basic proccsscs of thc body. !t
    cspcciaIIy accts growth pattcms. ChiI-
    drcn with too Iittc of this hormonc bc-
    comc mcntaIIy and physicaIIy rctardcd.
    ThcyarccaIIcd crctins. AduIts witha dc-
    cicncyofthchormoncbccomcfat,wcak,
    ncrvous, and oftcn mcntaIIy sIuggish.
    If an excess of the hormone is pro
    duced, people become thin and "pop
    eyed" -that is, they have protruding eye
    balls. Nowadays the production of the
    hormone is ofen slowed down by giving
    drugs rather than by an operation to re-
    Too much of
    the pituitary
    gl and' s hormone
    produces ver
    tal l peopl e;
    too l ittle,
    very short
    peopl e.
    9 feet
    2. Z4 meters
    8 feet
    2. 44 meters
    Z feet
    2. l 3 meters
    6 feet
    1 . 83 meters
    2 feet
    . 61 meters
    move part of the thyroid gland, the rem
    edy in the past.
    Just behind the thyroid gland are two
    pairs of small, yellowish, pea-sized glands,
    the parathyroids. Before they were rec
    ognized, they were sometimes removed
    along with portions of the thyroid in
    goiter operations. Death always resulted.
    The hormone produced by these glands
    is necessary for the proper functioning of
    the nervous system.
    At the top of each kidney is an egg
    sized adrenal gland. It consists of an inner
    portion, or medulla, and an outer layer,
    or cortex.
    The medulla produces the best kown
    of all the hormones-adrenalin. Some
    times called the "emergency" hormone,
    it causes the liver to release more sugar
    into the blood, thus making possible the
    extra spurt of energy needed either for
    fght or for fight. Adrenalin also makes
    the blood vessels of voluntar muscles
    dilate so that they are richly supplied with
    blood. When adrenalin had been poured
    into the system, almost superhuman feats
    are possible-at least, performances that
    far exceed what persons can normally do.
    The outer layer of the adrenal glands
    yields several other hormones. They help
    to control the rate at which sugar is used
    in the body. They infuence, too, the rate
    at which salts are excreted by the kidneys
    and govern secondary sexual character
    istics, such as the growth of the beard .
    Within the pancreas are found the is
    lands of Langerhans, groups of endocrine
    cells. Their hormone is insulin, essential
    for the body's proper use of sugar. With
    out insulin, the sugar in the bloodstream
    is not used by the cells. This is the disease
    called diabetes, which fortunately can
    usually be controlled by taking insulin.
    45
    .
    More of a Ki nd
    Every living thing in this world is capa
    ble of reproducing its own kind. Repro
    duction is literally a law of life. Without
    reproduction, plants and animals would
    not exist.
    All plants and animals are composed
    of living cells. The most frequent way of
    reproducing new living cells is simply by
    cell division. A single cell undergoes a
    series of complicated changes and then
    divides, forming two cells. It actually mul
    tiplies by dividing. Each new cell usually
    will be identical to its parent cell, except
    that it will be smaller-about half the size
    of the original cell. Reproducing by cell
    dvision is known as asexual reproduction.
    One-celled plants and animals repro-
    . . duce by asexual reproduction. Under ideal
    growing cond ons, some bacteria are
    capable of dividing about every ffteen
    minutes. As a single bacterium divides,
    it produces two new cells. Each of these
    divides, producing four new cells. The
    four cells divide to produce eight new
    cells. After just twenty such divisions, oc
    curring in about fve hours, there will be
    over a half million new bacteria cells.
    Asexual reproduction occurs at varying
    rates m all living things. Most of the cells
    m your body divide constantly as you
    grow and as wor-out or damaged parts
    are replaced. These cells reproduce them
    selves in exact detail as they maintain the
    health and upkeep of the body.
    Humans, like most of the familiar ani
    mals, cannot produce more of their own
    kind by asexual reproduction. For them,
    sexual reproduction must occur.
    H sexual reproduction, the male con
    tributes a reproductive cell called the
    sper. The female's share is provided by
    4
    Mal e
    Reproductive
    System
    ferti l ization ( egg
    and sperm unite)
    peni s-
    to uterus
    Femal e
    Reproductive
    System
    sperm
    a single-celled egg, or ovum. Both the
    sperm cell and the egg are incomplete
    cells, capable of living by themselves for
    only a short time. They become complete
    cells when they are united. This uniting of
    sperm and egg is known as fertilization.
    The fertilized egg then divides again and
    again, by simple cell division (asexual re
    production), producing a human being.
    Only a fertilized egg is capable of growing
    into a new individual.
    In the human reproduction system,
    there are special organs that produce the
    sperm and egg. These organs are called
    gonads. Thc maIc gonads, or tcstcs, pro-
    ducc thc spcrm. Thc fcmaIc gonads, or
    ovarics, rodcc thc cggs. Whcn an cgg
    isproduccdandthcnrcIcascdbyanovary,
    it travcs down a sma tubc caIIcd thc
    oviduct. Itisinthcoviductthatthcspcrm
    andcggunitctoformafcrtiIizcdcgg.Thc
    fcrtiIizcd cgg thcn travcIs to thc utcrus.
    oth thc oviduct and thc utcrus arc part
    of thc fcmaIc rcproductivc systcm. It is
    in

    hcutcrus thatthc fcrtiIizcd cgg grows


    anddcvcIopsintoancwIifcinaboutninc
    months' timc.
    Thc dcvcIoping fcrtilizcd cgg is caIIcd
    an cmbo. At rst, thc cmbryo appcars
    fve
    months
    ol d
    three
    Growth and
    Devel opment
    of a Baby
    ni ne
    months
    ol d
    tobcnothingmorcthanamassofgrowing
    ccIIs. As dcvcIopmcnt continucs, thc ccII
    mass bcgins totakc shapc,untiI, at about
    thrcc months, it is casiIy rccognizcd as a
    tinyhumanbcing,orfctus.Thcfct

    scon-
    tinucstogrow,ookingmorcandmorcIikc
    a human. FinaIIy it cmcrgcs from thc
    utcrus, and a baby is bom. During its
    ninc-month pcriod of growth, from fcr-

    tiIizcd cgg to ncwbom baby, it incrcascs


    its wcight six biIion timcs!
    In thc nucIcus of cach ccI arc found
    many smaII, sIcndcr, dark thrcads cacd
    chromosomcs.Thcrcarcforty-sixchromo-
    somcs in aImost aII human ccIIs. Rcd
    bIood ccIIs donot havc anybccauscthcy
    do not havc a nucIcus. Egg and spcrm
    ccIIs arc dicrcnt inthat thcyarc incom-
    pIctc ccIs. Each has onIy twcnty-thrcc
    chromosomcs within its nuccus. Whcn a
    spcrm unitcs with an cg_, it rcstorcs thc
    chromosomc numbcr to forty-six, thus
    making it a compIctc ccII.
    Each chromosomc is madc up of sti
    smaIIcrunitscaIIcdgcncs. Ittakcsscvcra
    hundrcd gcncs to makc up just a singIc
    Half of our chromosomes ( and genes,
    too) come from our father and half
    from our mother.
    chromosomc. Evcry body ccII that has a
    nucIcuscontains thousands ofgcncs. It is
    thc gcncs that hcIp to dctcrminc your
    IooksandothcrindividuaIcharactcristics.
    Though chiIdrcn rcccivc haIf of thcir
    gcncsfromthcirfathcrandhaIffromthcir
    mothcr, thisdocsnot mcanthatthcywiII
    havchaIfofthcirfathcr'sfcaturcsandhaIf
    ofthcirmothcr's.Eachgcncispaircdwith
    a matching gcnc from thc othcr parcnt.
    Thus thcrc arc two gcncs for cach trait,
    not onc. Howcvcr, onc of thc gcncs may
    dominatc thc othcr.
    Thc gcnc for brown cycs, fr cxampIc,
    is dominant ovcr thc gcnc for bIuc cycs.
    If you arc brown-cycd, you might havc
    onc gcnc for brown cycs and thc othcr
    gcnc for bIuc cycs. Or it might bc that
    both ofyourgcncs arc forbrowncycs. If
    you arc bIuc-cycd, it mcans that both of
    your gcncs arc for bIuc cycs. You do not
    havc any gcncs for brown cycs.
    AII inhcritcd traits arc thc rcsuIt of a
    combinationor amixing ofgcncs. About
    J triIIion dicrcnt gcnc combinations
    arc possibIc. This is why you arc indccd
    +
    uniqucpositivcIyunIikcanyothcrhuman
    bcing. You havc many fcaturcs that arc
    Iikcthoscofonc orbothparcntsor thosc
    of your brothcrs and sistcrs, but you arc
    not 0X0Cl] Iikc anyonc cIsc in thc worId.
    OnIy onc cxccption is possibIc. Idcn-
    ticaI twins, who arc aIways of thc samc
    scx, havc thc samc inhcritancc. IdcnticaI
    twins arc formcd whcn thc cgg dividcs
    acr it has unitcd with aspcrm andthcn
    cachofthcscccIIsdcvcIopsindcpcndcntIy.
    Thcir gcnctic contcnt is idcnticaI.
    FratcmaI twins, howcvcr, arc no morc
    aIikc in thcir inhcritancc than arc any
    brothcrs orsistcrs inthcfamiIy. Thcyarc
    formcd whcn two cggs arc produccd and
    cach is fcrtilizcd by a dicrcnt spcrm at
    aImost thcsamc timc. Thc twins thcndc-
    vclop togcthcr. FratcmaI twins may bc
    of thc samc scx or a maIc and a fcmaIc.
    Ocncs do dctcrminc inhcritcd charac-
    tcristics. Howcvcr, a Iackof propcr food,
    cxcrcisc, and rcst can inucncc growth
    and pcrsonaIity dcvcIopmcnt. How you
    carcforyourscIfisustasimportantasthc
    kind of gcncs you inhcrit!
    O
    L
    Gol den EXPLORI NG EARTH Books travel far beyond the boundari es of t he
    pri nted page. They l ead readers on exci t i ng expedi t i ons -whether i n the
    mi nd or on foot -and open thei r eyes to the many fasci nati ons of the natural
    worl d. Each i n the seri es i s an advent ure for t he young nature l over
    or begi nni ng sci enti st who wi shes to be better acquai nted wi th our earth
    and i ts many marvel s.
    0| 000 EXPLORI NG EARTH b00k8
    FLOWERS, TREES, AND ARDENI NG OCEANOGRAPHY
    REPTI LES AND AMPHI BI ANS NATURE HI KES
    ROCKS AND MI NERALS
    OUR 0 UNI TED STATES
    TE H UMAN BODY
    DI NOSAURS
    SCI ENCE
    HORSES
    ASTRONOMY
    ANI MALS
    I NSECTS
    BI RDS

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