Executive Summary

Increasing attention has been devoted to electricity sector development in the developing countries in the recent past. This is due to the fact that the development of electric power sector historically links to the economic advancement of the country. However, given the other commitments the developing countries have (e.g. transportation, health care, education),they cannot fully focus all investment on the electricity sector. This is where the Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) technology coming into effect. With relatively low investment, compared to new transmission or generation facilities, these FACTS technology allows the industries to better utilize the existing transmission and generation reserves, while enhancing the power system performance. Moreover, the current trend of deregulated electricity market also favors the FACTS controllers in many ways. FACTS controllers in the deregulated electricity market allow the system to be used in more flexible way with increased in various stability margins. FACTS controllers are products of FACTS technology; a group of power electronics controllers expected to revolutionize the power transmission and distribution system in many ways. FACTS controllers are beginning to appear in the developing countries, as the need for such controllers is recognized well by research communities in this area, and electric power utilities. The FACTS controllers clearly enhance power system performance, improve quality of supply and also provide an optimal utilization of the existing resources.FACTS controllers are proven to be effective in power grids in well-developed countries (e.g. USA, Canada, and Sweden). The economical viability of these controllers is justified through the long list of benefits that these controllers have, compared to the traditional controllers. FACTS technology can boost power transfer capability by 20-30% by increasing the flexibility of the systems. Power interchange with neighboring countries becomes easier and effective with these controllers. FACTS controllers can also increase the load ability or distance to voltage collapse of power system, so that additional loads can be added in the system without addition of new transmission and generating facilities. There are numbers of FACTS controllers/devices that have been developed depending upon the targeted goals to be achieved. Each one has its own characteristic behavior, capability and limitations.

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1. Overview Modern electric power utilities are facing many challenges due to ever-increasing complexity in their operation and structure. In the recent past, one of the problems that got wide attention is the power system instabilities. With the lack of new generation, transmission facilities and over exploitation of the existing facilities geared by increase in load demand make these types of problems are more imminent in modern power systems. In recent years, several major phenomena have been observed and reported in many Countries such as France, Belgium, Sweden, Germany, Japan, the United States, etc. These phenomena usually result in widespread blackouts. Information gathered and preliminary analysis, so far, from the most recent blackout incident in North America on 14th August 2003, are pointing the finger on voltage instability due to some unexpected contingency. Even though it is premature to make it as a conclusive remark, the voltage instability could have had a major role in the incident as has been the case in the past in major blackout incidents. In this incident, reports indicate that approximately 50 million people interrupted from continuous supply for more than 15 hours. Most of the incidents are believed to be related to heavily stressed system where large amounts of real and reactive power are transported over long transmission lines while appropriate real and reactive power resources are not available to maintain normal system conditions. Many electric utilities have made lot of efforts in system study in order to relieve the system from stability problem. Instability in power system could be relieved or at least minimized with the help of most recent developed devices called Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) controllers. The use of Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) controllers in power transmission system have led to many applications of these controllers not only to improve the stability of the existing power network resources but also provide operating flexibility to the power system. In addition, with relatively low investment compared to new transmission or generation facilities, these FACTS technology allows the industries to better utilize the existing transmission and generation reserves, while enhancing the power system performance. They clearly enhance power system

performance, improve quality of supply and also provide an optimal utilization of the existing resources. FACTS devices are defined by the IEEE as alternating current transmission system incorporating power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability. From the above definition, two main objectives of such devices can be restated as follows: To increase the power transfer capability of the transmission networks To provide direct control of power flow over designated transmission routes. FACTS devices are a family of high-speed electronic devices, which can significantly increase the power system performance by delivering or absorbing real and/or reactive power. There are many types of FACTS controllers available in real power system and some are under research. Static Var Compensator (SVC), Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) and Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) are popular FACTS devices. They can be connected to power system at any appropriate location, in series, in shunt or in a combination of series and shunt. The SVC and STATCOM are connected in shunt, whereas TCSC and SSSC are connected in series. UPFC is connected in a combination of both shunt and series.

1.2 Technical benefits of main FACTS devices Table 1.1.Tecnical benefits of main FACTS devices

Chapter 2

2.1 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) Combining the static compensator and the synchronous series capacitor into a single device with a common control system represents the third generation of FACTS. The device is known as Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). It has the unique ability to simultaneously control all three parameters of power flow (voltage, line impedance and phase angle). In this configuration, the series-capacitor component, connected in series with a line, injects an AC voltage with controllable magnitude and phase angle. The static compensator component, connected as a shunt, supplies or absorbs the real power demanded by the series capacitor through a common DC link, and provides var control. The first utility demonstration of a Unified Power Flow Controller is being constructed at the Inez substation of American Electric Power in 1998. Recently, 80 MVA UPFC were being constructed at Gangjin substation in South Korea. Table 2.1. below shows the list of UPFC.

Table 2.1. List of UPFC

2.2 UPFC Functions The primary function of the UPFC is active and reactive power flow control. It can be used in steady state or dynamic reaction to a disturbance. The UPFC is also appropriate for carrying out the following functions simultaneously, although an appropriate control system would need to be designed: Transient stability improvement Power swing damping Voltage stability improvement

It is well known that UPFC is a powerful and versatile concept for power flow control that has capability of changing power flow. The rapid and almost instantaneous responses make it suitable for many applications requiring effective steady-state power flow control and/or transient and dynamic stability improvement. The UPFC consists of two identical voltage-source inverters: one in shunt and the other one in series with the line; the general scheme is illustrated in Figure 2.1. Two inverters, namely shunt inverter and series inverter, which operate via a common DC link with a DC storage capacitor, allow UPFC to independently control active and reactive power flows on the line as well as the bus voltage. Active power can freely flow in either direction between the AC terminals of the two inverters through the DC link. Although, each inverter can generate or absorb reactive power at its own AC output terminal, they cannot internally exchange reactive power through DC link. The VA rating of the injected voltage source is determined by the product of the maximum injected voltage and the maximum line current at which power flow is still provided.

Figure 2.1 UPFC configuration.

The shunt inverter provides local bus voltage control when operated by itself as a STATCOM. When operated in conjunction with the series inverter, the shunt inverter has two functions: To control bus voltage by reactive power injection to the power system To supply active power to the series inverter via the DC link for series flow control.

The series inverter, on the other hand, provides line power flow control by injecting an AC voltage with controllable magnitude and phase angle at the power frequency, in series with the line via an insertion transformer. This injected series voltage is, in effect, a synchronous series AC voltage source, which provides active series compensation for line voltage control and angle regulation through the transmission line current. The transmission line currents flow through this voltage sources resulting in active and reactive power exchange between the inverter and the AC system. The active power exchanged at the series AC terminal is converted by the inverter into DC power that appears at the DC link as positive or negative active power demand and transfer to the other converter located at the other side of the line.

2.3 The Principle of Operation The UPFC is the most versatile FACTS controller developed so far, with all encompassing capabilities of voltage regulation, series compensation, and phase shifting. It can independently and very rapidly control both real- and reactive power flows in a transmission line. It is configured as shown in Fig. 2.2 and comprises two VSCs coupled through a common dc terminal. One VSCconverter 1is connected in shunt with the line through a coupling transformer; the other VSCconverter 2is inserted in series with the transmission line through an interface transformer. The dc voltage for both converters is provided by a common capacitor bank. The series converter is controlled to inject a voltage phasor, Vpq, in series with the line, which can be varied from 0 to Vpq max. Moreover, the phase angle of Vpq can be independently varied from 0 to 360. In this process, the series converter exchanges both real and reactive power with the transmission line. Although the reactive power is internally generated/ absorbed by the series converter, the real-power generation/ absorption is made feasible by the dc-energystorage devicethat is, the capacitor. The shunt-connected converter 1 is used mainly to supply the real-power demand of converter 2, which it derives from the transmission line itself. The shunt converter maintains constant voltage of the dc bus. Thus the net real power drawn from the ac system is equal to the losses of the two converters and their coupling transformers. In addition, the shunt converter functions like a STATCOM and independently regulate the terminal voltage of the interconnected bus by generatingabsorbing a requisite amount of reactive power. 2.3.1 UPFC equivalent circuit

Fig 2.2 UPFC equivalent circuit The UPFC equivalent circuit for steady state model is shown in Fig4.2. The equivalent circuit consists of two ideal voltage sources and is:

VcR = VcR(cos cR + j sin cR) VvR = VvR(cos vR + j sin vR) Where VvR and vR are the controllable magnitude (VvR min VvR VvR max) and angle (0 vR 2) of the shunt voltage source. The magnitude VcR and angle cR of the series voltage source are controlled between limits (VcR min VcR VcR max) and angle (0 cR 2),respectively.

Figure 2.3 The implementation of the UPFC using two back-to-back VSCs with A common dc-terminal capacitor.

The UPFC operates with constraints on the following variables: 1. The series-injected voltage magnitude; 2. The line current through series converter; 3. The shunt-converter current; 4. The minimum line-side voltage of the UPFC; 5. The maximum line-side voltage of the UPFC; and 6. The real-power transfer between the series converter and the shunt converter.

Chapter 3
3.1 Terminology and Definitions in MiPower

UPFC No.: This field gives the number of the device. UPFC Name: This field gives the name of the device. From Bus Number: This field is used to specify the From bus number to which the series element is connected. This bus can be selected from the list box provided, which displays all the buses present in the database. In the case of UPFC, From bus is the voltage control bus.

To Bus Number: This field is to specify the To bus number to which the series element is connected. This bus can be selected from the list box provided, which displays all the buses present in the database.

MVA Rating: This field is to specify the MVA rating of the device. This MVA rating is used in parameter conversions.

kV Rating: This field is used to specify the kV rating of the device on which the devices parameters are derived.

In Service / Out of Service In service: Element consider for the study or analysis. Out of Service: Element is not considered for the study or analysis. Tolerance: UPFC tolerance is the maximum real power error in PU on the given MVA base. This is used to check the UPFC devices convergence. For this device, tolerance is the sum of real power injection in the shunt and series converters. The amount of real power taken from the shunt converter is given to the series converter, assuming no real power losses in the converters. Generally an acceptable value of tolerance is 0.001 PU.

P Ref: The value of MW power to be transferred through the UPFC, and thereby through the line to which the UPFC is connected.

Q Ref: The value of Mvar power to be transferred through the UPFC, and thereby through the line to which the UPFC is connected.

V Ref: The value of voltage in p.u. to be set to the UPFC From bus. Series Converter Reactance: The model of UPFC demonstrated here has a series connected converter whose reactance alone is considered. Series converters resistance is assumed to be negligible. The reactance value cannot be 0 and its ranges between 0.010.2 p.u.

Series Converter Min. Voltage: The series converter injects or absorbs some voltage in series with the line. The minimum voltage it must inject/absorb is specified in this field.

Series Converter Max. Voltage: The series converter injects or absorbs some voltage in series with the line. The maximum voltage it must inject/absorb is specified in this field.

Shunt Converter Reactance: The model of UPFC demonstrated here has a shunt connected converter whose reactance alone is considered. Shunt converters resistance is assumed to be negligible. The reactance value cannot be 0 and it ranges between 0.010.2 p.u.

Shunt Converter Min. Voltage: The minimum voltage that the shunt converter must have is specified in this field. It can generally be 0.9 p.u. for 1.0 p.u. of reference voltage.

Shunt Converter Max. Voltage: The maximum voltage that the shunt converter must have is specified in this field. It can generally go up to 1.1 p.u. for 1.0 p.u. of reference voltage.

UPFC Check-Limit: If the user does not check this box, the UPFC series and shunt converters voltage limits are not taken into account, and the reference powers P-REF and Q-REF will flow through the line even if voltage limit violations occur.

If the user checks this box, the UPFC voltage limits will be taken into account, and the reference powers P-REF and Q-REF will flow through the line only if there are no voltage limit violations. If there are limit violations the P-REF and Q-REF will be reset to best possible values, ensuring voltage limit violations are avoided.

3.2 Example to demonstrate working of UPFC The single line diagram of a 5 bus system is represented with two generating units and seven lines. Per-unit transmission line series impedances and shunt susceptances are given on 100 MVA base. Real power generation, real and reactive power loads in MW and MVAR are given in table. Improve the power flow through the line 3-4 to 40 MW with UPFC. Assume the base voltage for the bus as 220 kV and system frequency as 60 Hz. Application of UPFC The purpose of connecting a UPFC is to improve the power flow through the line 4-5 to 40MW. Remove the existing FACTS device and Click on UPFC icon provided in the power system tool bar and connect it between Bus4 and Bus6, in the similar way as TCSC/SPS was connected. Give ID No as 1 and say OK. UPFC form will appear. Note: Do not connect more than one UPFC between the same From and To buses. Also do not connect any two series facts devices between the same From and To buses.

Enter UPFC device details as shown below

Then click save button, which invokes Network Editor. Execute load flow analysis and click on Report in load flow analysis dialog to view report. In the UPFC data if Q check limit is unchecked Case 1: When reference flows do not exceed UPFC series and shunt voltage limits. Given below is the UPFC input data and results depicting how UPFC improves the power flows.

Input data 1:
DEVIE Xse(P.U) Xsh(p.u) Vse_min Vse_max Vsh_min Vsh_max MVA RATING KV RATING P-ref Q-ref V-ref

UPFC -1

0.1000

0.1000

0.0000

0.600

0.900

1.100

100.00

220.00

40.00

2.00

1.00

3.3 MIPOWER RESULTS:

3.3.1 5-Bus system Output1: UPFC PARAMETERS FOR THE PROPOSED REFERENCE POWER FLOWS
DEVIE UPFC

From node

To node

P-initial (M.W)

Q-initial (MVAR)

V-initial (p.u)

P-ref (M.W)

Q-ref (MVAR)

V-ref (p.u)

Vse(Vcr) (p.u)

Teta-cr (deg)

Vsh(Vvr) (p.u)

Teta-sh (deg)

Qinjection (MVAR)

6 1.00

6.598 0.195

0.518 -98.683

0.98 1.030

40.00 -6.748

2.00 35.74

Standard 5 bus test network is tested with and without UPFC to investigate its behavior. In the analysis bus 1 is taken as slack bus, 2 is voltage control bus and 3, 4, 5 are load buses. To include the UPFC in the network an additional bus (bus no 6) is introduced as shown. The UPFC shunt converter is set to regulate node 4 voltage magnitude at 1 pu while series converter regulates the power flow between the two nodes. Flat voltage start is assumed for the two UPFC voltage sources. The 5-bus network was tested without UPFC and with UPFC. For the network without UPFC the convergence was achieved in 3 iterations to a power mismatch tolerance of 10- .With UPFC convergence was achieved in 4 iterations for the same tolerance. Also, the UPFC parameters were within limits. The power flow for lines, line losses and % loading which are tabulated below. The voltages of the buses with and without UPFC are also reported. It is clearly seen from the Table 2 that the power of the 5th bus is increased due to the insertion of UPFC powers .The line flow in the line between buses 4-5 has increased from 6.598 to 38.79. The voltage of the buses with and without UPFC is tabulated below. The UPFC is worked to set the fourth bus voltage to 1 per unit. TABLE 1 LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES WITHOUT UPFC FROM BUS TO BUS MW 1 1 2 2 2 3 4 2 3 3 4 5 4 5 89.331 89.331 24.473 27.713 54.660 19.386 6.598 FORWORD MVAR 73.995 16.820 -2.518 -1.724 5.558 2.865 0.518 MW 2.4859 1.5178 0.3595 0.4609 1.2150 0.0401 0.0431 LOSSES MVAR 1.0868 -0.6922 -2.8708 -2.5545 0.7287 -1.8230 -4.6525 % LOADING 109.4 42.5 24.6 27.8 54.9 20.2 8.6
3

TABLE 2 LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES WITH UPFC

FROM BUS 1 1 2 2 2 3 4

TO BUS MW 2 3 3 4 5 4 5

FORWORD MVAR 75.866 9.807 -12.217 -14.308 4.319 -16.325 3.32 MW

LOSSES MVAR 0.6616 0.3487 -1.4338 -0.4136 -2.3624 -1.4832 -1.3186

% LOADING 106.1 48.0 38.3 45.2 22.6 41.8 39.2

83.012 49.876 36.324 42.906 21.437 38.461 38.79

2.3441 1.8845 0.8543 1.1954 0.1974 0.1717 1.2401

TABLE 3 BUS VOLTAGES WITH AND WITHOUT UPFC

BUS VOLTAGES BUS NO WITHOUT UPFC V-MAG(P.U) 1 2 3 4 5 6 1.0600 1.0000 0.9872 0.9841 0.9717 ANGLE(DEGREE) 0.00 -2.06 -4.64 -4.96 -5.76 -

BUS VOLTGES WITH UPFC V-MAG(P.U) 1.0600 1.0000 0.9992 1.0000 0.9847 1.0227 ANGLE(DEGREE) 0.00 -1.84 -5.94 -6.69 -3.20 2.06

3.3.2 14-Bus system TABLE 1 LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES WITHOUT UPFC

FROM BUS 1 2 2 1 2 3 4 9 6 6 6 9 10 12 13

TO BUS MW 2 3 4 5 5 4 5 10 11 12 13 14 11 13 14

FORWORD MVAR -20.310 3.597 -5.103 -0.207 -3.840 -1.311 9.302 4.432 3.298 2.083 5.421 1.226 -1.436 0.338 -0.433 MW

LOSSES MVAR 7.2039 5.0583 1.1684 6.0489 -0.9508 -2.6388 0.3862 0.0682 0.0564 0.1452 0.3885 0.2745 0.0053 0.0038 -4.4810

% LOADING 74.4 34.9 27.1 35.7 19.8 11.7 32.1 4.5 2.7 3.8 8.6 5.0 0.8 0.7 3.1

156.481 72.854 56.497 75.785 41.154 -23.645 -64.890 8.124 4.431 7.534 17.076 10.302 -0.902 1.364 4.738

4.2753 2.2994 1.7035 2.7649 0.8853 0.3122 0.5577 0.0257 0.0269 0.0698 0.1973 0.1290 0.0023 0.0042 0.0117

TABLE 2 LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES WITH UPFC

FROM BUS 1 2 2 1 2 3 4 9 6 6 6 9 10 12 13

TO BUS MW 2 3 4 5 5 4 5 10 11 12 13 14 11 13 14

FORWORD MVAR -48.983 4.397 0.654 0.045 4.375 3.412 18.390 4.248 3.506 1.778 4.255 4.403 -1.608 0.035 0.91 MW

LOSSES MVAR -17.3739 3.1949 -1.3018 25.1721 -2.9575 -1.9379 1.8017 0.0559 0.0773 0.1430 0.3862 0.3140 0.0206 0.0036 0.0888

% LOADING 60.4 31.3 19.5 58.5 10.2 15.5 43.2 4.1 3.1 3.7 8.6 5.4 1.2 0.7 2.5

118.238 65.340 40.697 123.958 19.744 -30.717 -85.983 7.145 5.424 7.542 17.327 10.091 -1.877 1.373 4.96

10.7573 1.8569 0.8852 7.3926 0.2235 0.5417 1.0101 0.0211 0.0369 0.0687 0.1961 0.1476 0.0101 0.0040 0.0436

TABLE 3 BUS VOLTAGES WITH AND WITHOUT UPFC

BUS NO

BUS VOLTAGES WITHOUT UPFC V-MAG(P.U) ANGLE(DEGREE) 0.00 0.00 -12.67 -10.41 -8.85 -14.30 -11.76 -14.34 -14.64 14.61 -15.21 -15.31 -15.79 -

BUS VOLTGES WITH UPFC V-MAG(P.U) 1.0600 1.0450 1.0100 1.0200 1.0243 1.0362 1.0398 1.0216 1.0159 1.0246 1.0230 1.0200 0.9976 1.0094 ANGLE(DEGREE) 0.00 -13.02 -19.88 -16.80 -14.67 -20.32 -18.12 -20.68 -20.93 -20.73 -21.25 -21.39 -21.89 -21.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1.0600 1.0450 1.0100 1.0234 1.0282 1.0374 1.0447 1.0298 1.0236 1.0270 1.0235 1.0199 1.0141 -

3.3.3 30-Bus system TABLE 1 LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES WITHOUT UPFC

FROM BUS 1 1 2 3 2 2 4 5 6 6 12 12 12 14 16 15 18 19 10 10 10 10 21

TO BUS MW 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 14 15 16 15 17 18 19 20 20 17 21 22 22

FORWORD MVAR 43.630 16.669 12.152 15.533 9.031 17.556 21.864 10.123 -2.096 7.781 2.271 5.882 2.764 0.501 0.882 1.517 0.545 -2.860 3.891 5.001 9.111 4.005 -2.365 MW

LOSSES MVAR 0.8237 -0.0637 -0.3460 0.0699 -2.1104 1.5281 0.0845 -1.2238 -1.6494 -0.4492 0.1694 0.4240 0.0820 0.0032 0.0093 0.0712 0.0056 0.0549 0.2761 0.0737 0.2758 0.1214 0.0028

% LOADING 44.7 38.8 68.2 37.8 26.7 84.1 53.6 38.3 1.9 24.3 25.4 56.3 40.1 7.9 13.8 35.7 13.0 56.1 35.9 29.2 60.0 28.1 10.8

115.335 50.746 44.725 47.166 33.775 54.326 42.931 24.228 -1.107 29.962 7.333 15.962 5.393 1.053 1.854 5.053 1.818 -7.683 10.034 7.175 15.485 7.414 -2.140

0.8099 1.1806 1.1488 0.3200 0.5484 1.7745 0.2790 0.3209 0.0008 0.1194 0.0815 0.2152 0.0390 0.0035 0.0025 0.0350 0.0028 0.0274 0.1236 0.0283 0.1281 0.0589 0.0014

15 22 23 24 25 25 27 27 29 8 6

23 24 24 25 26 27 29 30 30 28 28

3.544 5.213 0.325 -3.201 3.554 -6.782 6.213 7.122 3.711 -0.157 20.433

1.939 1.516 0.301 -1.347 2.381 -3.776 1.715 1.719 0.621 -1.769 6.124

0.0191 0.0397 0.0003 0.0272 0.0543 0.0767 0.1027 0.1933 0.0400 0.0001 0.0807

0.0386 0.0618 0.0006 0.0474 0.0810 0.1465 0.1941 0.3639 0.0756 -4.0913 -0.9659

27.3 36.7 3.0 23.7 28.9 52.4 42.7 48.6 15.7 7.4 68.9

TABLE 2 LINE FLOWS AND LINE LOSSES WITH UPFC

FROM BUS 1 1 2 3 2 2 4 5 6 6 12 12

TO BUS MW 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 14 15

FORWORD MVAR 43.791 9.414 3.878 8.628 9.108 7.940 15.859 1.821 6.022 7.236 1.791 3.793 MW 0.8034 1.0977 1.0525 0.2940 0.5365 1.6261 0.2606 0.2592 0.0127 0.1113 0.0654 0.1586

LOSSES MVAR 0.8009 -0.4142 -0.6917 -0.0265 -2.1604 1.0160 -0.0071 -1.3992 -1.6573 -0.5075 0.1359 0.3124

% LOADING 44.6 37.6 65.8 36.2 26.4 80.9 51.8 33.8 6.0 23.5 22.8 48.4

114.734 50.908 44.516 47.410 33.339 54.375 44.525 23.802 -0.730 29.518 6.910 14.683

12 14 16 15 18 19 10 10 10 10 21 15 23 24 25 25 27 27 29 8 6 31

16 15 17 18 19 20 20 17 21 22 22 23 24 25 26 27 29 30 30 28 28 24

5.661 0.645 2.125 5.097 1.864 -7.642 10.018 6.934 17.870 8.897 0.238 1.871 -1.340 -1.148 3.551 -4.701 6.205 7.112 3.708 -0.593 18.707 9.000

-2.101 0.055 -3.976 -1.567 -2.534 -5.948 7.032 9.942 -7.517 -6.872 -19.001 2.602 0.980 0.045 2.375 -2.335 1.698 1.699 0.615 -2.256 4.255 2.000

0.0359 0.0010 0.0111 0.0328 0.0068 0.0342 0.1414 0.0480 0.1318 0.0926 0.0423 0.0110 0.0040 0.0027 0.0505 0.0328 0.0969 0.1822 0.0377 0.0002 0.0630 0.1037

0.0755 0.0009 0.0408 0.0667 0.0138 0.0685 0.3156 0.1252 0.2838 0.1910 0.0860 0.0223 0.0081 0.0047 0.0754 0.0626 0.1830 0.3430 0.0713 -4.2389 -1.0731 0.1614

38.5 4.2 28.8 34.5 20.4 62.7 38.4 38.0 19.5 35.3 59.7 3.3 1.7 7.5 27.8 34.2 41.5 47.2 15.2 7.3 60.9 59.4

TABLE 3 BUS VOLTAGES WITH AND WITHOUT UPFC BUS NO BUS VOLTAGES WITHOUT UPFC V-MAG(P.U) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 1.0600 1.0450 1.0113 0.9993 1.0100 0.9850 0.9864 0.9780 0.9521 0.9364 0.9522 0.9434 1.0266 0.9279 0.9243 0.9322 0.9294 0.9149 0.9128 0.9178 0.9234 0.9242 0.9162 ANGLE(DEGREE) 0.00 -1.10 -4.03 -4.92 -4.45 -5.80 -5.77 -6.49 -9.51 -11.58 -9.51 -11.14 -4.92 -12.18 -12.25 -11.67 -11.87 -12.89 -13.02 -12.73 -12.14 -12.12 -12.60 BUS VOLTGES WITH UPFC V-MAG(P.U) 1.0600 1.0450 1.0228 1.0134 1.0100 1.0016 0.9962 0.9949 0.9968 0.9960 0.9969 0.9797 1.0403 0.9665 0.9649 0.9786 0.9853 0.9629 0.9650 0.9719 0.9955 1.0000 0.9575 ANGLE(DEGREE) 0.00 -1.09 -4.17 -5.10 -4.39 -6.03 -5.89 -6.69 -9.79 -11.79 -9.79 -10.79 -5.10 -11.72 -11.79 -11.58 -11.94 -12.58 -12.83 -12.64 -12.71 -12.84 -11.87

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

0.9149 0.9263 0.9069 0.9429 0.9775 0.9212 0.9086 -

-12.64 -12.10 -12.60 -11.44 -6.46 -12.89 -13.94 -

0.9566 0.9587 0.9399 0.9692 0.9956 0.9481 0.9359 0.9708

-11.56 -11.32 -11.79 -10.87 -6.62 -12.25 -13.24 -10.71

Chapter 4
Voltage Stability and L-index analysis
4.1 CONTIGENCY ANALYSIS AND CALCULATION OF L-INDEX Electric power systems are exposed to various contingencies. Network contingencies often contribute to overloading of network branches, unsatisfactory voltages and also leading to voltage collapse. To maintain security against voltage collapse, it is desirable to estimate the effects of contingencies on the voltage stability.

Introduction to Contingency:
Contingency screening and ranking is one of the important components of on-line system security assessment. The objective of contingency screening and ranking is to quickly and accurately select e short list of critical contingencies from a large list of potential contingencies and rank them according to their severity. Suitable preventive control actions can be implemented considering contingencies that are likely to affect the power system performance.

Voltage stability index (L-index) computation:

Consider a system where n is the total number of buses with 1,2,g,g number of generator buses, and g+!....n, remaining (n-g) buses. For a given system operating condition, using load flow results, the voltage stability L-index is computed

Lj=

(Equation 4.1)

Where j=g+1..n and all the terms within the sigma on the RHS of the above equation are complex quantities. The values of Fij are obtained from the network F-bus matrix. For a given operating condition

(Equation 4.2 )

Where Ig,Il, and Vg, Vl represent complex current and voltage vectors at the generator nodes and load nodes L-index for all load buses N-Ngg L=zeros (1,N-Ngg) For j=1:N-Ngg

L[j]=abs(1-sum[(F(j,i)* End

)]) (Equation 4.3)

|Ygg|, |Ygl|,|Yll| and |Ylg| are corresponding partitioned portions of network bus matrix. Thus Fji= -[Yll]-1 * [Ylg]

4.2 IEEE 30 Bus System IEEE 30 bus system consists of 41 lines .It consists of two generator busses at bus 1 and bus 2, remaining all buses are load buses. In that 28 load buses 4 of the buses consist of synchronous condensers. The four buses that consist of synchronous condensers are bus 5, bus 8, bus 11 and bus 13.Two of the load buses consist of shunt capacitor to inject Mvars (reactive power).The two buses are 10th and 24th bus.

IEEE 30 BUS SYSTEM

Fig 4.1 IEEE 30 Bus System

4.3 Selection of suitable locations of UPFC under network contingency It is proposed to improve the performance of the system by selecting suitable locations for UPFC using all of its benefits under network contingencies. For a given contingency the possible locations of UPFC are analyzed. A contingency may involve a line having UPFC, and thus two locations for UPFC are selected based on the best performance of the system. These two UPFCs take care of all the network contingencies for the system studied. 4.3.1. Approach for UPFC location The following are the major steps involved in the approach for selection of UPFC location under a given network contingency: Step 1: identify the transmission corridors for the given network. Step 2: select few transmission lines as suitable locations for each transmission corridor. Step 3: compute the contingency ranking and L-index for the given network. Step 4: perform the power flow/voltage stability analysis with UPFC connected in selected line for each transmission corridor for a given network contingency. Step 5: prepare a list indicating location of UPFC based on voltage profile, power loss and L- index values. Step 6: From the above list we can identify the most suitable location for UPFC.

4.3.2.UPFC location for IEEE 30 Bus System

Since most of the contingencies may not pose threat the system security/stability those of contingencies that pose serious system security/stability are selected. A set of most severe contingencies, in the order of severity, is identified which needs additional supporting devices. Based on the set of network contingencies, a few transmission corridors are considered for placement of UPFC devices. For each contingency, analyses are carried out with placement of UPFC in different transmission corridors. From the analysis of all above set of contingencies one or two best locations for UPFC placement are obtained. The selection of UPFC location under network contingency is carried out for rank 1 to rank 5 contingencies, which are most important, as follows

TABLE 1 OVERAL SEVERITY INDICES AND RANKS

Outage line Between buses 2-6 5-7 6-8 4-6 10-20

V-min (P.U)

P-loss (MW)

%losses (MW)

Rank

0.6699 0.7123 0.7414 0.7065 0.7242

34.62 30.13 28.62 28.86 22.72

10.902 9.525 9.05 9.14 7.73

4.86591 3.2354 2.1344 2.69 1.64

1 2 3 4 5

4.3.3. Rank-1 contingency (line outage 26) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is34.62 MW (10.902%). The minimum voltage is 0.6699 p.u. at bus 30 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.5649 at bus 30. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-1 contingency are the lines connected between buses 628 and 24. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-1 contingency is given in Table 2. Table 2 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-1 contingency UPFC line 6-28 2-4 V-min(p.u) 0.8991 0.8528 P-loss(MW) 21.1858 22.5797 %loss 6.86 7.28 0.4761 0.6608

From the above Table 2 it can be observed that the line 628 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 24. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 628. It is also observed as shown in the above Table 2. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 628 under the rank-1

contingency. The initial and final (best location) bus voltages and voltage stability indices of 220 kV buses in both cases are shown in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3 below.

Voltage (p.u)

Bus number Fig 4.2 Bus voltage profiles

L-index

Bus number Fig 4.3 L-index values

4.3.4. Rank-2 contingency (line outage 57) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is30.13 MW (9.525%). The minimum voltage is 0.7123 p.u. at bus 30 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.4625 at bus 30. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-2 contingency are the lines connected between buses 628 and 26. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-2 contingency is given in Table 3. Table 3 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-2 contingency UPFC line 6-28 2-6 V-min(p.u) 0.8894 0.8112 P-loss(MW) 19.70 21.04 %loss 6.41 6.82 0.4697 1.2801

From the above Table 3 it can be observed that the line 628 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 26. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 628. It is also observed as shown in the above Table 3. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 628 under the rank-2 contingency.

4.3.5. Rank-3 contingency (line outage 68) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is28.62 MW (9.05%). The minimum voltage is 0.7414 p.u. at bus 30 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.4142 at bus 30. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-3 contingency are the lines connected between buses 46 and 26. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-3 contingency is given in Table 4.

Table 4 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-3 contingency UPFC line 4-6 2-6 V-min(p.u) 0.8868 0.8398 P-loss(MW) 14.64 17.71 %loss 4.84 5.80 0.4630 0.5609

From the above Table 4 it can be observed that the line 46 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 26. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 46. It is also observed as shown in the above Table 4. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 46 under the rank-3 contingency.

4.3.6. Rank-4 contingency (line outage 46) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is28.86 MW (9.14%). The minimum voltage is 0.7065p.u. at bus 30 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.4760 at bus 30. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-4 contingency are the lines connected between buses 68 and 628. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-4 contingency is given in Table 5.

Table 5 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-4 contingency UPFC line 6-8 6-28 V-min(p.u) 0.8932 0.8853 P-loss(MW) 20.62 20.92 %loss 6.69 6.78 0.4509 0.4925

From the above Table 5 it can be observed that the line 68 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 628. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 68. It is also observed as shown in the above Table 5. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 68 under the rank-4 contingency. 4.3.7. Rank-5 contingency (line outage 1020) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is22.72MW (7.73%). The minimum voltage is 0.7242p.u. at bus 20 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.4516 at bus 20. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-5 contingency are the lines connected between buses 1021 and 1022. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-5 contingency is given in Table 6.

Table 6 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-4 contingency UPFC line 10-21 10-22 V-min(p.u) 0.8202 0.8184 P-loss(MW) 19.92 20.17 %loss 6.48 6.56 0.5767 0.5891

From the above Table 6 it can be observed that the line 1021 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 1022. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 1021. It is also observed as shown in the above Table 6. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 1021 under the rank-5 contingency.

Table 7 Summary of best UPFC locations for rank 15 contingencies Rank no Line outage 1 2 3 4 5 2-6 4-6 4-6 5-7 6-8 6-28 6-28 6-8 6-28 4-6 UPFC line Voltage(p.u) Initial 0.6699 0.7065 0.7065 0.7123 0.7414 final 0.8991 0.8853 0.8932 0.8894 0.8868 Power losses(MW) Initial 34.62 28.86 28.86 30.13 28.62 final 21.1858 20.92 20.62 19.70 14.64 %P-losses(MW) Initial 10.902 9.14 9.14 9.525 9.05 final 6.86 6.786 6.69 6.41 4.848

The summaries of the best and next best UPFC locations are given in Table 7 . It can be concluded that, from all the above contingency cases, the most suitable location for almost all the contingencies is the line 628 which can take care of all the contingencies and next are the lines 68and 46. If the UPFC line 628 is out the UPFC line 68 or 46 will take care the contingencies. Since these three lines are connected to the same substation number 6 the UPFC connection can be moved from one line to other line.

4.4. A real life 24-bus equivalent EHV system studies 4.4.1. Contingency ranking The contingency ranking is applied on a real life system of 24-bus equivalent EHV power system network . The system has four generator buses and 20 other buses. The load is represented at 220 kV side of 400 kV/200 kV at eight number of buses. The system total peak load is about 2620MW, 980MVAR. There are shunt reactors connected at various 400 kV buses for transient over-voltage protection. Initial power flow analysis under normal operating conditions summarised in the minimum voltage is 0.9180p.u. at bus 5, the overall total real power losses are 55.016 MW(2.057%). The voltage stability indices are also computed for the system. The maximum of voltage stability index L-max(L8) is about 0.377. TABLE 1 Voltage profiles and voltage stability indices under normal operating conditions Bus no 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Nominal voltage(KV) 220 220 220 220 220 220 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 Voltage(p.u) 0.9180 0.9842 0.9801 0.9586 0.9661 1.0136 1.0115 1.0118 0.9561 0.9718 0.9717 0.9532 1.0093 1.0165 0.9965 0.9955 1.0039 0.9756 0.9985 0.9920 L-index 0.2253 0.2394 0.25 0.3777 0.3006 0.2673 0.2386 0.2891 0.3686 0.3768 0.081 0.1801 0.1514 0.2637 0.2241 0.2307 0.1453 0.3307 0.2585 0.1576

TABLE 2 OVERAL SEVERITY INDICES AND RANKS

Outage line Between buses 12-14 22-18 22-23 21-20 24-18 15-24 11-17 11-12

V-min (P.U)

P-loss (M.W)

%losses

RANK

0.7577 0.8628 0.8657 0.8457 0.8957 0.8366 0.8971 0.8910

78.35 65.21 64.05 63.44 68.17 91.29 69.02 69.178

2.904 2.429 2.386 2.364 2.536 3.3676 2.567 2.572

3.301 2.215 2.182 2.045 2.071 1.845 2.011 2.025

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4.4.2. Rank-1 contingency (line outage 1214) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is78.35 MW (2.904%). The minimum voltage is 0.7577 p.u. at bus 14 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.7652 at bus 14. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-1 contingency are the lines connected between buses 2223 and 2218. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-1 contingency is given in Table 3. Table 3 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-1 contingency UPFC line 22-23 22-18 V-min(p.u) 0.9270 0.9270 P-loss(MW) 68.60 66.42 %loss 2.552 2.473 1.4806 1.4246

From the above Table 3 it can be observed that the line 2218 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 2223. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 2218. It is also observed as shown

in the above Table 3. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 2218 under the rank-1 contingency. The initial and final (best location) bus voltages and voltage stability indices of 400 kV buses in both cases are shown in Figs.4.4 and 4.5 below.

Voltage (p.u)

Bus number Fig 4.4 Bus voltage profiles

Voltage (p.u)

Bus number Fig 4.3 L-index values

4.4.2. Rank-2 contingency (line outage 2218) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is65.21 MW (2.429%). The minimum voltage is 0.8628 p.u. at bus 13 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.5164 at bus 13. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-2 contingency are the lines connected between buses 2223 and 2417. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-2 contingency is given in Table 4. Table 4 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-2 contingency UPFC line 22-23 24-17 V-min(p.u) 0.9918 0.9359 P-loss(MW) 60.63 66.68 %loss 2.262 2.264 1.2717 1.5209

From the above Table 4 it can be observed that the line 2223 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 2417. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 2223. It is also observed as shown in the above Table 4. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 2223 under the rank-2 contingency.

4.4.3. Rank-3 contingency (line outage 2223) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is64.05 MW (2.386%). The minimum voltage is 0.8657 p.u. at bus 13 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.5113 at bus 13. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-3 contingency are the lines connected between buses 2218 and 2219. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-3 contingency is given in Table 5.

Table 5 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-3 contingency UPFC line 22-18 24-19 V-min(p.u) 0.9783 0.9780 P-loss(MW) 60.16 66.53 %loss 2.245 2.258 1.3640 1.3872

From the above Table 5 it can be observed that the line 2218 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 2219. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 2218. It is also observed as shown in the above Table 5. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 2218 under the rank-3 contingency. 4.4.4. Rank-4 contingency (line outage 2120) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is63.44 MW (2.364%). The minimum voltage is 0.8457 p.u. at bus 7 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.4491 at bus 7. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-4 contingency are the lines connected between buses 2223 and 2417. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-4 contingency is given in Table 6.

Table 6 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-4 contingency UPFC line 22-23 24-17 V-min(p.u) 0.8937 0.8668 P-loss(MW) 61.07 61.40 %loss 2.278 2.290 1.5207 1.5202

From the above Table 6 it can be observed that the line 2223 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 2417. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 2223. It is also observed as shown in the above Table 6. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 2223 under the rank-4 contingency.

4.4.5. Rank-5 contingency (line outage 2418) In this contingency for a peak load condition the overall total real power loss is68.17 MW (2.536%). The minimum voltage is 0.8957 p.u. at bus 5 and the maximum voltage stability index (L-max)is 0.4709 at bus 8. The selected transmission corridors for possible UPFC placements under rank-5 contingency are the lines connected between buses 2223 and 2417. The summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-4 contingency is given in Table 7.

Table 7 Summary of results of UPFC placement under rank-5 contingency UPFC line 22-23 24-17 V-min(p.u) 0.9027 0.8965 P-loss(MW) 65.40 67.69 %loss 2.43 2.51 1.3676 1.9726

From the above Table 7 it can be observed that the line 2223 has high value of voltage which indicates that the improvement in voltage stability indices is more compared to the line 2417. Also the value of L-index and power loss is less for the line 2223. It is also observed as shown in the above Table 7. Therefore, the most suitable line for UPFC placement is 2223 under the rank-5 contingency. It can be concluded that, from all the above contingency cases, the most suitable location for almost all the contingencies is the line 2322 which can take care of all the contingencies and next are the lines 1922 and 1822. If the UPFC line 2322 is out the UPFC line 1822 or 1922 will take care the contingencies. Since these three lines are connected to the same substation number 22 the UPFC connection can be moved from one line to other line.

APPENDIX

A.24 Bus EHV System

Number of generators Number of transformers Number of transmission lines Number of loads Number of shunt compensators Number of reactors P-load (peak,MW ) Q-load (peak,MVAR ) 4 11 16 8 4 17 2620 980

A.1. Generation data Bus 1 2 3 4 Pgen(MW) Qmax(MVAr) Qmin(MVAr) 1820 950 -150 160 320 -50 350 400 -100 520 400 -90 V(PU) 1 1 1 1 Vmax(PU) Vmin(PU) 1.05 0.95 1.05 0.95 1.05 0.95 1.05 0.95 Step size 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125

A.2. Bus data Bus 5 6 7 8 9 10 13 15 P(MW) 430 280 320 180 120 60 450 780 Q(MVAR) 170 90 110 70 40 20 180 300

A.3. Transformer data From 15 17 24 21 16 19 20 14 23 18 22 To 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 13 R(PU) 0.00033 0.00198 0.00099 0.00099 0.00099 0.00099 0.00099 0.00125 0.00198 0.00198 0.00063 X(PU) 0.0067 0.0396 0.01984 0.01984 0.01984 0.01984 0.01984 0.025 0.03968 0.03968 0.0125 V(PU) Tapmax(PU) Tapmin(PU) 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 1 1.05 0.9 Step size 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 T/F limit(MVA) 2200 315 630 630 630 630 630 500 315 315 1000

A.4. Line data From 22 22 11 11 12 17 24 24 23 15 24 15 21 22 21 13 To 23 18 12 17 14 24 18 23 20 16 16 24 19 19 20 8 R(PU) 0.0043 0.00589 0.00198 0.0028 0.00546 0.00477 0.00569 0.00272 0.00388 0.00372 0.00245 0.00261 0.00145 0.00289 0.00297 0.00315 X(PU) 0.0477 0.05995 0.02471 0.02998 0.06794 0.05103 0.06008 0.02872 0.04834 0.03931 0.02587 0.0278 0.01802 0.03603 0.03706 0.01569 B/2(PU) 0.637 0.7841 0.32304 0.42699 0.88836 0.72673 0.79414 1.5183 0.6547 0.53139 0.34966 1.485 0.93968 0.46222 0.47543 0.05274 Line limit(MVA) 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 1000 500 500 500 1000 1000 500 500 150

A.5.Shunt capacitance data Bus 5 6 7 8 MVARmax 25 20 30 20 MVARmin 0 0 0 0 Step size 5 5 5 5

A.6.Shunt reactance data Bus 22 22 11 12 14 17 15 24 24 23 16 18 20 19 19 20 R(PU) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X(PU) 2.205 1.75 1.75 2.205 2.205 2.205 1.1025 1.1025 0.5176 1.1025 2.205 0.9756 1.1025 1.1025 2.205 2.205