LECTURE NOTES IN

COLLEGE ALGEBRA
Isagani B. Jos, PhD
Department of Mathematics
De La Salle University-Manila
May 26, 2011
1
1 THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM
1.1 Real Numbers
Denition 1.1. The set of positive integers, or counting numbers, or nat-
ural numbers is the set
Z
+
= {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.
Denition 1.2. Given positive integers m, n and p, such that
p = mn,
then we say that
1. p is a multiple of m; (p is a multiple of n too)
2. m is a factor of p; (n is also a factor of p)
Example 1.1. Since 100 = 25 4; then
1. 100 is a multiple of 25 (as well as of 4);
2. 25 is a factor of 100 (4 is also a factor of 100)
Denition 1.3. A positive integer is even if is a multiple of 2; otherwise
it is odd. A positive integer is composite if it has factors other than 1 and
itself; otherwise it is prime.
Example 1.2. The positive integers 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 are the
rst ten prime numbers. All even positive integers except 2 are composite.
The odd positive integers 9, 15, 21, 25, 27, 33 are composite.
Theorem 1.1. (The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) All nat-
ural numbers can be factored into prime factors and this can be done in
only one way except for the order of factors.
Denition 1.4. The largest natural number that is a factor of two natural
numbers is called their greatest common divisor, denoted by gcd.
Remark 1.1. The gcd of two natural numbers is obtained by factoring
each into prime factors, and then determining the product of the terms
that are common to both factorization.
Example 1.3. Since 63 = 3 3 7 and 135 = 3 3 3 5. Then
gcd(63, 135) = 3 3 = 9.
Example 1.4. What is gcd(462, 627)?
Denition 1.5. The least common multiple of two natural numbers, denote
by lcm, is the smallest natural number for which both are factors.
Remark 1.2. The lcm of two natural numbers can be obtained by factoring
each of them into prime factors, then determining the product of the factors
that occur in either or both factorizations.
2
Example 1.5. Since 20 = 2 2 5 and 36 = 2 2 3 3, then
lcm(20, 36) = 2 2 3 3 5 = 180.
Example 1.6. What is lcm(77, 143)?
Denition 1.6. The set of negative integers is the set
Z

= {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.
Denition 1.7. The set of integers is the set Z = Z
+
Z

{0}, that is
Z = {. . . , 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.
Denition 1.8. A real number that can be expressed as a quotient of two
integers, i.e. a real number of the form
p
q
, where p and q are integers, with
q = 0 is a rational number. Otherwise, the real number is irrational.
Remark 1.3. Denition 1.8 tells us that a real number is either rational
or irrational. Thus, the set of real numbers can be partitioned into two
subsets- the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers.
Furthermore, it is clear that all integers is a rational number. This shows
that the set of rational numbers can be partitioned into two subsets also-
the set of integers and the set of non-integers. Finally, from Denition 1.7,
we can see that the set of integers is made up of three subsets- Z
+
, Z

and
{0}. We can show this pictorially in Figure ??
Denition 1.9. The absolute value of a real number a, denoted by |a| is
dened as
|a| =
_
a if a 0
a if a < 0
Remark 1.4. The following are some properties of the absolute value of a
1. |a| = | a|;
2. |ab| = |a||b|;
3.

a
b

=
|a|
|b|
, provided b = 0;
4. |a + b| |a| +|b| (called Triangle Inequality);
5. |a b| |a| |b|
1.2 Properties of the Real Numbers
The following are the equality axioms on the set of real numbers. Suppose
a, b, c R
1. Reexive : a = a;
2. Symmetric : If a = b, then b = a;
3
3. Transitive : If a = b and b = c, then a = c;
4. Replacement : If a = b, then a can be replaced by b in any mathe-
matical statement.
The set of real numbers R together with the two binary operations +
and called addition and multiplication respectively is a eld, because the
following axioms (called eld axioms) are satised: Suppose a, b, c R.
1. Closure : a + b R and a b R;
2. Commutative : a + b = b + a and a b = b a
3. Associative : a +(b +c) = (a +b) +c and a (b c) = (a b) c;
4. Identity : There exists unique elements 0 R and 1 R such that
a + 0 = a and a 1 = a, for every a R;
5. Inverse : For any a R, there exists a unique element a R, such
that
a + (a) = 0.
For any b R, where b = 0 there exists a unique element
1
b
R, such
that
b
1
b
= 1.
6. Distributive : a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c)
Remark 1.5. Any nonempty set S together with addition + and multi-
plication satisfying the axioms above is a eld. The set of rational Q
together with addition and multiplication is also a eld. However, the set
of integers Z together with addition and multiplication is NOT a eld. Why
do you think this is so?
1.3 Integer Exponents
Denition 1.10. For any integer n, and any real number a, we dene the
power a
n
as follows
a
n
= a a a to n factors
a
0
= 1 a = 0
a
n
=
1
a
n
a = 0
,
the integer n is called the exponent and the real number a is called the base.
Theorem 1.2. The following are properties of exponents which holds for
any positive integers n and m and any real numbers a and b.
1. a
n
a
m
= a
n+m
;
2.
a
m
a
n
= a
mn
where a = 0;
3. (a
m
)
n
= a
mn
;
4
4. (ab)
n
= a
n
b
n
;
5.
_
a
b
_
n
=
a
n
b
n
where b = 0.
Example 1.7. Simplify the following exponential expression.
1. (6x
2
y
2
)(3xy
3
)
2. (5x
4
y
2
)
3
3.
12x
5
y
4
3x
2
y
3
4. (2a
2
bc
3
)
3
5. (2a
2
b
3
)
2
(3ab
2
)
3
6.
2u
2
v
3
3w
4

6w
2
u
8v
2
u
2
7.
_
c
4
d
3
a
4
_
2

_
a
3
c
2
d
_
3
8.
_
4a
2
b
5
c
3
_
2

_
c
4
12a
3
b
_
3
9.
x
3a+1
y
a+3
x
a+2
y
a1
Example 1.8. Simplify the following exponential expression expressed
without zero nor negative exponents.
1. (2
2
/3
1
)
2
2.
2
1
u
2
v
3
w
1
3
2
u
0
v
4
w
1
3.
_
c
3
d
2
_
3
4. (m
3
n)
2
5.
_
r
1
a
2
t
4
r
0
a
3
t
3
_
5
6.
_
6
3
b
2
z
4
2
6
b
4
z
3
_
3
7.
x
1
+y
1
x
1
y
1
8.
a
1
b
2
a
2
b
1
b
2
a
2
9. (x
2
+ y
2
)
1
2 Algebraic Expressions and Polynomials
Denition 2.1. An algebraic expression is the result of combining num-
bers(constants) and variables with the basic operations of arithmetic.
Some examples of algebraic expressions are:
4x; 2xy
2
; 2x 3y; 4x
3
2xy
5
; 4(x 3)(x + 4); 7;
x
3
4
x
4
+ 2x 5
.
The examples of algebraic expressions above, 4x; 2xy
2
and 7 are called
terms.
Denition 2.2. A term is a single number or the product of a number
with one or more variables raised to powers. Terms containing the same
variables with the same powers are called like terms.
Example 2.1. The terms 4x
3
y, 3x
3
y and x
3
y are like terms. However,
the terms 5xy and 5xy
2
are not like terms.
A special type of algebraic expressions are the polynomials. We dene
a polynomial below.
Denition 2.3. A polynomial in x of degree n is an algebraic expression
of the form or reducible to the form
a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ a
3
x
3
+ . . . + a
n1
x
n1
+ a
n
x
n
,
where a
0
, a
1
, . . . , a
n1
, a
n
are real numbers and a
n
= 0, and n is a positive
integer.
5
Remark 2.1. Polynomials may also have more than one variable. For
example, the expression 7x
2
9xy + 13y
2
is a polynomial of two variables
x and y. Actually, expressions which is a nite sum of terms of the form
ax
m
y
n
, where m and n are positive integers and a is some real number is
a polynomial in two variables x and y. The degree of the term ax
m
y
n
is
m + n and the degree of a polynomial of several variables is the highest
degree of the terms included in the polynomial. Thus, the expression
7x
3
y
2
5x
2
y
4
+ 2xy
6
is a polynomial in x and y with degree 7.
2.1 Operations on Polynomials
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials
To add or subtract polynomials, we add or subtract like terms in the
given polynomials.
Example 2.2. Do the following:
1. Add the following expressions:
(a) 6pd 7dq + 3pq; 4pd + 8dq + 7pq; 9pd dq 9pq.
(b) 4y 3s + 2r; 5y 4s + 3r; 8y + 8s 4r.
(c) 7x + 8ax 4ax
2
; 4x + 5ax + 3ax
2
; 8x 9ax + 2ax
2
2. Subtract the second expression from the rst.
(a) 5x + 2y 16z; 7x 2y + 13z.
(b) 9ax 14ax
2
8a
2
x; 2ax 15ax
2
9a
2
x.
3. Subtract the sum of 2a +3p +5x and 3a +2p 6x from 6a +4p +x.
Multiplication of Polynomials
To multiply polynomials, multiply each term of the rst polynomial,
with each term of the second polynomial and then combine like terms.
Example 2.3. Find the indicated products.
1. (2x
2
y
3
)(3xy
2
)
2. 4x
2
y
3
(2xy
3
3x
2
y)
3. 5x
3
y
4
(2xy
2
4x
3
y)
4. (4x
2
2x + 7)(2x
2
+ 3x 2)
5. (4x 3y)(2x
2
+ 5xy 3y
2
)
6. (5x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
)(2x
2
xy + 3y
2
)
6
Division of Polynomials
Let N and D be polynomials in x of degrees n and m respectively with
n m. We may divide N by D by performing long division. This is done
by doing the following steps:
1. Arrange the terms in N and D in descending powers of x.
2. Divide the rst term of N by the rst term of D to get the rst term
of the quotient polynomial Q.
3. Multiply D by the rst term in the quotient Q and subtract the
product from N.
4. While the divisor remains the same, treat the result in Step 3 as the
new N and then repeat Steps a and 3.
5. Repeat the process until a remainder is obtained that has a lower
degree than D.
Example 2.4. Perform the indicated division.
1. (10x
3
+ x
2
8x + 2) (2x + 1)
2. (6x
3
22x + 9) (2x 4)
3. (3x
4
4x
2
+ 8x + 3) (3x
2
+ 6x + 2)
4. (6x
4
5x
3
8x
2
x 6) (2x 3)
2.2 Special Products
The following are some short cuts on performing multiplication on some
special types of polynomials.
1. Product of binomials with like terms:
(ax + by)(cx + dy) = acx
2
+ (ad + bc)xy + bdy
2
2. Product of a sum and a dierence
(a + b)(a b) = a
2
b
2
3. Square of a binomial:
(a + b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
(a b)
2
= a
2
2ab + b
2
4. Cube of binomials:
(a + b)
3
= a
3
+ 3a
2
b + 3ab
2
+ b
3
(a b)
3
= a
3
3a
2
b + 3ab
2
b
3
5. Square of a Polynomial: The square of a polynomial is equal to the
sum of the squares of each term in the polynomial plus twice the
product of each term with the sum of the terms that follows it.
Example 2.5. Perform the indicated operations.
7
1. (5x + 1)(2x 1)
2. (7x + 3)
2
3. (2a
3
5b
2
)
2
4. (3x + 4y
2
)
2
5. (5x 3y)(5x + 3y)
6. (
a
3
+
b
4
)(
a
3

b
4
)
7. (
3x
2
5
+
2y
2
3
)(
3x
2
5

2y
2
3
)
8. (2x + y z)
2
9. (a + 2b 3c + 4d)
2
10. [2(2x y) + 3][3(2x y) 5]
11. (x
2
2x + 3)(x
2
2x 3)
12. (x
3
+x
2
+x 1)(x
3
x
2
+x +1)
2.3 Factoring
Whenever a polynomial P of degree m can be expressed as a product of P
and Q, that is P = QR where Q and R are both polynomials of degrees
whose sum is m, then we say that Q and R are factors of P. We will include
the restriction that the numerical coecients of Q and R are integers. The
process of nding the polynomials Q and R is called factoring.
Denition 2.4. A polynomial is called irreducible or prime, if it can not
be expressed as a product of two polynomials, each with positive degree.
A polynomial with real coecients is factored into prime factors if it is
expressed as a product of prime factors. The expression as a product of
prime factors of the given polynomial is called its prime factorization.
Example 2.6. The polynomial x
2
7 is irreducible. The prime factoriza-
tion of 5x
2
45 is 5(x 3)(x + 3).
The following are some factorization techniques:
1. Common Factors: A term which is factor of each term in a given
polynomial is called a common factor. For example, in the polynomial
5x
3
+15x
2
y 25xy
2
, the term 5x is a common factor. Thus, we write
5x
3
+ 15x
2
y 25xy
2
= 5x(x
2
+ 3xy 5y
2
).
2. Dierence of Two Squares:
a
2
b
2
= (a + b)(a b)
Example 2.7. Factor the following:
(a) 25x
2
64y
2
(b) 72a
2
98
(c) 4a
3
9ab
2
c
2
(d) x
4
y
10
3. Sum or Dierence of Two Cubes:
a
3
+ b
3
= (a + b)(a
2
ab + b
2
)
a
3
b
3
= (a b)(a
2
+ ab + b
2
)
Example 2.8. Factor the following:
8
(a) 8x
3
y
3
(b) 27a
3
+ 125p
6
(c) x
6
y
6
(d) 64p
12
q
6
4. Perfect Square Trinomials
a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
= (a + b)
2
a
2
2ab + b
2
= (a b)
2
Example 2.9. Factor the following:
(a) 25x
2
10x + 1
(b) 4x
2
+ 12x
3
+ 9x
4
(c) 25a
7
70a
6
+ 49a
5
(d) 36x
3
+ 60x
2
+ 25x
5. Quadratic Trinomials ax
2
+ bx + c
ax
2
+ bx + c = (px + q)(rx + s),
where pr = a, qs = c and ps +qr = b. We restrict that all coecients
are integers.
Example 2.10. Factor the following:
(a) 2x
2
+ 5x + 2
(b) 4x
2
19x + 12
(c) 3x
2
xy 24y
2
(d) 15x
2
+ 11xy 12y
2
6. Factoring by Grouping: There are instances that we need to group
terms with common factors in a polynomial. Then, we factor these
common factors and then use the distributive law to factor the poly-
nomial completely.
Example 2.11. Factor the following polynomials completely.
(a) 2h
2
5hk + 4h 10k
(b) 6r
2
5rs + 18rt 15st
(c) 6bc 9c
2
12cd 8be +12ce +
16de
(d) a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
a
3
b
3
(e) 2c
2
+ 5cd 3d
2
+ 8c
3
d
3
(f) 9x
2
4y
2
12yz 9z
2
(g) h
2
4hk + 4k
2
16
(h) r
2
+ 6rs + 9s
2
4t
2
(i) 25x
4
+ 11x
2
y
2
+ 4y
4
(j) 16x
4
24x
2
y
2
+ 25y
4
3 Fractions
3.1 Equivalent Fractions
Denition 3.1. A fractional expression is a quotient of two algebraic ex-
pressions. If the fractional expressions numerator and denominator are
both polynomials, then we say that it is a rational expression.
9
Example 3.1. The following are rational expressions:
x
3
+2x
2
3x+4
4x
2
3x+1
1
2x
3
y
2
z
xy
4
x
3
y
2
4x
2
y+x
Remark 3.1. The following are facts:
1. If a, b, c and d are real numbers, then
a
b
=
c
d
if and only if ad = bc.
2. For any k = 0,
ak
bk
=
a
b
.
3. For any a, b which are real numbers,
a
b
=
a
b
=
a
b
=
a
b
.
4. For any a, b which are real numbers,

a
b
=
a
b
=
a
b
=
a
b
.
Denition 3.2. A fraction is said to be in lowest terms if the numerator
and denominator have no common factor except 1.
Remark 3.2. In order to reduce a fraction in its lowest terms, we may
factor the numerator and denominator completely and then cancel factors
common to them.
Example 3.2. Reduce the following fractions in its lowest terms.
1.
a
2
+4a+3
a
2
a2
2.
(2cd)(6c
2
+11cd+3d
2
)
(3c+2d)(6c
2
cdd
2
)
3.
xy+3xz2wy6wz
2xy+wy+3wz+6xz
4.
m
6
n
6
m
9
n
9
5.
x+3
(3x+10)x+3
6.
x
2
y
3
(x
2
y
2
)
(xy)x
2
(x2y)y
4
7.
3w
2
8w+4
2w
2
w6
8.
(2ab)(a
2
ab6b
2
)
(a+2b)(2a
2
+3ab2b
2
)
9.
axay2by+2bx
ax+2bx+2by+ay
10.
x
2
y
2
x
3
+y
3
11.
x+2
(x+3)x+2
12.
(x
2
+xy)(wx+wy)(x+2y)
(x
2
+y
2
)(wx
2
)(x+y)
3.2 Multiplication and Division of Fractions
Remark 3.3. The product of two or more fractions is a fraction whose
numerator is the product of the numerators of the given fractions and whose
denominator is the product of the numerators of the given fractions. In
symbols,
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
.
However, the product must always be expressed in its lowest terms.
10
Example 3.3. Perform the indicated operation(s).
1.
10x+25
3x6y

6x
2
12xy
2x+5
2.
a
2
bab
2
a+b

a
2
b
2
ab
2
b
3

b
2
a
2
Remark 3.4. The quotient of two fractions is determined by multiplying
the numerator by the reciprocal of the denominator. In symbols,
a
b

c
d
=
a
b

d
c
=
ad
bc
.
The quotient must always be expressed in its lowest terms too.
Example 3.4. Perform the indicated operation.
1.
x
2
5xy
3x+6y

xy5y
2
2x+4y
2. (3x
2
+ xy 2y
2
)
9x
2
4y
2
y
Example 3.5. Perform the indicated operation(s).
1.
12a
3
b
6
30c
3
d

50d
4
c
26b
5
a
2

10ab
13c
2
d
2
2.
3x
2
y
x+2y

4y(x
2
+4xy+4y
2
)
6x
2
3xy

4x
2
4xy+y
2
8x
2
y
2
+16xy
3
3.
c
3
+dc
2
c
2
+d
2

bc
2
+bd
2
c
2
d
2

cd
bc
4.
x
2
xy2y
2
x
3
y
3

x
2
+xy+y
2
x
2
4y
2

x
2
+4xy+3y
2
x
2
+xy2y
2
5.
x
3
+y
3
x
2
+3xy+2y
2

x
2
xy6y
2
x
2
2xy3y
2

x
2
xy+y
2
2x
2
+2xy
6.
x(x+2)+2(2x+4)
2x(x+2)+(x+3)

x
2
(x+2)
x
2
4

x+4
x
7.
10a
3
c
6
18b
2
d
7

18bd
5
42a
2
c

10a
3
d
4
14a
3
d
8.
24q
2
(2p+3q)
2
5p
3

10p
5
36q
3
p
2
81q
5

12pq
4
18q
5
p
4
9.
x
2
yxy
y
2
1

y
2
+y
3
x
3
x
2

y
2
y1
10.
27x
3
y
3
3x
2
4xy+y
2

x
2
+2xy3y
2
9x
2
+3xy+y
2

x
2
9y
2
xy+3y
2
11.
x
3
+8y
3
x
2
4y
2

x
2
xy2y
2
x
2
2xy+4y
2

x
2
2xy3y
2
x
2
3xy
12.
(x+1)x2
(x+1)4

(x2)x+(x2)
(x2)(x1)

x+2
x3
11
3.3 Addition and Subtraction of Fractions
Remark 3.5. If we need to add or subtract fractions with the same de-
nominator, the result is another fraction whose numerator is obtained by
adding or subtracting the numerators of the given fractions and whose de-
nominator is the common denominator of the given fractions. In symbols,
a
b
+
c
b
=
a + c
b
;
a
b

c
b
=
a c
b
.
Example 3.6. Perform the indicated operations
4x 3
4x + 3
+
5 + 3x
4x + 3

x 4
4x + 3
.
Denition 3.3. The least common denominator(lcd) of several fractions
is the least common multiple of the denominators of the given fractions.
Remark 3.6. To nd the lcd, factor each denominator into prime factors.
Then, the lcd is the product of these prime factors with exponents equal to
the highest exponent of this factor in any of the given denominators.
Example 3.7. Find the lcd of the following fractions:
3x
(2x + 1)
3
(x 1)
;
2
(x 1)
2
(x 4)
;
3x
4
(x 4)
3
(2x + 1)
2
.
Remark 3.7. If we need to add or subtract fractions with dierent de-
nominators, then we rst nd the lcd of the given fractions. Then, rewrite
the given fractions in equivalent forms having as denominators, the lcd and
then add or subtract as given in Remark 3.5. In symbols,
a
b
+
c
d
=
ad
bd
+
bc
bd
=
ad + bc
bd
.
Example 3.8. Perform the indicated operations.
1.
2
3x2y

3y
3x
2
+2xy

8y
9x
2
4y
2
2.
2
a
2
+4ab+3b
2

3
a
2
+ab6b
2

4
a
2
ab2b
2
3.
5x+2y
2x+5y

3x+y
x+3y

2xy
x2y
4.
2x
x
2
2xy3y
2

y
3x
2
+4xy+y
2
+
2xy
3x
2
8xy3y
2
5.
3x
2x
2
+3xy2y
2
+
y
x
2
4y
2

2x+y
2x
2
5xy+2y
2
6.
x
x+3

6x+6
x
2
9
+
x+1
x3
7.
2
a
2
+3ab+2b
2

5
a
2
ab6b
2
+
4
a
2
2ab3b
2
8.
x3y
x+2y
+
x2y
4x+3y

4x3y
x+3y
9.
x
2x
2
+xy3y
2

y
2x
2
3xy+y
2

x+y
4x
2
+4xy3y
2
10.
x
2x
2
+7xy+5y
2
+
2y
x
2
y
2

3x+2y
2x
2
+3xy5y
2
12
3.4 Complex Fraction
A complex fraction is a fraction whose numerator and/or denominator are/is
also a fraction. Our main problem is to reduce this complex fraction in its
equivalent simple form. In order to do this, it is a matter of just performing
the operation(s) indicated in the fraction.
Example 3.9. Simplify the following complex fractions.
1.
2
5
+
1
3
5
6

1
2
2.
2+
3
x
4
9
x
2
3.
3
11
x
+
6
x
2
4
13
x
+
3
x
2
4.
2
3x
xy
2
3x
2x+y
5.
2
p+q

1
p2q
2
p+q
p2q
6.
2x+3
x+2

2x
x+1
x
x+2
1
7.
1
1+
1
2+
3
4
8.
4+
1
2
3
1
3
9.
1+
9
x
2
1+
3
x
10.
3
10
x
+
3
x
2
3+
5
x

2
x
2
11.
a+
8a
2a1
a+2
6
2a+3
12.
p+2
p2

p
p+2
3
4
p+2
13.
x
x+1

x
2
x
2
1
1+
1
x1
14.
1
1+
1
2+
1
1+
1
3
3.5 Radicals
Denition 3.4. If a = b
n
, then we write
n

a = b, if either of the following

cases are true:
1. If n is an even positive integer, and a and b are positive real numbers;
2. If n is an odd positive integer, and a and b are any real numbers;
In either case,
n

0 = 0. Furthermore,
n

a is called the nth root of a.

The symbol
n

a is called a radical of order n. The number a is called

the radicand and the positive integer n is called the index of the radical.
We note that, whenever
n

a is dened, then
(
n

a)
n
= a.
If we consider
n

a
n
, we see that if n is odd, we have
n

a
n
= a. However,
if n is odd, we see that
n

a
n
is NOT always equal to a. To illustrate this,
consider a = 3 and n = 4. Thus, if n is even, we have
n

a
n
= |a|.
Remark 3.8. We assume that all variables in radicands of radicals are
positive or zero. Thus, for any positive integer n, we have
(
n

a)
n
= a =
n

a
n
.
Theorem 3.1. The following are called laws of radicals. For any positive
integer n, and any positive real numbers a and b,
1.
n

ab =
n

a
n

b;
2.
n
_
a
b
=
n

a
n

b
;
3.
n
_
m

a =
nm

a
Example 3.10. Perform the indicated operation(s) and simplify all radi-
cals.
13
1.
4

32
2.

180a
7
b
3
3.
5

96a
7
b
10
4.
5

48
5

20
5.
_
8x
2
y
3

18xy
6.
4
_
45x
3
y
5
4
_
72x
2
y
3
7.
4
_
3

7
8.
4
_

a
9.
5
_
3

a
Remark 3.9. We may add or subtract two or more radicals only if they
have the same radicands and indices. The distributive law may be used to
perform these operations.
Example 3.11. Perform the indicated operation(s) and simplify all results.
1.

5

45 +

80 +

125
2.
3

40 +
3

135
3

5
3.

27 +
4

54

12 +
3

16
4.
3

81 +
3

256
3

24
3

108
5.

2r
3
t

r
3
t
2
+

18rt
5
+

r
5
t
0
6.
3
_
3g
4
m
2

3
_
8g
2
m
4

3
_
24gm
8
+
3
_
27g
5
m
Remark 3.10. We are interested in fractional expressions without radical
expressions in the denominator. Thus, when we have fractional expressions
with radical expressions in the denominator, we perform certain operations
to write these fractional expressions in the desired form. This process is
called rationalizing the denominator.
Example 3.12. Rationalize the denominators,
1.
_
3x
8y
3
2.
_
24x
3
y
9
54xy
4
3.
3
_
125x
7
y
18x
5
y
2
4.
_
17x
5
y
1
6x
3
y
8
5.
7

23
6.
2

7
7.
1+2

3+

5
8.
_
8x
7
27y
3
9.
_
64x
5
y
9
98xy
7
10.
5
_
7xy
13
16x
8
y
16
11.
_
49x
5
y
9
24x
3
y
12.
1

72
13.
12

13

7
14.

142

2
3.6 Rational Exponents
We now consider expressions involving a
x
, where x is not necessarily an
integer, but instead x a rational number. Thus, we consider expressions of
the form a
m
n
, where m and n are integers.
Denition 3.5. For any integer m, any positive integer n, and all nonzero
real number a where a
1/n
exists, we dene
a
m/n
= (
n

a)
m
= (a
1/n
)
m
= (a
m
)
1/n
=
n

a
m
. (1)
Equation 1 gives the basic relationship between rational exponents and
radicals.
Example 3.13. Do the following.
1. Write each expression below without radicals.
14
(a) 49
1/2
(b) 32
3/5
(c) 4
3/2
(d) (
64
27
)
4/3
(e) (
81
625
)
3/4
(f)

9a
4
b
6
(g)
_
16p
6
q
4
(h) 64
1/6
(i) 9
3/2
(j) 27
4/3
(k) (
81
625
)
3/4
(l) (
216
125
)
1/3
(m)

36a
0
b
6
(n)
5
_
243p
5
q
10
2. Rewrite the following in radical form.
(a) x
2/3
y
1/3
(b) x
1/2
y
3/4
(c) x
1/2
y
2/3
(d) x
3/2
y
2/3
3. Simplify the following expressions, leave results without negative ex-
ponents or fractional exponents in the denominators.
(a) (7x
1/6
)(5x
1/3
)
(b) (81a
4
b
4/3
)
1/4
(c) (
36a
0
b
3
25a
1
b
2/3
)
1/2
(d) (16x
4
y
2
)
1/2
(125
1
xy
3
)
1/3
(e) (
x
a+5b
x
3/b
)
a/(a+2b)
(f) (
x
a5b
x
4b
)
b/(a
2
b
2
)
3.7 Complex Numbers
Recall that when we dened the radical expression

a, where n is an even
integer, we require a to be greater than equal to zero. Thus, the expression

81 is not yet dened (in fact, it is not a real number). To remedy this,
let us dene
i =

1.
The number i is called an imaginary number. Therefore, we have

81 =
_
(81)(1) =

81

1 = 9i.
The number 9i is another imaginary number. In general, the expression bi,
where b is a real number is called an imaginary number. We can now dene
a complex number.
Denition 3.6. The number of the form
z = a + bi,
where a and b are real numbers and i =

1 is called a complex number.
In z = a + bi, a is called the real part and bi is called the imaginary
part of z. The set of real numbers and the set of imaginary numbers are
the subsets of the set of complex numbers.
Denition 3.7. Let z
1
= a
1
+ b
1
i and z
2
= a
2
+ b
2
i.
1. The sum of z
1
and z
2
is the complex number z dened as
z = z
1
+ z
2
= (a
1
+ b
1
i) + (a
2
+ b
2
i) = (a
1
+ a
2
) + (b
1
+ b
2
)i.
2. The dierence of z
1
over z
2
is the complex number z dened as
z = z
1
z
2
= (a
1
+ b
1
i) (a
2
+ b
2
i) = (a
1
a
2
) + (b
1
b
2
)i.
15
3. The product of z
1
and z
2
is the complex number z dened as
z = z
1
z
2
= (a
1
+ b
1
i)(a
2
+ b
2
i) = (a
1
a
2
b
1
b
2
) + (a
1
b
2
+ a
2
b
i
)i.
Example 3.14. Let z
1
= 4 5i and z
2
= 2 +3i. Find z
1
+z
2
; z
1
z
2
and
z
1
z
2
Denition 3.8. Let z = a +bi. The complex conjugate of z, denoted by z
is the complex number z = a bi.
Example 3.15. Find the complex conjugate of the following complex num-
bers:
1. 2 + 3i 2. 2 5i 3. 3 5i 4. 3 + 7i
Remark 3.11. To nd the quotient of z
1
by z
2
, we multiply both z
1
and
z
2
by the complex conjugate of z
2
, z
2
. Then, simply the result expressed
in the form a + bi.
Example 3.16. Let z
1
= 4 5i and z
2
= 2 + 3i. Find z
1
z
2
.
Denition 3.9. Let z = a + bi. The absolute value of z, denoted by |z| is
dened by
|z| =
_
a
2
+ b
2
.
Example 3.17. Let z
1
= 4 5i. Find |z
1
|.
Example 3.18. Perform the indicated operation(s).
1. (5 + 4i) + (4 + 3i)
2. (9 + 5i) (4 + 3i)
3. (4 5i)(2 + 9i)
4. (7 5i)(7 + 5i)
5.
53i
5+2i
6.
2+3i
i
7.
3+2i
1+5i

1+5i
3+2i
8. |3 4i|
9. | 7 24i|
4 Linear and Quadratic Equations
4.1 Equations
An equation is a mathematical statement that states that two expressions
are equal. A number that makes the equation a true statement is called
a root or a solution to the given equation. The set of all solutions to a
given equation is called its solution set. To solve an equation is to nd its
solution set. If two equations have the same solution sets, we ten say that
these equations are equivalent.
4.2 Linear Equation
Denition 4.1. An equation of the form or reducible to the form
ax + b = 0,
where a = 0, is called a linear equation in one variable x.
Example 4.1. Find the solution set of the following equations.
16
1. 3x = 5x + 4
2. 5(y 1) = 7(y + 1) + 1
3.
3x2
5
+ 3 =
4x1
3
4.
8
5x4
=
5
3x1
5.
9
2z+3

2
z1
=
z+9
2z
2
z3
6.
3x+8
x
2
+4x+3
=
x+3
x+1

2x+3
2x+5
4.3 Quadratic Equations
Denition 4.2. An equation of the form
ax
2
+ bx + c = 0,
where a, b, c are real numbers and a = 0 is a quadratic equation in one
variable x.
One method in solving a quadratic equation is by factoring. This
method can be used because of the Zero Factor Property. This property is
states that if p and q are real numbers, then pq = 0 if and only if either p
is zero or q is zero.
Example 4.2. Solve the following quadratic equations using factoring.
1. x
2
+ 2x 24 = 0
2. x(x 8) = 15
3. 3x
2
7x + 2 = 0
4. 8x
2
+ 14x 15 = 0
5. (2x 1)(x 1) = 3
Another method in solving a quadratic equation by using the quadratic
formula. This formula is given in the following theorem.
Theorem 4.1. The solutions of the quadratic equation ax
2
+ bx + c = 0,
where a = 0 are
x =
b

b
2
4ac
2a
.
Example 4.3. Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic
formula.
1. x
2
+ 10x + 25 = 0
2. 8x
2
+ 14x 15 = 0
3. (2x 1)(x 1) = 3
4. x
2
4x 1 = 0
5. 9x
2
12x + 5
Remark 4.1. The expression b
2
4ac in the quadratic formula is called
the discriminant. This discriminant is used to determine the nature of the
roots of the given quadratic equation. If the given quadratic is ax
2
+bxc = 0
and its discriminant is D = b
2
4ac, then
1. if D = 0, then there is a double root, which is the real number b/2a;
2. if D > 0, then there are two real and unequal roots;
17
3. if D < 0, then there are two complex roots which are complex conju-
gates of each other.
The steps used in deriving the quadratic formula gives us a third alter-
native in solving a quadratic equation. This method is called completing
the squares.
Example 4.4. Solve the following quadratic equations using completing
the squares.
1. x
2
+ 2x 24 = 0
2. 8x
2
+ 14x 15 = 0
3. (2x 1)(x 1) = 3
4. x
2
4x 1 = 0
5. 9x
2
12x + 5
Theorem 4.2. Let ax
2
+ bx + c = 0 be a quadratic equation whose corre-
sponding roots are r and s, then
r + s =
b
a
rs =
c
a
.
Example 4.5. Find the quadratic equation that has the given roots.
1. 3, 1 2. 3 +

2; 3

2 3. 3 + 4i; 3 4i
4.4 Equations Leading to Quadratic Equations
Consider the equation x
4
8x
2
9 = 0. This is not a quadratic equation
in x, however, if we let t = x
2
, this equation reduces to t
2
8t 9 = 0, and
becomes a quadratic equation in t. We solve for t, so
(t 9)(t + 1) = t
2
8t 9 = 0,
the roots are t = 9 and t = 1. However, t = x
2
, thus the roots of the
original equation in x are x = 3 and x = i.
Remark 4.2. If P and Q are algebraic expressions and n is a positive
integer, then every solution of P = Q is a solution of P
n
= Q
n
. However,
not all solutions of P
n
= Q
n
are solutions of P = Q. These roots are called
extraneous roots.
Example 4.6. Solve each of the following equations.
1. x
4
5x
2
36 = 0
2. 9x
4
+ 5x
2
4 = 0
3. 36x
4/3
13x
2/3
+ 1 = 0
4. (x
2
2x)
2
2(x
2
2x) 3 = 0
5. 2(
x3
x+1
)
2
+ (
x3
x+1
) 1 = 0
6.
x+3
x+1
5 + 4(
x+1
x+3
) = 0
7.

3x + 1 = 2x 1
8.

3x + 1 + 1 =

4x + 5
9.

3x + 1 +

3x 2 =

4x + 5
10. |x + 2| + 1 = |x + 7|
18
11. x
4
+ 13x
2
+ 36 = 0
12. 36x
4
77x
2
9 = 0
13. 36x
4/3
25x
2/3
+ 4 = 0
14. (2x
2
3x)
2
(2x
2
3x) 2 = 0
15. 3(
x+3
2x1
)
2
4(
x+3
2x1
) + 3 = 0
16.
3x+2
2x1
10 + 9(
2x1
3x+2
) = 0
17.

3x + 7 = x + 3
18.

x + 2 + 1 =

3x + 3
19.

2x + 3

x 2 =

x + 1
20. |3x + 5| |1 + 3x| = 3
4.5 Applications
Example 4.7. The sum of three consecutive integers is 288. Find the
integers.
Example 4.8. Find three consecutive even integers whose sum is 252.
Example 4.9. If the larger of two consecutive odd integers is subtracted
from twice the smaller integer, then the result is 21. Find the integers.
Example 4.10. Pedro invested some money in a certicate of deposit with
an annual yield of 9%. He invested twice as much money in a mutual fund
with an annual yield of 12%. His interest at the end of the year from the
two investments was P3, 960 How much money was invested at each rate?
Example 4.11. Maria invested some money at 5% simple interest and
some money at 9% simple interest. The amount invested at the higher rate
was twice the amount invested at the lower rate. If the total interest on the
investments for one year is P9, 200, then how much was invested at each
rate?
Example 4.12. Mario invested one-half of his inheritance in a certicate of
deposit that had a 10% annual yield. He lent one-quarter of his inheritance
to his brother-in-law at 12% simple interest. His income from these two
investments was P64, 000 for one year. How much was the inheritance?
Example 4.13. Petra had P30, 000 to invest. She invested part of it in
an investment paying 8% and the remainder in an investment paying 10%
If the total income on these investments was P2, 900, then how much did
she invest in each rate?
5 Systems of Equations
Denition 5.1. A linear equation in n variables x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
is an equa-
tion of the form or reducible to the form
a
1
x
1
+ a
2
x
2
+ . . . + a
n
x
n
= b,
where a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
are real numbers at least one of which in nonzero and
b is also a real number.
19
Denition 5.2. A system of equations is a set of equations. If all the
equations is a given system is linear, then the systems is called a linear
system. Otherwise, it is a nonlinear system. If the system consists of m
equations, each in n unknowns, then the solution set of the system is the
set of n-ordered tuples (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) which satises all the equations in
the system.
Our aim is to determine the solution set of a given system of equations.
5.1 Linear Systems
Example 5.1. Find the solution set of the following systems of equations.
1.
x y = 3
3x + 2y = 4
2.
3x + 2y = 12
2x + 3y = 13
3.
3/r 1/t = 3
2/r 7/t = 17
4.
3x + 2y + 2z = 1
5x 3y + 4z = 3
2x + y + 2z = 2
5.
5x + 4y + 7z = 2
3x 2y + z = 0
x + 5y + 8z = 2
6 Matrices
6.1 Introduction
Denition 6.1. An m n matrix is a rectangular array of numbers ar-
ranged in m rows and n columns, denoted by
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_

_
.
The element a
ij
of A is called the (i, j) entry or (i, j)th element of A.
This is the entry in the ith row and jth column of A. The matrix A can
also be denoted by [a
ij
]. If m = n, then A is called a square matrix of order
n. The entries a
ii
, i = 1, 2, . . . , n are called the main diagonal entries of
the square matrix A.
Denition 6.2. Two m n matrices A = [a
ij
] and B = [b
ij
] are equal if
a
ij
= b
ij
, for all i = 1, 2, . . . , m and j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
20
6.2 Matrix Operations
Denition 6.3. (Matrix Addition) If A = [a
ij
] and B = [b
ij
] are both
mn matrices then A + B = C, where C = [c
ij
] is another mn matrix
dened by
c
ij
= a
ij
+ b
ij
.
Denition 6.4. (Scalar Matrix) If A = [a
ij
] is an m n matrix and
r is a real number, then the scalar multiple of A by r, is an m n matrix
C = [c
ij
] dened by c
ij
= ra
ij
.
Denition 6.5. (Matrix Multiplication) If A = [a
ij
] is an mp matrix
and B = [b
ij
] is a pn matrix, then the product of A by B, AB = C = [c
ij
],
is an mn matrix where for i = 1, 2, . . . , m; j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
c
ij
=
p

k=1
a
ik
b
kj
.
Denition 6.6. (Transpose of a Matrix) If A = [a
ij
] is an m n
matrix, then the transpose of A, A

= [a

ij
], is an n m matrix, where
a

ij
= a
ji
.
6.3 Special Types of Matrices
Denition 6.7. An n n matrix A = [a
ij
] is called a diagonal matrix if
a
ij
= 0 whenever i = j.
Denition 6.8. A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix whose main diagonal
elements are equal.
Denition 6.9. The n n scalar matrix A = [a
ij
], where a
ii
= 1 is called
the identity matrix of order n. This matrix is denoted by I
n
.
We note the following:
1. If A is an mn matrix, then I
m
A = A and AI
n
= A.
2. If A is a scalar matrix for some scalar r, then A = rI
n
.
Also, if A is an n n matrix and p, q are nonnegative integers, then
1. A
0
= I
n
;
2. A
p
= A A . . . A (A multiplied p times with itself);
3. A
p
A
q
= A
p+q
4. (A
p
)
q
= A
pq
;
5. (AB)
p
= A
p
B
p
, only when AB = BA.
21
6.4 Linear System in Matrix Form
Denition 6.10. A linear system of m linear equations and n unknowns
is a set of m linear equations each in n unknowns. This is written as
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ . . . + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ . . . + a
2n
x
n
= b
2
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ . . . + a
mn
x
n
= b
m
This system can be written in matrix form in the following way:
AX = B,
where
A =
_

_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_

_
,
X =
_

_
x
1
x
2

x
n
_

_
B =
_

_
b
1
b
2

b
m
_

_
.
Example 6.1. Express the following linear systems in matrix form.
1.
x y = 3
3x + 2y = 4
2.
3x + 2y = 12
2x + 3y = 13
3.
3x + 2y + 2z = 1
5x 3y + 4z = 3
2x + y + 2z = 2
4.
5x + 4y + 7z = 2
3x 2y + z = 0
x + 5y + 8z = 2
6.5 Nonsingular Matrices and the Determinant of a
Matrix
Denition 6.11. An n n matrix A is called nonsingular or invertible if
there exists an n n matrix B such that
AB = I
n
= BA.
Otherwise, A is called singular or noninvertible. The matrix B is called the
inverse of A and is denoted by A
1
.
22
Denition 6.12. Let A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
. The determinant of this 2 2
matrix A is given by
det A = a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
.
Let A =
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
_
_
. The determinant of this 3 3 matrix A is
given by
det A = (a
11
a
22
a
33
+a
12
a
23
a
31
+a
13
a
21
a
32
)(a
12
a
21
a
33
+a
11
a
23
a
32
+a
13
a
22
a
31
).
Example 6.2. Find the determinants of the following square matrices.
1. A =
_
1 1
3 2
_
2. A =
_
_
3 2 2
5 3 4
2 1 1
_
_
Remark 6.1. The denition of determinants given above are actually
short-cuts for getting the determinant of 2 2 and 3 3 matrices. These
short-cuts are valid ONLY for 2 2 and 3 3 matrices. The real denition
of matrices will not be discussed in this course.
Theorem 6.1. Let A be a square matrix. A is nonsingular if and only if
det A = 0. Equivalently, A is singular if and only if det A = 0.
Denition 6.13. Let A = [a
ij
] and M
ij
be the (n 1) (n 1) subma-
trix of A obtained by deleting the ith row and the jth column of A. The
determinant, det M
ij
is called the minor of a
ij
. Furthermore, the cofactor
A
ij
of a
ij
is dened as
A
ij
= (1)
i+j
det M
ij
.
Denition 6.14. Let A = [a
ij
] be an n n matrix. The n n matrix
adj A, called the adjoint of A, is the matrix whose (i, j)th entry is the
cofactor A
ji
of a
ji
. Thus,
adj A =
_

_
A
11
A
21
. . . A
n1
A
12
A
22
. . . A
n2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
1n
A
2n
. . . A
nn
_

_
.
Example 6.3. Find the adjoint of the following square matrices.
1. A =
_
1 1
3 2
_
2. A =
_
_
3 2 2
5 3 4
2 1 1
_
_
Theorem 6.2. If A is an n n matrix and det A = 0, then
A
1
=
1
det A
(adj A).
Example 6.4. Find the inverse of the following square matrices, if it exists.
23
1. A =
_
1 1
3 2
_
2. A =
_
_
3 2 2
5 3 4
2 1 1
_
_
6.6 Matrix Inversion Method in Solving a Linear Sys-
tem
Given the linear system AX = B, where A is an n n matrix and X and
B are column vectors of size n 1. If det A = 0, then the uniques solution
to the given system is
X = A
1
B.
Example 6.5. Find the solution set of the following linear systems using
the matrix inversion method.
1.
x y = 3
3x + 2y = 4
2.
3x + 2y = 12
2x + 3y = 13
3.
3x + 2y + 2z = 1
5x 3y + 4z = 3
2x + y + 2z = 2
4.
5x + 4y + 7z = 2
3x 2y + z = 0
x + 5y + 8z = 2
6.7 Cramers Rule
Given the linear system AX = B, where A is an n n matrix and X and
B are column vectors of size n 1. If det A = 0, then the system has the
unique solution:
x
1
=
det A
1
det A
; x
2
=
det A
2
det A
; . . . ; x
n
=
det A
n
det A
,
where A
i
is the matrix obtained from A by replacing the ith column by B.
Example 6.6. Rework Ex. 6.5 using Cramers rule.
6.8 Gauss Jordan Reduction Method
Denition 6.15. An mn matrix A is said to be in reduced row echelon
form(RREF) if it satises the following properties:
1. All rows consisting entirely of zeros, if any, are at the bottom of the
matrix.
24
2. The rst nonzero entry in each row that does not consists entirely of
zeros is a 1, called the leading entry of its row.
3. If rows i and i+1 are two successive rows that do not consists entirely
of zeros, then the leading entry of row i+1 is to the right of the leading
entry of row i.
4. If column contains a leading entry of some row, then all other entries
in that column are zeros.
If matrix A satises only conditions (1), (2) and (3) above, then A is
said to be in row echelon form. A similar denition can be given to dene
reduced column echelon form and column echelon form.
Denition 6.16. An elementary row(column) operation on a matrix
A is any one of the following operations:
1. Type I: Interchange rows (columns) i and j, i = j of A;
2. Type II: Multiply row (column) i of A by a nonzero constant c;
3. Type III: Add c, c = 0 times row (column) i of A to row (column)
j of A, i = j.
Denition 6.17. An mn matrix A is said to be row(column) equiv-
alent to an m n matrix B, if B can be obtained by applying a nite
sequence of elementary row operations to A.
We note the following:
1. Every matrix is row(column) equivalent to itself.
2. If A is row(column) equivalent to B, then B is row(column) equivalent
to A.
Theorem 6.3. Every nonzero matrix mn matrix A is row(column) equiv-
alent to a matrix in reduced row (column) echelon form.
Procedure in transforming a matrix in RREF (Gauss Jordan Reduction
Method):
1. Find the rst (counting from left to right) column in A not all of
whose entries are zeros. This column is called the pivotal column.
2. Identify the rst (counting from top to bottom) nonzero entry in the
pivotal column. This entry is called the pivot and the row where the
pivot is located is called the pivotal row.
3. Perform a Type I row operation on A by interchanging the pivotal
row and the rst row. Call this new matrix A
1
4. Perform a Type II row operation on A
i
, by multiplying the rst row
of A
1
by the reciprocal of the pivot. Thus the leading entry of the
rst row is now a 1. Call this new matrix A
2
.
25
5. Perform a Type III row operation by adding multiples of the rst
row of A
2
to all the other row to make all the entries in the pivotal
column, except the entry where the pivot is located, equal to zero.
Call this new matrix A
3
.
6. Identify matrix B as the (m 1) n submatrix of A
3
, by ignoring
the rst row of A
3
. Repeat step 1 to 5 above, to B until a matrix in
RREF is obtained.
Example 6.7. Find a matrix in rref that is row equivalent to the matrix
A =
_
_
5 9 1 6
1 1 1 1
1 3 1 2
_
_
.
Theorem 6.4. Let AX = B and CX = D be two linear systems each with
m equations in n unknowns. If the augmented matrices [A|B] and [C|D]
are row equivalent, then the linear systems are row equivalent, that is, they
have exactly the same solutions.
Remark 6.2. We will limit our discussion on the case where m = n 3.
Example 6.8. Rework Ex. 6.5 using the Gauss Jordan reduction method.
26