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COMPUTER APPRECIATION
1.1. Introduction
Computers play a key role in how individuals work and how they live. Even the smallest organizations have computers to help them operate more efficiently, and many individuals use computers at home for educational, entertainment, and business purposes. The ease with which computers can process data, store and retrieve it painlessly, have made them inevitable in office and business environments. In fact any task that can be carried out systematically can be performed by a computer. Therefore, it is essential for every educated person today to know about a computer, its strengths, its weaknesses and its internal structure.
A computer is an electronic device that stores and manipulates information. Computers can access and process data millions of times faster than humans can. A computer can store data and information in its memory, process them and produce the desired results. It operates under the control of a set of instructions that is stored in its memory unit. The computer is often compared with the human brain. Like the brain, a computer can take in data and process it. It can store the data either in raw form or as processed results and can deliver the raw or processed data on demand. A computer is used essentially as a data processor. The terms data and information are very commonly used. You must clearly understand the difference between the two. Data: Data in computer terminology mean raw facts and figures. For example Mohan, 1977, A, -162.19, and 75.2 are data. Data are processed to form information. . Information: It means what we get after processing data (meaningful data). Data are aggregated and summarized in various meaningful ways to form information. For example Mohan, whose roll number is 1977, has got grade A is an information as it is conveying some meaning. Data is entered into the computer through an input device like the keyboard and is stored in the computers memory. It is then processed according to the given set of instructions and the result is displayed through an output device like the monitor. A computer can store large amount of information. You can receive the stored information whenever needed. Computers can understand only electric signals ON and OFF where ON means the circuit is on and OFF means the circuit is OFF. Computers can do a lot of different tasks such as playing music and games, typing documents, drawing pictures, storing data etc. these days, computers are also used in banks, hospitals, offices, supermarkets, schools, railway and online reservations, weather forecasting, error detection, controlling the flight of a space aircraft etc. Points to Remember A computer is an electronic device that processes the input data according to a given set of instructions to give meaningful output or information. Computer can understand only electric signals ON and OFF. Typing data into the computer through the keyboard is called entering or inputting data. Results produced by the computer are called the output. Doing calculations or comparing data is called Processing.
Process informationPerform arithmetic or logical operations on Produce outputCommunicate information to the outside world through output
devices like monitor, printer, etc. disks, CD, etc.
Store informationStore the information in storage devices like hard disk, floppy
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Input
Data Information
Processing
Information
Output
Control Unit (CU) - Interprets stored instructions in sequence, issues commands to all elements of the computer
Input
Data and Instruction
Output
Information
Input Unit
The input unit is formed by the input devices attached to the computer. Examples of input devices and media are: keyboard, mouse, Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR), Optical Character Reader (OCR), joystick etc. The input unit is responsible for taking input and converting it into computer understandable form (the binary code). Since a computer operates on electricity, it can understand only the language of electricity i.e. either ON or OFF, or high voltage or low voltage. Thus a computer uses binary language which has only two symbols: 1 for ON and 0 for OFF. The input unit takes the input and converts it into binary form so that it can be understood by the computer.
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Output Unit
The output unit is formed by the output devices attached to the computer. The output coming from the CPU is in the form of electronic binary signals, which needs conversion into a form which can be easily understood by human beings i.e. characters, graphical or audio visual form. This conversion is performed by the output units. Some popular Output devices are VDU (Visual Display Unit), printer, plotter, speech synthesizer etc.
combination. A bit is an elementary unit of the memory. A group of 8 bits is called a byte and a group of 4 bits is called a nibble. One byte is the smallest unit which can represent a data item or a character. Other units of memory are KB, MB, and GB. One One One One KB (kilobyte) means 210 bytes i.e., 1024 bytes. MB (Megabyte) means 210 KB i.e. 1024 x 1024 bytes. GB (Gigabyte) means 210 MB i.e. 1024 x 1024 x 1024 bytes. TB (Terabyte) means 210 GB i.e. 1024 x 1024 x 1024 x 1024 bytes. 1 Bit 8 Bits 1024 Bytes 1024 Kilobytes 1024 Megabytes 1024 Gigabytes 1024 Terabytes 1024 Petabytes 1024 Exabytes 1024 Zettabytes 1024 Yottabytes 1024 Brontobytes Binary Digit 1 Byte 1 Kilobyte 1 Megabyte 1 Gigabyte 1 Terabyte 1 Petabyte 1 Exabyte 1 Zettabyte 1 Yottabyte 1 Brontobyte 1 Geopbyte
Since computers main memory (primary memory) is temporary, secondary memory space is needed to store data and information permanently for later use. The two most common secondary storage media are the floppy diskette and the hard disk. Points to Remember Information is entered into a computer with the help of an input device. Results are provided by the output devices. CPU is the brain of the computer and consists of ALU and CU. ALU is capable of doing arithmetic and logical operations. CU controls the activities of the computer. The main memory holds data, information and intermediate results. A bit (Binary Digit) is an elementary unit of memory. A group of 8 bits is called a Byte; a group of 4 bits is called a Nibble. 1KB=1024 bits; 1MB = 1024KB; 1GB = 1024MB; 1TB = 1024GB; 1PB = 1024TB.
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Speed: Computers can calculate at very high speeds. A microcomputer, for example, can execute millions of instructions per second over and over again without any mistake. As the power of the computer increases, the speed also increases. A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3 to 4 million simple instructions per second. While referring to the speed of computers, we do not talk in terms of seconds or even milliseconds. The units of measuring computer speed are microseconds (10-6), nanoseconds (10-9), and even picoseconds (10-12). For example, supercomputers can operate at speeds measured in nanoseconds and even in picoseconds one thousand to one million times faster than microcomputers.
Word Length: A digital computer operates on binary digits 0 and 1. It can understand information only in terms of Os and 1s. A binary digit is called a bit. A group of 8 bits is called a byte. The number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel is called its word length. Commonly used word lengths are 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. Word length is the measure of the computing power of a computer. The longer the word length, the more powerful the computer is. When we talk of a 32-bit computer, it means that its word length is 32 bits. Storage: Computers have their main memory and auxiliary memory systems. Computers can store a large amount of information in very small space. A CDROM of 4.7 inch diameter can store all the 33 volumes of Encyclopedia Britannica and will still have room to store more information. Bubble memories can store 6,250,000 bits per square centimeter of space. Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer system is very high. Errors in hardware can occur, but error detecting and correcting techniques will prevent false results. In most cases, the errors are due to the human factor rather than the technological fault. For example, if a program is wrongly coded, if the data is corrupted, or if the program logic is flawed, then you will always get wrong results. Another area where mistakes can occur is during data entry. So if a wrong input is given, the output also will be wrong this characteristic is called GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out).
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Versatility: computers are very versatile machines. They can perform activities ranging from, simple calculations to complex operations such as CAD modeling, navigating missiles and satellites etc. In other words, they are capable of, performing almost any task, provided the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps. Computers can communicate with other computers and can receive and send data in various forms like text, sound, video, graphics, etc. This ability of computer to communicate to one another has led to the development of computer networks, Internet, WWW and so on. Today, we can send e-mail to people all around the world. We now live in a connected world and all this is possible because of computers and other related technologies. Automation: The level of automation achieved in a computer is phenomenal. It is not a simple calculator where you have to punch in the numbers and press the equal to sign to get the result. Once a task is initiated, computers can proceed on its own till its completion. Computers can be programmed to perform a series of complex tasks involving multiple programs. Computers will perform these things flawlessly. They will execute the programs in the correct sequence, they will switch on/off the machines at the appropriate time, they will monitor the operational parameters, and they will send warning signals or take corrective actions if the parameters exceed the control level, and so on. Computers are capable of these levels of automation, provided they are programmed correctly. Diligence: Diligence means being constant and earnest in effort and application. Human beings suffer from weakness like tiredness, lack of concentration, etc. humans have feelings, they become sad, depressed, bored, and negligent and it will reflect on the work they do. Moreover, human beings cannot perform the same or similar tasks over and over again with the same precision, accuracy and enthusiasm as the first time. After some time people will become bored, and this will affect the performance. Being a machine, a computer does not have any of these human weaknesses. It wont get tired or bored. They will not go into depression or loose concentration. They will perform the tasks that are given to them, irrespective of whether it is interesting, creative, monotonous, or boring, irrespective of whether it is the first time or the millionth time, with exactly the same accuracy and speed.
In spite of having all the above given characteristic, it does possess some limitations also that are strengths of human beings. These are:
Lack of Decision Making Power: Computers cannot take decisions themselves. They do not possess this power which is a great asset of human beings. Computers are to be instructed at every step. If an unanticipated situation arises, computers will either produce erroneous results or abandon the task altogether. They do not have the potential to work out an alternate solution. IQ Zero: Computers are dumb machines with zero IQ. They need to be told each and every step, however minute it may be.
These limitations of computers are characteristics of human beings. Thus, computers and human beings work in collaboration to make a perfect pair.
Mechanical calculating devices can be further classified as: Manual Calculating Devices Semi-automatic Calculating Devices
The next breakthrough occurred in America. The U.S. Constitution states that a census should be taken of all U.S. citizens every 10 years in order to determine the representation of the states in Congress. While the very first census of 1790 had only required 9 months, by 1880 the U.S. population had grown so much that the count for the 1880 census took 7.5 years. Automation was clearly needed for the next census. The census bureau offered a prize for an inventor to help with the 1890 census and this prize was won by Herman Hollerith, who proposed and then successfully adopted Jacquard's punched cards for the purpose of computation. He developed a device which could automatically read census information which had been punched onto card. As a result of his invention, reading errors were consequently greatly reduced, work flow was increased, and, more important, stacks of punched cards could be used as an accessible memory store of almost unlimited capacity; furthermore, different problems could be stored on different batches of cards and worked on as needed. Hollerith's tabulator became so successful that he started his own firm to market the device; this company eventually became International Business Machines (IBM).
acknowledged to be the first successful high-speed electronic digital computer (EDC) and was productively used from 1946 to 1955. In 1945, Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data. This "stored memory" technique as well as the "conditional control transfer," that allowed the computer to be stopped at any point and then resumed, allowed for greater versatility in computer programming. The key element to the von Neumann architecture was the central processing unit, which allowed all computer functions to be coordinated through a single source. In 1949, a professor name M.Wilkes of Cambridge University, designed Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer (EDSAC). Here the program was fed into the storage unit by means of paper tape. It also used vacuum tubes and was slightly faster than ENIAC. In 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), built by Remington Rand, became one of the first commercially available computers to take advantage of these advances. The first computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to be used. Each computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine language that told it how to operate. This made the computer difficult to program and limited its versatility and speed. Other unique features of first computers were the use of vacuum tubes and magnetic drums for data storage. By 1965, most large business routinely processed financial information using computers. It was the stored program and programming language that gave computers the flexibility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great deal of heat, which damaged the computer's sensitive internal parts. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit in 1958. The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz. Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a semiconductor. As IC technology progressed, chip manufacturers could fit more and more circuitry onto the tiny silicon chips. By 1971, a company named Intel developed the first microprocessor (also called an MPU) that fit a whole CPU onto one microchip. The Intel 4004 processor contained 2300 transistors on a chip of silicon 1/8" x 1/16" in size. By 1974, Intel introduced their 8080 chip, a general purpose microprocessor offering ten times the performance of the earlier MPU. It was not too long before electronics hobbyists began building small computer systems based on the rapidly improving microprocessor chips. These computers came complete with user-friendly software packages that offered even non-technical users an arrangement of applications, most popularly word processing and spreadsheet programs. The first commercially available microcomputer of note was the Altair 8800 computer sold by MITS (Micro Instrumentation & Telemetry Systems), a company founded by Dr. Ed Roberts that was based in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Remember that a computer cant do anything without software. A small company was formed in Albuquerque to provide software (a BASIC language) for the Altair computer. The founders name was Bill Gates, and the company he formed (along with his partner Paul Allen) was Microsoft. Another popular company named Apple was founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak on April 1, 1976. Their Apple II computer was a hit, especially in the home and education markets. In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and schools. It used a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 processor. Within two years IBM released the PC XT (1983) and PC AT (1984) using the Intel 80286 processor. The 1980's saw an expansion in computer use. The number of personal computers in use more than doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in 1982. Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used. As computers became more widespread in the workplace, Prepared by Ms.Swapna Anildas, BMIM DP Module I / 10
new ways to harness their potential developed. As smaller computers became more powerful, they could be linked together, or networked, to share memory space, software, information and communicate with each other. Computers continue to grow smaller and more powerful. Computers were traditionally very difficult to use, requiring the user to memorize and type in the necessary commands (this is called a Command Line Interface). To make computers more accessible, the Graphical User Interface (GUI) was developed. In a GUI, the user interacts with a graphical display on the screen containing icons and windows and controls. Commands are chosen from menus rather than typed in. The GUI was developed at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, but the management at Xerox failed to see the usefulness of it. When Steve Jobs of Apple saw the GUI, however, he recognized its value. Apple licensed the concepts from Xerox, developed them further, and released the first successful GUI computer, the Macintosh, in 1984. Macintosh computers used the Motorola 68000 series of microprocessors (and later the PowerPC series of microprocessors). The evolution of computers is summarized in the table below. Year Computing device and Inventor Description Developed in China; used as a counting device and later for mathematical calculations. Normally used for engineering calculations A device with 8 counter-wheels linked by ratchets for carryover. It was made for tedious mathematical calculations. It was not very successful due to difficult operation and very high cost. Todays computer organization corresponds very closely to analytical engine. She translated a paper on Babbages Analytical Engine, describing steps to use it. A programming language, ADA, is named after her. Published the principles of Boolean logic based on variables with values either True or False. It was an important development in the field of computers as it became easy to build reliable electronic circuits representing binary digits 1 for ON and 0 for OFF. It was used for the US census of 1880. The work of approximately eight years was performed by this machine in three years. It was the first successful general purpose digital computer. He gave the design principle of digital computers suggesting the concept of stored programs to make computers fully automatic. The first general- purpose electronic digital DP Module I / 11
3000 BC Abacus 1620 AD Slide Rule 1642 Pascaline Pascals Calculating Machine (Blaise Pascal, French Mathematician) 1834 Babbages Analytical Engine (Charles Babbage, Professor of Mathematics, Cambridge) 1842 First Computer Programmer (Lady Augusta Ada Byron)
1854
1884
1944
1946
Concept of program Vs. Data (Dr. John Von Neumann of Philadelphia, US)
1946
ENIAC
John W. Mauchely & J.Presper Eckert, US. 1951 UNIVAC-1 (Universal Automatic Computer) Remington Rand
computer. One of the first commercially available computers taking advantage of Von-Neumann architecture.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices. Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization. The characteristics of each generation of computers can be summarized as shown below: First Generation Computers Used Time Period Technology : 1951 1959 : Vacuum Tubes : 10000 - 20000 (Characters) : Few thousand instructions per second : Machine code and electric wired boards : ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC-I & II, IBM 170 & 650 : Computers were extremely huge and bulky, relatively slow, unreliable, and generated a lot of heat. Beginning of electronic data processing.
Second Generation Computers Used Time Period Technology : 1959 1963 : Transistors and diodes : 4000 - 64000 (Characters) : Up to 1 million instructions per second : Magnetic Core Memory : Assembly languages and COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL : CDC-60, UNIVAC Burroughs 200 1004, high-level IBM languages like and
1620,7090,7094,
: Use of transistors and diodes, reduced size and weight, faster operation but costly, increase in reliability, rapid growth in data processing applications, and introduction of time sharing and real-time processing.
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Third Generation Computers Time Period Technology Used Memory Capacity Execution Speed Languages : 1963 1975 : Integrated Circuits : 32000 - 4 million (Characters) : Up to 10 million instructions per second : High-Level, e.g., FORTRAN, PL/1, COBOL, ALGOL 68, and BASIC : Smaller, faster, reliable and required less power, reduced computing costs, improved software support, and software development methodologies and tools.
Important computers : UNIVAC 100, IBM 360, and Burroughs 7700 General Remarks
Fourth Generation Computers Time Period Technology Used Memory Capacity Execution Speed Languages Important computers General Remarks : 1975 - Today : Microprocessor using Large Scale Integration (LSI) : 512,000 - 32 million (Characters) : Up to 100 million instructions per second : All High-Level and fourth generation languages and artificial Intelligence. : CDC Cyber 170, Apple, Macintosh, IBM PC, PC-XT, PC-AT, and AT-386. : More powerful and versatile computers, much faster, much smaller, less expensive, minicomputer, and microcomputer came in the market.
Fifth Generation Computers Japan Initiated the fifth generation computer project in 1982. Aimed at becoming the leader in the computer field in 1990s. Was conceived as Knowledge / Inference Processing System. Used Very Large Scale Integration (LSI) and parallel processing Incorporated Artificial Intelligence (AI) Artificial Intelligence refers to the use of computers in such a way that they perform various operations and at the same time take decisions similar to human beings. Process non-numeric information such as pictures and graphs. Natural language processing system.
simple analog computer. As the temperature varies, the mercury moves correspondingly. Another example of analog computer is the processor attached to petrol pump which converts the fuel flow measurements and displays the quantity and price. The word Digital stands for discrete (step-by-step) and hence digital computers can take only discrete values. A digital computer represents data in terms of discrete numbers and processes data using standard arithmetic operations. Hence accuracy obtained in a digital computer is very high. They are high speed, programmable electronic devices that perform mathematical calculations, compare values and store the results. They recognize data by counting discrete signals, representing either a high voltage electrical state (on) or low voltage electrical state (off). Numbers and special characters are reduced to representation by 1s (on) and 0s (off). A computer which performs operations based on both analog and digital principles is called a hybrid computer. In other words, a computer system that has capabilities, behavior, functions, and principles of operation of both analog and digital computer is called a hybrid computer. Many scientific, business and medical applications rely on the combination of analog and digital services. The ultrasonic digital scanner is an example of hybrid computer. The characteristics of these computers can be summarized as follows: Analog Computers Operate by measuring rather than counting Use continuous signals as input Digital computers Operate both on digits and alphabets Use discrete signals as input Computers used for business and scientific applications, and pulse/heart-beat counters are examples. Hybrid computers Use both types of signals analog as well as digital as input Mostly used with process control equipments in continuous production plants, for example, oil refineries. Areas of application are nuclear power plants, mines, intensive care units (ICUs) of hospitals, and chemical process plants.
do its own processing (they are also called dumb terminals since they cant process data on their own). The processing power of the mainframe is time-shared between all of the users. Mainframes typically cost several hundred thousand dollars. They are used in situations where a company wants the processing power and information storage in a centralized location. Mainframes are also now being used as high-capacity server computers for networks with many client workstations. This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies, and many other huge companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis. Mini Computers A minicomputer is a multi-user computer that is less powerful than a mainframe. This class of computers became available in the 1960s when large scale integrated circuits made it possible to build a computer much cheaper than the then existing mainframes (minicomputers cost around $100,000 instead of the $1,000,000 cost of a mainframe). These are the computers, which are mostly preferred by the small type of business personals, colleges, etc. Personal / Micro Computer A microcomputer is a computer that has a microprocessor chip as its CPU. They are often called personal computers because they are designed to be used by one person at a time. These computers are lesser in cost than the computers given above and also, small in size; they are also called PCs in short for Personal computers. They are typically used at home, at school, or at a business. Popular uses for microcomputers include word processing, surfing the web, sending and receiving e-mail, spreadsheet calculations, database management, editing photographs, creating graphics, and playing music or games. Personal computers come in two major varieties, desktop computers and laptop computers: Desktop computers are larger and not meant to be portable. They usually sit in one place on a desk or table and are plugged into a wall outlet for power. The case of the computer holds the motherboard, drives, power supply, and expansion cards. This case may lay flat on the desk, or it may be a tower that stands vertically (on the desk or under it). The computer usually has a separate monitor (either a CRT or LCD) although some designs have a display built into the case. A separate keyboard and mouse allow the user to input data and commands. Laptop or notebook computers are small and lightweight enough to be carried around with the user. They run on battery power, but can also be plugged into a wall outlet. They typically have a built-in LCD display that folds down to protect the display when the computer is carried around. They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of built-in pointing device (such as a touch pad). Laptops cost more than desktop units of equivalent processing power because the smaller components needed to build laptops are more expensive.
making cartoon films is called animation. Earlier, it took a lot of time and effort to make animated films. But now, cartoon films are created very easily through computer animation. Cinema - Computers are also used in cinema to create special effects through computer graphics. Special effects like that of a fire, battle, earthquake, etc., can be created using computers. These days, computers are used to simulate these special effects and combine them with the real characters or scenes using special devices and then the pictures produced look realistic. Some films have been produced in which cartoon characters interact with real characters. Desk Top Publishing (DTP) - These days, magazines, newspapers, books, comics, etc., are produced using computers. The text is typed using word-processing software and the illustrations are drawn using a graphics package. Modern DTP software makes it easy to apply styles and layout texts and graphics. Business - Every company requires a lot of information to carry out its day-to-day activities. This information must be constantly updated. Computers are being used in several office jobs like preparing salary, sales record, stock control, and maintenance of staff records. Computers are also used for sales forecasting, production planning, etc. Medicine - A large number of computerized equipment is used for medical tests in hospitals and clinics. Computers are used for storing medical records for future references. Complete records of patients can be stored. Doctors can search through these records to examine various case histories. In hospitals, special computers are built inside different equipments. These help to monitor the condition of patients and record all the necessary information. Computers are also used in surgical cases, especially surgery involving the heart. Defense - Computers are very useful in defense services. Modern weapons and missiles are totally computer-controlled. Space Technology - A number of satellites have been put into orbit. These space satellites are linked with computers that provide enormous information. Computers are also used to monitor and control the proper functioning of space equipment, to determine and control routes, etc. Library - Computers are used in libraries for many purposes. Computers are used to record issuing and returning of books. Computers are also used for maintaining a list of borrowed books. Computer indexing helps in selecting information on a particular subject from a library. Airline/Railway Reservations - Computers are being used for airline/railway reservation. All the information required for booking is fed into the computer by the booking clerk and he/she checks the availability of tickets. The tickets so booked are printed in pre-printed stationery and issued. The computer updates all the information immediately and gives the latest status. The computers booking counters are connected through a common network. This enables people to book tickets from any, town or city for any other place. Banks - Computers are being used in banks for various tasks online enquiry of customers balance, cheque verification and updating the balance, calculating interests, printing customer statements, etc. All such transactions in banks are carried out through computers. Many leading banks have installed Automated Teller Machines (ATM). These enable the customers to draw money from accounts, transfer money, obtain bank statements, etc. All these can be done using a special plastic card which is inserted into the input device of a computer. This also eliminates the need for a clerk. Weather Forecasting - Computers are used for weather forecasting. Data is collected from weather stations and satellites all over the world. They provide information about the changes in weather and direction of winds. This data is fed to the computer and analyzed. The computer predicts the changes in the weather conditions. Timely predictions may avoid some of the worst mishaps. The people concerned with air travel, shipping, rescue operations, and farmers, etc., are dependent on correct weather forecasting.
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Points to Remember Hardware and Software are the two terms associated with computers.
Hardware is the physical parts; and software is the set of programs and data. Speed, Versatility, Diligence, accuracy etc are the characteristics of computer. Computers are used in most of our day-to-day activities. Computers are used in offices, houses, hospitals, etc.
Computers are used to make cartoon films, or to create special effects in cinema. etc. Computers are used to produce books, magazines, newspapers, comics,
Computers assist in teaching and learning, in medicine and in space technology. Computers are used in airline and railway reservations. Computers are used for weather forecasting.
Using computers customer transactions are verified and updated in banks. Computers are very useful in defense services and in hospitals. In libraries, computers are used for issuing books and storing the list of books available in the library. All leading banks have Automated Teller Machine (ATM) services that facilitate speedy transactions.
Hardware concepts
2.1. Introduction
Computer hardware represents all the physical components of a computer system that can be seen and located. Thus it includes input devices, output devices, central processing unit, and storage devices. Computer is not a single machine but a combination of several working units. To accomplish a task it requires input which is taken from the input unit. The processing part is handled by the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The output that is generated is sent to output unit or saved on secondary storage devices. The input unit converts the input to a form recognized by the machine; transfers the input data in the form of digital signals for processing. These digital signals are interpreted by the CPU and processed. The output unit on the other hand, converts the output-digital-signals generated as a result of processing into understandable form. All the units communicate with each other through internal set of wires called ports.
(OCR), Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR), bar code reader, and magnetic tapes and disks. Output unit is just the opposite of input unit, that is, it is an interface for machine to man communication. The output that comes from the CPU is in the form of binary signals which get converted into a form that can be understood by humans, that is, graphical, audio visual or language form. Some of the popular output devices are visual display unit (VDU), plotter, printer, speech synthesizer, magnetic disks and magnetic tapes.
Keyboard
The most widely used input device today is the keyboard. It is similar to a typewriter in that all the keys are arranged like those on a typewriter but there are some extra keys also. Every key and key combination passes a unique signal to the computer. It is generally used for typing text-based information. The traditional format of a computer keyboard is called QWERTY keyboard because of the sequence of the six letters on the left hand corner of the upper row. During typing a flashing line appears on the screen, which is called a cursor. When a key on the keyboard is pressed, that character is displayed at the cursor position Control (Ctrl) and Alter (Alt) keys in combination with other keys have special functions.
Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device, which rolls on a small rubber ball and has two or three buttons on the top. The movement of the ball is sensed by two sensors and resolved into horizontal and vertical components. The movement of the cursor on the screen is controlled by the movement of the mouse. Selection of menu option is done by clicking the mouse buttons while the cursor, or pointer, points to the option to be selected.
Joystick
It provides fast, controlled movement on the screen and allows movement of objects around the screen with ease. The movement is sensed by vertical stick which is attached to a solid base. Different shapes of joysticks are available now. It is commonly used for playing games on computers.
Scanner
Scanners look and work somewhat like photo copiers. One needs to simply lay an image or page of text face down on the flatbed scanner and then issue a command to scan the Prepared by Ms.Swapna Anildas, BMIM DP Module I / 19
page. The page stays stationary and a mechanism inside the flatbed scanner moves over the image to scan it. The scanned image is then transferred to the system and saved in a graphic format generally as a paint package file or CorelDraw file.
Light Pen
Light pen is also a pointing device that can be used to select an option by simply pointing at it or for drawing figures directly on the screen. The light pen functions on the concept of photocell. It is used in application areas like designing and engineering.
Trackball
A trackball is similar to a mouse, but the roller ball is mounted in a fixed position and the user spins the ball in various directions to move the cursor on the screen. This type of pointing device is normally used in a Laptop personal computer.
Touch Pad
This is also used on portable computers. It is a small, touch-sensitive pad. By moving a finger or other object along the pad, you can move the pointer on the display screen.
or microfilm. They are very slow in operation as compared to soft copy devices because these often involve mechanical movement. Commonly used hard copy devices are Printers and Plotters.
Printers
Printers can be divided into two distinct categories on the basis of producing impression over the paper - Impact Printers & Non-impact Printers
Impact Printers
In an impact printer, a character is printed on the paper through physical contact between the print head and paper. Either the needle or a character is stuck on the paper through the ribbon. This creates a lot of noise when these printers work. Impact printers may also be categorized into two types on the basis of produced (impression) pattern.
Solid Font - In a solid font printer, a complete character strikes a carbon ribbon or other inked surface against paper to produce an image of the character. Dot Matrix Dot matrix printer has a set of printing needles or pins. Selected print needles strike the inked ribbon against paper to produce an image of the character.
1. 2.
Character Printer - Character printer prints character by character. It may work on both technologies: dot matrix as well as on solid font. Line Printer line printer prints one complete line at a time. It works on both technologies: dot matrix and solid font. Dot matrix type line printers are relatively slower than the solid font impact line printers. Speed may be 300 lines per minute or more. Dot Matrix Printer - In a dot matrix printer, the character is formed with closely packed dots. The printing head contains a vertical array of pins. Formation of character is done by the movement of head across the paper. Selected print needles strike the inked ribbon against paper to produce an image of the character. Dot matrix printer supports printing of graphics also. It is faster than daisy wheel printer and the printing speed lies between 30 to 600 cps (characters per second). It comes in two print head specifications, 9 pin and 24 pin. Examples include EPSON EX 1000, and EPSON LQ 1050. Daisy Wheel Printer it is a solid font type character printer. Daisy wheel printer is named as such because the print head resembles a daisy flower, with the printing arms appearing like petals of the flower. Speed lies between 30 cps to 90 cps. Print quality is better than dot matrix. It is a bi-directional printer, that is, head of the printer prints while moving in forward direction as well as in backward direction. It also supports graphics, such as curves.
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Non-Impact printers
In non-impact printers, the head does not come directly in contact with the paper. There is no impact or hitting of needles so non-impact printers do not make any noise while printing. They come in many varieties:
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Thermal Printer - In a thermal printer the characters are formed by pressing an array of electrically heated needles against heat sensitive paper. Such papers have a special heat sensitive coating which becomes dark when a spot is heated. Character is printed with a matrix of dots which are heated by the needles. It is not possible to produce multiple copies simultaneously with this type of a printer. A special type of paper is used with this printer which is costly, thereby reducing the popularity of a thermal printer.
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Laser Printer - Laser printer works on the concept of using laser beams to create an image on a photosensitive surface. Initially the desired output image is written on a copier drum with a laser beam that operates under the control of the computer. The laser exposed drum areas attract a toner that attaches itself to the laser generated charges on the drum. The toner is permanently fused on paper with heat and/or pressure by rolling the drum over a blank paper. Laser printers are quiet and produce very high quality of output. They are capable of printing 4-40 pages per minute. Ink-jet printer - Ink-Jet printers use dot matrix approach to print text and graphics. Nozzles in the print head produce tiny ink droplets. These droplets are charged which are deflected and then directed to the desired spots on the paper to form the impression of a character. It has a speed of 40-300 cps with software controls on size and style of characters. These printers support color printing and are very quiet and noiseless in operation. The print quality of such printers is very near letter-quality. Comparative View of Printers Printer Type
Dot Matrix Daisy Wheel Thermal Laser
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Advantages
Inexpensive, Fast, Prints Graphics High quality printing Light Weight, Battery powered Excellent print quality, Prints graphics
Disadvantages
Poor quality printing Slow, Noisy, Expensive Slow, Poor quality printing, requires special paper Expensive
Plotters
Plotters are output devices that are used to produce precise and good quality graphics and drawings under computer control. They use ink pen or ink-jet to draw graphics or drawings. Either single color or multicolor pens can be employed. The pens are driven by a motor. The graphics and drawings produced by plotters are uniform and precise and they are of very high quality. Plotters are used for complex engineering drawings and for drawing of maps that require high degree of accuracy. Flatbed plotters use horizontal flat surface on which paper can be fixed. The pen moves in X and Y directions which is controlled by the computer.
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Text and Graphics - Certain VDUs are capable of displaying a character set such
as that provided by the ASCII code. The output of a computer is best presented in graphical form. For that a graphical monitor is required which has high degree of resolution and screen is divided into rows and columns of dots called pixels.
colour image are called monochrome monitors. It has only one electron gun. Colour monitor is capable of displaying upto 17 million colours using combinations of basic colours. It has different colours. Generally two types of coloured monitors are used. RGB (RED, GREEN, BLUE) CMYK (CYAN, MAGENTA, YELLOW and K for BLACK) RGB colour monitor has three electron guns and the screen is coated with three types of phosphors: red, green and blue.
1. The manner of operation of peripherals is quite different from the CPU and
memory, which are electronic devices. 2. The data transfer rate of peripheral device is slower than that of the CPU.
3. Data codes and formats in peripherals differ from the word format in the CPU and
memory.
4. Operation of peripherals is different from each other and each must be controlled
to avoid disturbances in the operation of other peripheral devices.
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Register Set
Control Unit
Components of CPU
The basic structure of CPU is shown below.
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Control Unit
Control Signals
Register Set The CPU consists of a set of registers which are used for storing instructions as well as intermediate results. Some of them include Memory Address Registers (MAR), Memory Buffer Register (MBR), Accumulator, Instruction Register, Program counter etc. Prepared by Ms.Swapna Anildas, BMIM DP Module I / 25
Memory Address Register (MAR) specifies the address of the memory location from which data is to be accessed (in case of read operation) or to which data is to be stored (in case of write operation). Memory Buffer Register (MBR) receives data from the memory (in case of read operation) or contains the data to be written in the memory (in case of write operation). Accumulator (AC) interacts with the ALU and stores the input or output operand. This register therefore, holds the initial data to be operated upon, the intermediate results and the final results of the processing operations. Instruction Register (IR) holds the current instruction that is being executed. The basic issues relating to a CPU can be expressed as: It should be as fast as possible The capacity of the main memory needed by the CPU is very large. Two terms associated with CPU are the CPU cycle time and Memory cycle time. The CPU cycle time is the time taken by the CPU to execute a well-defined shortest micro-operation. The memory cycle time is the speed at which the memory can be accessed by the CPU. It has been found that the memory cycle time is approximately 1-10 times higher than the CPU cycle time. That is why temporary storage is provided within the CPU in the form of CPU registers. CPU registers are also called fast memories and can be accessed almost instantaneously. Further, the number of bits a register can store at a time is called the length of the register. Most CPU sold today has 32-bit or 64-bit registers. The size of the register is also called the word size and indicates the amount of data that a CPU can process at a time. Thus the bigger the word size, the faster the computer can process data.
Data Transfer: From CPU to memory, memory to CPU, from CPU to I/O, or I/O to CPU. Data Processing: An arithmetic or logic operation may be performed on the data by the CPU. Sequence Control: This action is typically required for altering the sequence of execution. For example, if an instruction from location 50 specifies that the next instruction to be fetched should be from location 100, then the program counter will need to be modified to contain the location 100 (which otherwise would have contained 51). Execution of an instruction may involve any combination of these actions.
(like magnetic take or disk), and were to be loaded into the registers of the CPU as the program execution proceeded, it would lead to the CPU being idle for most of the time. This is because the speed at which the CPU processes data is much higher than the speed at which data can be transferred from disk to registers. Every computer thus requires storage space where instructions and data of a program can reside temporarily while the program is being executed. This temporary storage area is built into the computer hardware and is known as primary storage or main memory. Devices that provide backup (like magnetic tapes and disks) are called secondary storage or auxiliary memory. At present the two kinds of memory are commonly used - Semiconductor Memory & Magnetic Memory The semiconductor memory is faster, compact, and lighter. It consumes less power, and is a static device, that is, there is no rotating component in it. The magnetic memory is cheaper than static memory. It is in the form of magnetic disk or magnetic tapes. The semiconductor memory is employed as the main memory or primary memory of the computer. It stores programs and data which are currently needed by the CPU. The magnetic memory is used as secondary memory or auxiliary memory. The total memory capacity of the computer can therefore be visualized as being a hierarchy of components consisting of all storage devices employed in a computer system from the slow but high capacity auxiliary memory to a relatively faster main memory, to an even smaller and faster cache memory accessible to the high-speed processing logic. The memory hierarchy is schematically represented as follows.
CPU Registers
Cache Memory
Main/Primary Memory
Secondary/Auxiliary Memory
Primary/Main Memory
In a computer system the main memory is the central storage unit. It is relatively fast and large memory and is used to store data and programs during the computer operations. The size of the main memory is comparatively much smaller than that of the secondary memory. CPU communicates directly with the main memory. The speed of the Prepared by Ms.Swapna Anildas, BMIM DP Module I / 27
main memory must match the fast speed of the CPU so a semiconductor (chip) technology is used in the main memory. Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) ICs are used for main memory. RAMs are volatile in nature, that is, their contents get erased when power goes off. RAM - RAM stands for Random Access Memory and is a read-write memory of a computer. In a Random Access Memory, any location can be accessed in a random manner and the access time is same for each memory location. This memory is volatile in nature. There are two important types of RAMs static RAM and dynamic RAM. The two types differ in the technology to hold data. Static RAM or SRAM stores binary information using clocked sequential circuits, while dynamic RAM or DRAM stores binary information in the form of electric charges that are applied to capacitors inside the chip. The stored charge on the capacitors tends to discharge with time. Hence Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed thousands of time per second. Static RAM needs to be refreshed less often which makes it faster; but is also more expensive than Dynamic RAM. Hence dynamic RAM is commonly used than static RAM. The Dynamic RAM also offers larger storage capacity and reduced power consumption. Usually large memories use dynamic RAM, while static RAM is mainly used for specialized applications. ROM - ROM stands for Read Only Memory, that is, nothing can be written on it. ROM is a non-volatile memory; the information stored on it is not lost when power goes off. It is used for storing the programs that are permanently resident in the computer. The contents of ROM are decided by the hardware manufacturer. The necessary programs are hardwired during the manufacture of computer. It also possesses random access property and stores information which is not subject to change. ROM is mainly used for storing an initial program called a Bootstrap loader. This is a program whose function is to start the computer when power is turned on. Since ROM is not volatile, its contents remain unchanged even if the power is turned off. When power is turned on, the hardware of the computer sets the program counter to the first address of the bootstrap loader. The bootstrap program loads a portion of the operating system from disk to main memory and control is then transferred to the operating system. PROM - It is a Programmable ROM. Its contents are decided by the user. The user can store permanent programs and data in a PROM. The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that a PROM is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or a PROM burner. The process of programming a PROM is called burning the PROM. EPROM - Acronum for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and pronounced ee-prom, EPROM is a special type of memory that retains its contents until it is exposed to ultraviolet light. The ultraviolet light clears its contents, making it possible to reprogram the memory. An EPROM differs from a PROM in that a PROM can be written to only once and cannot be erased. EPROMs are used to store programs which are permanent but need updating. EEPROM or E2 PROM - Acronym for Electrically Erasable Programmable read-only memory, pronounced double-ee-PROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. It is also known as EAPROM (Electrically Alterable PROM). Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off. Also like all other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM. Flash Memory - It is a special type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed. The difference between an EEPROM and flash memory is that the flash memory can be written and erased in blocks whereas EEPROM can be written and erased one byte at a time. Many modern PCs have their BIOS (Basic Input Output System) stored on a flash memory chip so that it can easily be updated if necessary. Such a BIOS is sometimes called a flash BIOS.
Secondary/Auxiliary Memory
Since a computers main memory is temporary, the secondary memory is used for bulk storage of programs, data, and other information. The secondary storage is of Prepared by Ms.Swapna Anildas, BMIM DP Module I / 28
permanent nature, that is, it stores the information permanently. It has a much larger capacity than the main memory. The secondary memory is non-volatile. The two most common secondary storage devices are the floppy disk and the hard disk. Floppy disks A floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible ("floppy") magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell. The recording medium on floppies is a Mylar or vinyl plastic material with magnetic coating on one or both sides. Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive or FDD. Floppies are available in the following sizes:
5 diameter - This floppy has a capacity of 1.2 MB. 3 diameter - This floppy has a capacity of 1.44 MB.
Hard Disk/Winchester Disk The hard disk is made up of a collection of disks known as platters. These platters are coated with a material that allows data to be magnetically recorded. The disks rotate at a very high speed. A typical speed is 3600 revolutions per minute. The read/write head moves across the disk surface. Hard disks can store more data than floppy disks. Hard disks are installed inside the computer and can access the data more quickly than floppy disks.
Hard disk
Hard disk and floppy disk are random access storage devices, i.e., information may be retrieved from them in any order as you want. Sequential access storage devices like magnetic tapes are similar to audio or video tapes and the information from them can be accessed only sequentially, i.e., one after the other. CD-ROM (Compact Disc-Read-Only Memory) The CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc-Read-Only Memory. CD-ROMs are used to distribute a wide variety of information, from multimedia encyclopedias to books, to games, to image and video libraries, to product and sales presentations, and more. The advantage is that it is a portable media and can contain a large amount of data. To read a CD-ROM, a device called CD-ROM drive is needed. Any information or data on CD-ROM can be erased or written onto with the help of a special device called CD-Recorder. CD-ROMs are available in two forms: Prepared by Ms.Swapna Anildas, BMIM DP Module I / 29
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CD-R It is also called as the recordable-CD. It is written once and can be read again and again. Data once written cannot be erased. CD-RW It is also called as erasable-CD. It is a recording system that allows the user to erase previously recorded information and then to record new information onto the same physical location on the disk.
DVD (Digital Versatile Discs) DVD, the next generation of CD-ROMs is called DVD-ROM that stands for Digital Versatile Disk. A DVD is the same size as a Compact Disc but holds up to 25 times more matter and is much faster. This increased capacity allows DVD to store high-quality video as well as higher-than-CD-quality audio. The most notable advantage of DVD is its capacity. This allows the ability to access much more data than standard CD-ROM for computer application. Physically, a CD-ROM and a DVD-ROM disk are similar.
Cache Memory
Cache memory is placed between the CPU and main memory. It is a fast speed memory and is expensive and faster than the main memory. Cache memory is used to store the frequently accessed data of the main memory. The instructions that are frequently used by the CPU are stored in cache memory. It is used to reduce the average access time for address, instructions or data which are normally stored in the main memory. Thus the cache memory increases the operating speed of the system. But it is much costlier than the main memory. From economic considerations, the capacity of the cache memory is much less as compared to the main memory.
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