Watershed management The necessity of conserving water and soil resources is universally recognized.

While there are seven to eight months without water in a year when it is too dry, there is a period of four to five months during the monsoon, when everything is wet and drainage channels become overflowing fast moving rivers. The construction of small and cheap earthen dams to check the overflow of rainwater helps to use this vast water potential that can be used during the long hot and dry months. This simple idea is both water and soil conservationeffective and ecologically sound; was practiced by the people of India in the past, what we today know as the watershed technology. Amongst all the natural resources, water, with its availability, quality and costeffective distribution have become serious problem, to both city- dwellers and people living in the rural areas. The scarcity availability of water is becoming a severe constraint in improving human food, health security. Water conflicts are likely to grow at local, regional and national levels. Conservation sustainable and the equitable use of water must receive high priority. This needs science-based knowledge of Hydrological cycle and the technical knowledge of Watershed management. What is a watershed? A watershed is defined as any spatial area from which rain or irrigation water is collected and drained through a common point. It is synonymous with a drainage basin or catchment area. There is no definite size for a watershed as it may vary from a few hectares to several hundred hectares. Size of watersheds depends upon the topography. Based on the size watersheds maybe classified as Micro, Mini or Macro. Given the general topography of the Peninsular India and farm size distribution patterns, the joint property of a group of 5 to 10 farmers usually adds up to a landscape unit, which suffices for creating a watershed. In natural landscape, such units generally co-exist in a serial continuum. Each watershed unit is a well-defined topographically delineated area with a distinct boundary. Each landscape watershed may constitute simple or complex agro-ecologies. It may be made up of an upland ecology or a combination of upland, lowland ecologies or in some cases, a toposequential complex of ecologies representing upland lowland and coastal ecosystem.

Each ecosystem in such complex watershed has its distinct function and land use capacity. The upland part of the watershed generally represents dry land rain fed agro- ecology and acts as a catchment flow regular area for water to the lowlands. The lowlands, mainly used for the production of paddy or other high water requiring crops, are a net consumer of water while the coastal ecosystem functions as the main water resource system. In this way watershed framework provides the necessary inter-ecological linkages and is a logical unit for the integration of the sustainable use of land and water. It helps augment soil and groundwater resources. It is also benefited by the biological, social and economic inputs, which if properly managed, lead to diversified high agricultural production, control of environment degradation and provide a mechanism for recharging underground water aquifers. Basic Principles of Watershed Management Since no package of practices of large-scale application of watershed technologies exists and there are no thumb rules, which can be universally applied to all kinds of landscapes some fine-tuning of watershed strategies is necessary. The following are the important steps in watershed management.
1. The first step in watershed management is human resource development

and creation of awareness at all levels.

2. The watershed is a geographic hydrologic landscape unit. It has to be

surveyed by civil engineers, and the land has to be developed by the watershed farmers on contoured topographic setting.
3. Waterways have to be designed and marketed on the ground and built in

harmony with the slope of the land and farmers have to plant their crops and prepare the seedbeds in wheel-leveled land.
4. Finally, tanks have to dug at proper locations and interlinked to achieve

maximum water storage efficiency.

Where watershed management programme has been applied in a holistic manner it has proven that farm management can be successfully sustained at higher levels. Ralegaon Siddhi village in Maharashtra has been quoted as a best model of watershed management. The adaptation of watershed management techniques has changed fortunes in Jadcherla village in the chronic drought prone Mahboobnagar district of Andhra Pradesh. Under the Rajiv Gandhi Watershed Mission, in Madhya Pradesh, 22 percent of the district lands in Jhabua, which were brought under watershed development, witnessed a remarkable ecological-economic change. The government of Andhra Pradesh has prepared an extensive watershed programme. The government proposes to take up 200 watersheds for development, where there is scarcity of potable water caused by steep fall in groundwater levels. Land Management Land has always been the preliminary requisite of economic development. With the changes inland use over time land has become more of a prime and crucial resource. Understanding of the basic fact that just 27% of the total earth surface has land, has made it necessary to understand the importance and limitation of land as a resource. It was therefore essential to manage the land in a more effective manner. The efficiency of Land management is a preliminary to sustainable development because sound land management is crucial to enhance land productivity. Land administration improvement is consistent with land and economic reforms. The use of computer technologies offers new prospects. Land management: a major factor of economic development. The efficiency of Land Administration a preliminary to sustainable development because sound land management is crucial to enhance land productivity; Urban Land Management and Governance : Why are cities involved in the process of economic growth? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cities are historically associated with economic expansion. The acceleration of the urbanization process is unprecented. Urban management and governance are key elements in urban development. The urban employment issue directly affects the economic growth. The urban policy objective is to contribute to the economic development.

Urban Land management and Governance are key elements in urban development Rapid urban population growth places an unprecedented logistical and financial burden on municipal authorities, especially when the urban growth is recent. City governments can do a lot to assist industry and commerce (including tourism) by good planning and physical development. Infact they are confronted with increasing difficulties in the management of land, infrastructure and services: 1. They face a widespread lack of competence in the administrative bodies in charge of town management. 2. They lack the resources to provide infrastructure and basic social services necessary to promote employment, health and economic growth. In that respect, urban management and governance enhancement is a current priority when there is a need to develop the spirit and ability of municipal authorities to plan and manage urban growth and environment and to develop and improve appropriate supporting institutions. Coastal Zone Management Coastlines are truly special places, sites of remarkable beauty in high demand for development. Over this past fifty years, our coastal watersheds and shorelines have seen intense pressures for all types of uses-often to the detriment of the very resources which attracted people in the first place. Since the passage of the federal Coastal Zone Management Act and the Clean Water act in the 1970s, government-planning activities have attempted to balance these potentially conflicting uses. Virtually all coastal states now have Coastal Management Plans and Programs, as do many countries and local communities. Amendments to these acts created National Estuary Programs. Non point pollution programs, and a watershed management focus to enhance estuarine and marine water quality, making decisions within this context requires exposures to a vast array of technical information and management tools. The coastal areas are one of the most prime areas as far as the environment is concerned. They form the boundary between the two spheres of the planet viz. Hydrosphere and the Lithosphere. The coasts support one of the natures most diverse and complex environment which perform a multifaceted role which is crucial in maintaining the ecological balance.

The multifaceted role which is crucial in maintaining the ecological balance. The coastal areas have become environmental hotspot after it has come under scrutiny due to extensively damages brought about by development activities in these areas. Once upon a time these areas were considered as the wastelands but the developments in the field of environmental studies have changed the perspective towards these so-called wastelands. Considering the fact that about more than 50% of the worlds population lives within the 500 kms. Stretch of the coast, it becomes almost obvious that the human settlements and human activities are also concentrated within this zone. This further led to the step of disposing wastes in this fragile environment the best example around us which has led to severe damage is the area of Mahim creek which was one not long ago a paradise for the migratory as well as local birds. It has turned major feeding and breeding ground for these birds. It was a major feeding and breeding ground for these birds. Today it has turned into nothing more than a junkyard. Mangrove forests along the coast are mainly responsible for the protection of the coasts, prevent soil erosions and lessen the effects of natural disasters like cyclones, typhoons and tidal waves. This ecosystem also help in stabilizing the physical environment by buffering against the wave action and thus stabilizing the sediments which makes them into system supporting a large variety of like forms and a complex food chains and a food web. One of the world known mangroves are that of the Sunderbans in the Ganga delta. Such a diverse and ecological fragile environment is today under threat from various agencies. This threat is basically due to two reasons, 1. Pollution from land 2. Development projects such as ports, dams etc. 3. Tourism, Deforestation, Overfishing, etc. This has led to a rapid destruction and degradation of the coastal habitats and resources. With the increase in the environmental degradation of coastal areas the Ministry of Environment and forests issued certain guidelines for the development of beaches in 1983. It proposed Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures to gauge the effect of the activities that have direct impact on the coastal areas. In 1991 the ministry issued another notification under the environmental protection act 1986, declaring the coastal stretches as the Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ), and regulating the activities within the area. The act defines the coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, rivers and backwaters which are influenced by tidal action, in the land ward side up to 500 mts from the high tide line as a pan of the Coastal Regulation Zone.

Agricultural Management With the ever increasing developments in the field of technology man has achieved unlimited advances to make his life more comfortable. The next result of these developments was an over all increase in the standard of living, and life expectancy. The death rates gradually began to fall but man forgot about the control of birth rates. This imbalance led to the problem of ever increasing population. It is estimated that today there are about a billion people being added to the human population every 12-13 years which requires an increase in the annual food grain production to 250 mn tones once in every 10 years. Till date there has been no acute shortage of food grains in real sense this was possible due to the four basic factors which are as follows; 1. 2. 3. 4. Rapid advances in the technology particularly the breeding of varieties and high yielding seeds. Improvised organization of production and distribution systems of seeds, fertilizers, irrigation etc. Public policies in land reforms, infrastructure development. Efforts of the people towards accepting the new technologies.

The developments in the field of agriculture also added a new dimension to traditional agriculture and that was commercial outlook which aimed at maximum output from the farms with the use of most advanced technologies. The traditional farm products were replaced in many parts with industrial and cash corps. This gave rise to new agricultural society with profit as the main motive. This was achieved with the technology, services and government policies, This was later known as the GREEN REVOLUTION. This era started in 1968 and gave a tremendous boost to the agricultural production. Initially the fruits were very tasty but as the time passed the technology began to show its colors. The miracles of the 60s and 70s now are becoming nightmares of today. The over use of fertilizers for increasing production, use of pesticides, weedicides etc. for crop protection. Over irrigation, destruction of natural gene banks etc. gave rise to serious problems. This raised many questions about the validity of the advances in agriculture.

This exploitative agriculture did offer greater possibilities but intensive cultivation without proper soil conservation techniques led to destruction of soil fertility and structure which will lead to formation of deserts. Irrigation without proper drainage will lead to water logging resulting in soil getting alkaline and saline rendering them useless for farming. Extensive use of pesticides and fertilizers fungicides bring about changes in natural food chains which lead to cancer and other disease. Unscientific tapping of ground water will deplete the underground water which will paw away for desertification. Replacement of local species with high yielding varieties in large area will result in spread of diseases capable of wiping out the entire crop. Thus we can see that without proper understanding of the consequences of the changes brought about it has raised new issues and problems. This required a different approach not only to solve the existing problems but also to solve the problems in future. This is the where Agriculture Management techniques came into picture. In the subsequent years 1970 excessive use of fertilizers and chemical pesticides has caused soil degradation, ground water pollution and spread of pesticide resistant pests. This led to warnings of the is no option except to produce more food from less per capita land. In other words impending food crisis in the in coming millennium. Since land is shrinking resource for agriculture there it becomes necessary to produce more with the help of high yields per unit of land. It will be therefore necessary to see how science can be used to rake the productivity without ecological harm. It will be necessary for the emerging progress to be referred as evergreen revolution as the emphasis will be on the productivity which is sustainable overtime and is rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, and social issues. Fortunately in the recent past the revolution in the field of technology gave us three major weapons which will help us to increase our agricultural productivity keeping in view the environmental concerns. These three weapons are, 1. The genetic engineering. 2. The information and communication revolution. 3. The ecotechnology revolution.

1. The genetic engineering will help us in the understanding the genetic bases of living organisms which when used in a careful and rational manner will help to understand and develop newer processes to increase the productivity. 2. The developments in the fields of information and communication will enable us to access the vast store house of information assimilated from the different parts of the world. This information will be very useful for planning and minimizing the damages in agriculture as well as help to increase the productivity as the technical information relating to weather forecasts, agronomics choice of farming methods, fertilizers in proper proportions etc. will also be available. 3. Ecotechnology promotes the best of traditional knowledge and technology with leading technologies like the biotechnology, space (Remote sensing), new materials etc. If these three weapons are used in combination with the improvements of management and governance, has a great potential for the integrated management of natural resources and ecosystems so as to get the best out of them.The Agricultural Management will now have to look into the problem with an integrated approach keeping a holistic view. Today what is known as precision Agriculture will be the only solution if there is need to increase the food grain production without seriously damaging or the destroying the natural resources required for agriculture. Precision requires an

HILL AREA MANAGEMENT Problems of hill areas: The crucial environmental problems of the hills are deforestation and soil erosion, both leading to the drying up of water resources, flash floods and decline in the yield of food and cash crops, fodder, fuel and other minor forest produce. Poverty in the hills is directly related to storages of material for basic subsistence, specially where, under the traditional, land and water management systems, the capacity of land to support the population has already been exceeded. In many hill areas, intensive human and livestock pressure along with indiscriminate felling of trees for commercial purposes have already led to loss of soil and rapid depletion and destruction of the forest cover. Besides, the water retention capacity and productivity of land have been adversely affected. These factors have impaired the ecology significantly and also resulted in deterioration in the economic conditions of the hill people. Traditional agricultural practices, especially shifting cultivation, have also contributed to destruction of forests and soil erosion. Seemingly harmless activity as prolonged grazed by livestock, especially goats and sheeps, have further exposed many hill areas, serious ecological degradation. Developmental activities like construction of buildings, roads, dams, large and medium industries and mining, etc. have aggregated environmental problems. Consequently, perennial sources of water springs and small streams have dried up in many areas. The major challenge, therefore, locations specific solutions, so as to reverse the process and ensure sustainable development of the growing population and ecology of the hill areas. Classification of hill areas: The hill areas covered under the HAMP were the areas identified in 1965 by a committee of the National Development Council (NDC) and these recommended by the High level Committee for Western Ghats in 1972.

The Hill areas of the country fall broadly in to the following two categories: 1. Areas which are coextensive with the boundaries of the state or Union Territory, namely Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. 2. Areas which form part of a state which are termed as Designated Hill Areas Viz; a) Two hill districts of Assam-north cacher and kabri angling. b) Eight districts of UP- Dheradhun, Pauri Garhwal, Tehri Garehwal, chamoli, Uttar kashi, Nainital, Almora, and Pithoragarg. c) Major parts of Darjeeling District of West Bengal. d) Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu e) 163 talukas of Western Ghats areas comprising of Maharashtra (62 talukas). Karnataka (40 talukas). Kerela (29 talukas), Tamil nadu (29 talukas), and goa (3). The basic objective of the HAMP has been socio economic development of the hills and the people living there in harmony with ecological development. The programmes implemented under the NPDP have, therefore, aimed at promoting the basic life support systems with sustainale use of the natural resources of the areas covered by the programme. The approach and the strategy of the HAMP has evolved over time. The programmes implemented during the 5th Plan period were mainly beneficiary oriented. While the emphasis shifted to eco development in the 6th Plan, the general tenor of the HAMP remained substantially the same as that of the normal state plan following the same sectoral approach. The 7th Plan laid particular emphasis on the development of ecology and environment as summed up in three phases, namely, eco restoration, eco preservation and eco development. It aimed at evolving plans and programmes to take care of the socio economic growth, development of infrastructure and promotion of the ecology of the areas covered by HAMP.