t

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS WITH STEEL PLATES FOR SHEAR

by MOND SABRI ABDULLAH, M.Sc (Eng).

A Thesis presented in application for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Dundee, United Kingdom.

July, 1993

ii CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DECLARATION CERTIFICATION ABSTRACT LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF PLATES NOTATION CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Introduction 1.2 Previous Research on Shear Reinforcement 1.2.1 Steel Fibres 1.2.2 Welded Wire Fabric 1.2.3 Steel Plates 1.3 Application of Plate Reinforced Construction 1.4 Present Research 1.4.1 Objective of The Research 1.5 Outline of The Thesis CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW ON THE THEORY OF SHEAR FAILURE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Mechanisms of Shear Resistance 2.2.1 Beams Without Web Reinforcement 2.2.1.1 Concrete Tooth Analogy 2.2.1.2 Interface and Shear Compression Zone Theories 2.2.1.3 Plastic Analysis 2.2.2 Beam With Web Reinforcement 2.2.2.1 The Truss Analogy Method 2.2.2.2 The Splitting Method 2.2.2 Remarks 2.3 Design of The Ultimate Shear Strength in BS 8110 (1985) 2.3.1 Strength Provided by Concrete, V, 2.3.2 Strength Provided by The Shear Reinforcement, V, 2.3.3 Remarks CHAPTER THREE: EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME AND TEST RESULTS 3.1 Introduction vi vii viii ix x xi xiv xv 1 1 2 2 3 5 7 8 11 11

13 13 13 14 14 16 17 19 19 21 25 27 27 30 30 31 31

iii 3.2 Test Programme 3.2.1 Details of Steel Plates 3.3 Materials and Control Specimens 3.3.1 Concrete 3.3.2 Reinforcements 3.3.3 Steel Plate 3.4 Preparation of Test Specimens 3.4.1 Casting and Curing 3.5 Test Arrangements 3.5.1 Test Set-up 3.5.2 Instrumentation 3.5.3 Test Procedure 3.6 Test Observation and Results 3.6.1 General Behaviour 3.6.2 Deflections 3.6.2.1 Mid-span Deflection 3.6.2.2 Under Load Deflection 3.6.3 Crack Width 3.6.4 Strain Readings 3.6.5 Test Response of Individual Beams 3.6.5.1 Beam 1S2 3.6.5.2 Beam 1S4 3.6.5.3 Beam 1S6 3.6.5.4 Beam 1D2 3.6.5.5 Beam 1D4 3.6.5.6 Beam 106 3.6.5.7 Remarks 3.6.5.8 Beam 2S2 3.6.5.9 Beam 2S4 3.6.5.10 Beam 2S6 3.6.5.11 Beam 2S8 3.6.5.12 Beams 2D2, 2D4 and 2D6 3.6.5.13 Beams 3D4 and 306 3.6.5.14 General Remarks CHAPTER FOUR: METHOD OF ANALYSIS 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Mechanism at failure 4.2.1 Flexure 4.2.2 Diagonal Splitting 4.2.3 Flexural-shear 4.2.4 Bearing 4.3 Proposed Method of Analysis 4.3.1 Shear Strength 4.3.1.1 Strength of The Web 4.3.1.2 The Control of Web Strength 4.3.1.3 Mode of Failure 4.3.1.4 Contribution of Tensile Reinforcement 31 33 37 37 38 39 40 42 42 42 43 43 46 46 47 47 48 51 51 53 53 57 57 60 64 71 71 77 80 80 80 84 85 85 94 94 94 95 95 96 96 98 98 101 103 104 105

iv 4.3.1.5 Ultimate Load 4.3.1.6 Depth of Compression Zone 4.3.1.7 Solution Procedures 4.3.2 Flexural Strength 4.3.3 Bearing Strength 4.4 Cover to Steel Plate 4.5 Method of Shear Connection 4.5.1 Bond 4.5.2 Cut-outs as Shear Connectors 4.6 Serviceability of The Beams 4.6.1 Deflection 4.6.2 Cracking CHAPTER FIVE: FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF THE BEAMS USING ABAQUS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 General Description of ABAQUS 5.3 Analytical Models of The Test Beams 5.3.1 General Consideration and Assumption 5.3.2 Idealization of The Test Beam 5.3.3 Constitutive Relationships 5.3.3.1 Non-linear Constitutive Relation for Concrete 5.3.3.1.1 Concrete Input Option 5.3.3.2 Constitutive Relation for Steel 5.3.3.2.1 Steel Input Option 5.4 Solution Procedures 5.5 Analysis results for The Beams 106 107 108 109 113 114 116 116 118 122 122 125 128 128 129 130 130 131 132 135 136 137 138 139 141

CHAPTER SIX: BEHAVIOUR OF THE BEAMS: TEST RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Ultimate Behaviour of Test Beams 6.2.1 Mode of Failure 6.2.1.1 Diagonal Splitting 6.2.1.2 Bearing 6.2.2 Ultimate Strength: Proposed Method 6.2.3 Ultimate Strength: 'BS 8110 (1985) Method' 6.2.4 Inclined Cracking Strength 6.3 Contribution of Tensile Reinforcement 6.4 Serviceability Parameters of The Beams 6.4.1 Deflection 6.4.2 Crack Width 6.5 Concrete Cover to Steel Plate 6.6 Bond Stress and Cut-outs 6.7 Average Shear Stress 6.8 ABAQUS Program Results 6.8.1 Behaviour of The Beams, Failure Load and Mode of Failure 6.8.2 Deflection

142 142 142 142 143 145 146 148 151 151 154 154 158 159 163 164 167 167 172

V 6.8.3 Strains in Tensile Bars and Steel Plate 6.8.4 ABAQUS Program Results (Current Version) 6.8.4.1 Changes 6.8.4.2 Results CHAPTER SEVEN: CONSTRUCTION AND ECONOMICS OF THE BEAMS 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Economics of The Beams 7.3 Practicality and Construction of The Beams CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Conclusions 8.3 Recommendations for Further Research REFERENCES APPENDIX 172 177 178 180 189 189 189 191

196 196 196 199 200

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to;

o Dr. N.K. Subedi under whose supervision this research was conducted. His invaluable guidance, helpful suggestions, constructive advice and continuous supports toward the success of the research are very much indebted.

o Dr. A. El-Sheikh, Dr. A. Shaat and Mr. I. G. Shaaban who gave assistance on the early stage of the finite element analysis.

o Dr. C. Randall for advice and ideas on the Chapter Seven of the thesis.

o All the technical staff of the Structural Laboratory and the Workshop, in particular Sandy, Eric, Ernie, Charlie, Clem, Pat, Alex and Kevin for cooperation in the experimental work.

o The National University of Malaysia (UKM) for sponsoring the study.

o His wife (Rohana) and daughters (Solehah and Salimah) for their patience throughout our stay in Scotland.

vii

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the following thesis has been composed by me, that the work of which it is a record has been carried out by myself and it has not been presented in any previous application for a higher degree.

Mohd Sabri Abdullah July 1993

CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that MOHD SABRI ABDULLAH has done his research under my supervision and that he has fulfilled the conditions of Ordinance 14 of the University of Dundee, so that he is qualified to submit the following thesis in application for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Dr. N.K. Subedi Department of Civil Engineering University of Dundee July 1993

ix

ABSTRACT

The use of vertical stirrups as shear reinforcement is inadequate and create problems whenever high shear stresses are concerned. Therefore, the application of steel plates in reinforced concrete beams as an alternative and a solution to the problem of high shear stresses was studied. The system could provide an efficient composite construction which has a potential application in common or/and special structural elements.

Tests were carried out on 15 reinforced concrete beams with embedded steel plates as shear reinforcement. The test specimens had a constant cross section of 100 mm x 400 mm, simply supported with shear span/depth ratio of 1.0 and subjected to two symmetrical point loads. Steel plates of different thicknesses, namely 2 mm, 4 mm, 6 mm and 8 mm were used. Seven of the beams had a single plate and the remaining eight were double plated. Details of the beams, test procedures, test observation and results are presented.

A method of analysis for the prediction of the ultimate shear strength of the beams is proposed. The method is based on the concept of equilibrium of forces at the section of the beam between the load and the support when the splitting occurs. Serviceability requirements and general behaviour of the beams are discussed.

Test results suggest that plate reinforcement providasan effective solution to the problem of high shear stresses. An average shear stress up to 16.23 N/mm2 was achieved using a double 6 mm plate. The value was much higher than the maximum suggested value of 5 N/mm2 (or 0.84ffor conventional reinforced concrete beams (BS 8110 1985). The diagonal splitting and bearing were the predominant modes of failure. In general, the predicted failure load and modes of failure of the beams were in good agreement with the test results.

x LIST OF TABLES

TABLES 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Details of test beams Concrete characteristics Reinforcement characteristics Plate characteristics Control of web strength Criteria test in determining the mode of failure Contribution of P and Pp, Comparison of results Comparison of predicted shear capacity and cracking strength Comparison of the contribution of tensile reinforcement Maximum deflection at failure and service load Cover to steel plate Bond stress, number of cut-outs, average shear stress and bearing stress of the beams Comparison of experimental ultimate loads and modes of failure with those predicted by ABAQUS program and the proposed method of analysis Comparison of the volume of steel required for shear reinforcement (throughout the beams) Comparison of the volume of steel required for shear reinforcement (at the shear span only)

PAGE 32 38 39 40 104 105 106 147 150 153 158 161 165 169

7.1 7.2

190 191

xi LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Lintel reinforcement, including steel plates (Sainsbury & Shipp 1983) Examples of plate reinforced constructions

PAGE 6 9

15 Concrete tooth analogy (Kani 1966) 17 Forces acting on shear span of a beam 18 Failure mechanisms for shear span subjected to point load 20 Truss analogy 22 Splitting cylinder analogy 23 Meaning of symbols (Kong et. al 1972) 24 Equilibrium of forces (Subedi 1988) Shear strength of beams without shear reinforcement (Handbook to BS 8110 1987) 28 Ultimate shear stresses for beams loaded close 29 to supports (Handbook to BS 8110 1987) General arrangement of beam with steel plate Typical arrangement of single plated beams Typical arrangement of double plated beams Test arrangement Mid-span deflections (a) Single plated beams (b) Double plated beams (c) For comparison Under-load deflections (a) Beam 2S2 (b) Beam 2D4 Maximum diagonal crack widths (a) Single plated beams (b) Double plated beams (c) For comparison Positions of rosettes (Beam 1S2) Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 1S2) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 1S2) Positions of rosettes (Beam 1S4) Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 1S4) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 1S4) Positions of rosettes (Beam 1S6) Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 1S6) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 1S6) Longitudinal crack in Beam 1D2 Positions of rosettes (Beam 1D2) Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 1D2) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 1D2) Positions of rosettes (Beam 1D4) 34 35 36 44 49

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

3.6

50

3.7

52

3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21

55 55 56 58 58 59 61 61 62 63 65 66 67 68

xii FIGURES 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 1D4) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 1D4) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 106) Improved detailing in Second Series Beams Typical positions of rosettes on steel plate in Second Series Beams Positions of Demec points in Second Series Beams Strains in steel plate, main bars and Demec concrete (Beam 2S2) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 2S2) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 2S4) Strains in steel plate, main bars and Demec concrete (Beam 2S4) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 2S6) Strains in steel plate (Beam 2S6) Crack pattern at failure (a) Beam 2S8 (b) Beam 202 (c) Beam 2D4 (d) Beam 2D6 Principal strains in steel plate (a) Beam 2S8 (b) Beam 202 (c) Beam 204 (d) Beam 206 Crack pattern at failure (Beam 304) Crack pattern at failure (Beam 3D6) PAGE 69 70 73 73 78 78 79 81 81 82 83 83 86

3.35

87

3.36 3.37 4.1

88 88

4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15

Modes of failures (numbers indicate events) 97 (a) Flexure (b) Diagonal splitting (c) Flexural-shear (d) Bearing Forces at failure 99 102 Splitting forces Contribution of Pst 105 Determination of the compression depth, dc 107 110 Strain compatibility Elements under the load and above the support 114 Concrete cover preventing the plate from buckling 116 117 Effective perimeter of steel I-beam in concrete Types of shear connectors in composite constructions (Davies 1975) 119 Cut-outs as shear connectors 120 Perfobond rib connector (Veldanda & Hosain 1992) 120 121 Determination of the number of cut-outs Deflection of the beam 123 Maximum diagonal crack width 126

FIGURES 5.1 The idealization of test beams (a) Beam idealization (b) Concrete1 (c) Concrete2 (d) Steel Plate (e) Concrete3 5.2(a) Uniaxial behaviour of plain concrete (ABAQUS 1989) 5.2(b) Concrete in tension (ABAQUS 1989) Concrete failure surface in plane stress (ABAQUS 1989) 5.3 Stress-strain relationship for steel 5.4 Mechanism of diagonal splitting mode of failure 6.1 The different of the loaction of P8t 6.2 6.3(a) Mid-span deflection 6.3(b) Under load deflection Maximum diagonal crack width 6.4 6.5 Concrete cover in double plated beams 6.6 Applied load transferred indirectly Crack pattern development in Beam 2S2 as predicted by ABAQUS 6.7 Crack pattern at failure of Beam 2S2 according to ABAQUS 6.8 Typical deformed shape of the beams 6.9 Tension bar's strain 6.10 6.11(a) Strain in steel plate of Beam 282 (positions of rosettes are shown in Fig. 3.26) 6.11(b) Starin in steel plate of Beam 2S4 (positions of rosettes are shown in Fig. 3.27) Idealization of test beam in Version 5.2 6.12 6.13 Uniaxial stress-strain curve of the concrete 6.14 Typical deformed shape of the test beams (using Version 5.2) Principal compressive stress in concrete (Beam 2S2) 6.15 6.16 Principal tensile stress in concrete (Beam 282) Principal compressive stress in steel plate (Beam 2S2) 6.17 6.16 Principal tensile stress in steel plate (Beam 2S2) 7.1 7.2 Beam under two point loads Cantilever beam and beam under a point load

PAGE 133

134 134 136 138 143 152 156 157 160 162 166 170 171 173 174 175 176 179 181 184 185 186 187 188 192 192

xiv LIST OF PLATES

PLATE 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 Typical arrangement of strain gauges on steel plate Test arrangement At failure (Beam 1S2) At failure (Beam 1S4) At failure (Beam 1S6) At failure (Beam 1D2) At failure (Beam 1D4) At failure (Beam 106) At failure (Beam 2S2) At failure (Beam 2S4) At failure (Beam 2S6) At failure (Beam 2S8) At failure (Beam 202) At failure (Beam 204) At failure (Beam 206)

PAGE 41 45 74 74 75 75 76 76 89 89 90 90 91 91 92

xv NOTATION

shear span, measured from centre of load to centre of support

ac clear shear span, measured from centre of load to the edge of support
/kph

area of steel plate crossing the diagonal crack in horizontal projection area of steel plate crossing the diagonal crack in vertical projection statical moment of transformed concrete area about the neutral axis of the composite section

Apy A'y'

A17A21A31A4 factors
Ast

area of tensile reinforcement area of stirrup area of web bar breadth of the beam flexural compression force

Asv Aw b C

Cl ,C2,C3 constant d d' cl, d d effective depth of the beam distance from top surface of the beam to the centre of flexural compression bar depth of compression zone of cut-out of the concrete cylinder

dp effective depth of the plate dp, dt Ec Ep depth of the plate which crosses the diagonal crack depth of the diagonal crack elastic modulus of concrete elastic modulus of the plate

xvi Es fc f
fp

elastic modulus of the reinforcement concrete cylinder strength compressive strength plate stress modulus of rupture of concrete stress of the reinforcement cylinder tensile strength of concrete limiting tensile of concrete in biaxial compression-tension, fej21 yield stress of the reinforcement

fr

f, ft
ftc

fy

stress of the plate

fy, G G, h I, I, I,

yeild stress of stirrup aggregate interlock action shear modulus of concrete overall depth of the beam second moment of area of the transformed composite section moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete effective moment of inertia

Ig moment of inertia of gross uncracked section I,y length of the concrete cylinder L m
Ma

length of the beam modular ratio maximum moment in member at which the deflection is being computed moment at first cracking ultimate moment at which concrete teeth break away

M, M,

xvii M, N, N o' P P BIN

Pc

flexural capacity of the cross section number of shear connectors number of cut-out effective perimeter of the steel I beam and steel plate above neutral axis of the beam diametral compressive force failure load of the beams predicted by ABAQUS concrete compressive force diagonal cracking load of the beams total of the concrete splitting force horizontal forces force in steel plate in bending horizontal force due to the steel plate

P P,
Ph

P Pph
P

force in steel plate in bending

Ppu

strength of the shear connector force due to the steel plate force in reinforcement horizontal tensile force due to tensile reinforcement force in compressive reinforcement the ultimate load vertical forces effective depth of the concrete teeth, length of the diagonal crack applied bond stress stirrup spacing thickness of the plate

P P,
Pst

Psc P u P, s sb S,
tP

t. T V V,
Vc1 V d

thickness of the concrete cover flexural tensile force shear force shear strength provided by concrete shear force in compressive zone dowel action horizontal shear stress ultimate shear strength of beam shear strength provided by web reinforcement capacity of the steel plate in shear at the diagonal crack relative displacement rate at yeild line relative vertical displacement rate at yeild line water-cement ratio distance from centroidal axis of gross section to the extreme tension fibre compression depth of the section in bending diagonal length of the shear panel stirrup inclination angle to the beam axis inclination of the displacement rate ratio of the shear span/length of the beam, strut inclination angle to the beam axis

V h

V, V, V9, wd
Wdv

w/c Yt x
X d

a ad 13

cl steel parameter 8B deflection due to bending ST ar 8, horizontal force total deflection deflection due to shear force

xix width of the concrete teeth ym partial safety factor A, e pc e pt es e est eP the inclination of 'cylinder' failure surface to the horizontal strain of the plate in compression strain of the plate in tension bars strain in compressive bars strain in tensile bars plate strain

a l compressive stress acting in concrete o3 tension stress acting in concrete

Q

percentage of tensile reinforcement (100A9/bd) width of the diagonal crack

(0

tc, txy shear strength of concrete vc Poisson's ratio for concrete v P Poisson's ratio for steel plate inclination of yeild line

1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Introduction

One of the types of structural failure that can occur in reinforced concrete structures is 'shear failure'. Such failure may occur below the flexural capacity of the structural elements and considerably reduce the ductility of the members. Especially for the latter reason, shear failure is generally considered undesirable. To prevent such failure, reinforced concrete beams are usually reinforced with vertical stirrups or bent-up bars.

The conventional types of web reinforcement, however, result in severe congestion and create problems whenever high shear forces are involved. A practical example where shear becomes a major problem is the coupling beams situated at about one third of the height of the building in shear wall structures. Another example is where ever the use of deep beams is involved. The applications ranges from offshore structures, floatation units for housing in marshy land to floating hotels (Subedi

eta! 1992).

The congestion of stirrups will create difficulties in placing and compacting the concrete. It is also time consuming in fixing the stirrups as a large number of individual links which must be assembled and fixed. In one instance, it was reported that in a comparatively modest six storey structure, 25,000 stirrups were required for the slab alone (Clapson 1990). The quantity would be much higher if the stirrups for the beams were also taken into account. In such cases, the probability for error and omission will be high. Additionally, the conventional method requires an element of skill and

2 experience which might not always be readily available. In essence, the use of shear links is far from being efficient, especially in an era of high labour costs.

The traditional alternative of increasing the beam's depth may not always be a feasible solution, as the depth of the beams are fixed by aesthetic considerations and the need to maintain the constant storey height. To prevent such problems, an alternative solution must be found, and this will be discussed in the following section.

1.2 Previous Research on Shear Reinforcement

Research on the alternatives to the use of stirrups and bent-up bars as shear reinforcement has been carried out by many investigators for the past 20-30 years. Several methods and possibilities have been tried and proposed. Some are claimed to offer advantages over the others and vice-versa.

1.2.1 Steel Fibres

One of the alternative solutions to the use of vertical stirrups as shear reinforcement is the use of steel fibres. The steel fibres of various shapes, namely, round, flat and crimped with various sizes and volume concentrations have been used as shear reinforcement. Batson et. al (1972) and later works by Sharma (1986) have shown that the steel fibres can be effectively used as shear reinforcement in reinforced beams. They also showed that steel fibres have some advantages over vertical stirrups.

3 Firstly, the fibres are randomly distributed through the volume of the concrete at much closer spacing than can be obtained by the smallest reinforcing bars. Secondly, the first crack tensile strength and the ultimate tensile strength are increased by the inclusion of steel fibres. The first crack tensile strength is increased by the 'crack-arrest' mechanism of closely spaced fibres and the ultimate strength is increased because of the additional energy that is required to pull the fibres out of concrete.

Many other researchers (Swamy & Al-Ta'an 1981, Mansur et. al 1986, Victor et. al 1992) worked on similar topics and concluded that the inclusion of steel fibres in the concrete mix provides an effective solution as shear reinforcement. The steel fibres have also been applied in the deep beams (Swaddiwudhipong & Shanmugam 1985, Narayanan & Darwish 1988), where they have been provided to act as web reinforcement. The results have shown that the shear stress and spalling of concrete are improved by the use of steel fibres.

Although steel fibres appear to be suitable for shear reinforcement, in a finding by Lim et. al (1987) it shows that not all types and sizes of fibres can simply be used as shear reinforcement in replacing stirrups either partially or wholly in reinforced concrete beams. From the result of his investigation, it is suggested that the stirrups can only be replaced by steel fibres as long as the parity in shear reinforcement factor is maintained, i.e only fibres of sufficient length with good and stable bond should be used.

1.2.2 Welded Wire Fabric

Welded wire fabric, both plain and deformed, as well as wire mesh as shear reinforcement have

4 been investigated by a few investigators (Pincheira et. a11989, Taylor & Hammasi 1980, Mansur et.
all 987, Ghosh & Mukhopadhyay 1977). A number of beams containing welded wire fabrics and wire

mesh were tested, and it was found that this type of materials appeared to be suitable as shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams. The use of wire fabrics has also been extended in the ferrocement beams (Mansur & Ong 1987, 1991). The results showed that the diagonal cracking strength of the beam was increased as the increases in the volume of the wire fabrics.

The welded wire fabrics has been claimed to be extensively used in the building industries, because of its advantages over the stirrups. The prime advantage is that it is relatively cheaper and it can be easily incorporated in construction. It is also reported to have the advantage of reducing the crack width of the elements (Atlas et. al 1965)

Although all the types of materials discussed above appear to be suitable for shear reinforcement in the lower range of shear stress (less than 5.00 Nllme), their applicability as shear reinforcement in resisting high shear stresses, to the best of authors knowledge, has not been researched.

Reinforced concrete beams are being increasingly used as structural elements required to resist not only flexural stresses but also combined with high shear stresses. As a result, it has become very important to investigate how the performance of reinforced concrete beams can be improved when high shear stresses are involved. Therefore, it is pertinent to investigate another type of shear reinforcement which could be used not only in replacing the conventional stirrups, but also capable of resisting high shear stresses.

5 1.2.3 Steel Plates

Over the last few years there has been a systematic and planned research at Dundee University to evaluate the possibility of using steel plate as shear reinforcement. This new innovation is hoped to eventually provide the solution to the problem of shear in reinforced concrete beams both in the range of high and low shear stresses.

The use of steel plate in structural concrete is not entirely new. It has been used in strengthening flexurally distressed reinforced concrete beams, since 1960s (Fleming & King 1967). This method has become increasingly popular in recent years (Solomon et. al 1976, Jones et. al 1982, 1985, 1988, Swamy et. a1 1987, 1989, Roberts 1989, Roberts & Kazemi 1989, Hamoush & Ahmad 1990, Oehlers 1992). Despite the success of the method in flexural application, surprisingly there has been virtually no research on the use of steel plate in strengthening the shear resistance.

Amongst the first reported research on the use of steel plate as shear reinforcement was due to Hermite & Bresson (1967). The steel plate was glued to the sides of reinforced concrete beams to enhance the shear capacity. Using the same technique, recently, Swamy (1989) reported the use of steel strips and channels for web reinforcement in the shear span of reinforced concrete beams. Although this method has increased the shear capacity of the beams by up to 40% (Swamy 1989), the application is limited by the lack of adequate information and no further research has been carried out. Bending shear creates resultant diagonal tensile and compressive stresses, and this might cause buckling of the steel plate in the compression zone. The buckling then would set up tensile or 'peeling' stress in the glue, and this could lead to premature failure.

6 At Dundee University, steel plates were embedded in the concrete beams. A successful initial programme researchAwas started with coupling beams of shear wall structures (Subedi 1989). The beams were designed and tested to fail in shear. The results suggested that the use of steel plate as shear reinforcement was perfectly feasible.

Current codes of practice (BS 8110 1985, ACI 318-83 1983, AS 3600 1988, CAN3-A23.3-M84 1984) however do not yet cover the use of vertical plates for shear. But it is well known that the vertical web sections of universal beams and plate girder are designed to carry shear forces.

In practice, embedded steel plates have been used to resist high shear stresses in the lintel beams in the construction of The National Westminster Tower (Sainsbury & Shipp 1983), as shown in Fig. 1.1. This method, however, has been applied based on the conventional analysis of composite beam and the engineering judgement of the designers involved, since there had been no research on this method before.

Fig. 1.1: Lintel reinforcement, including steel plates (Sainsbury & Shipp 1983)

7 Some other examples of the current and future application of steel plate with concrete in construction will be discussed in the next section.

1.3 Application of Plate Reinforced Construction

Composite members with steel plates and concrete have been applied to port and harbour construction. A typical example is a breakwater caisson as shown in Fig. 1.2a (Yokota & Kiyomiya 1987). In this structure, reinforcing bars have been replaced by steel plates. It can be seen that the plates are connected by shear connectors either only on one surface or both surfaces of each slab and wall. It has been reported that this type of structure considerably reduced the cost and the period of construction.

Steel plates have also been used as a 'skin' to the concrete core. The structure known as 'dual skin composite construction' was devised for use in submerged tube tunnels (Wright eta/1991). Fig. 1.2b illustrates such construction. Shear studs are welded to the plates at regular centres and act as connectors for the concrete core. This type of construction is also applicable to nuclear containment, liquid and gas retaining structures and blast resistant shelters. The system results in a strong and efficient structure that offer many advantages over conventionally reinforced concrete section.

As it has been mentioned earlier, steel plate has also been found perfectly feasible in coupling beams of shear wall structures (Subedi 1989). The provision of vertical steel plates in the beam provides a better solution in detailing the reinforcement in the wall if compared with the application of universal beam section (Fig. 1.2c).

8 In tall building structures, shear walls are usually made of reinforced concrete and in some cases steel-plate shear walls have been used as an alternative (Elgaaly 1993). It is anticipated that steel plate could be used in replacing the reinforcement in the conventional shear wall, as visualised in Fig 1.2d. Such system may result in a solid strong wall that offer some advantages, such as speed of erection and could reduce the cost.

Steel plate could also be used in reinforced concrete bridges. Under the action of unbalanced one sided traffic , the cross beam and diaphragm beam will be subjected to high stresses. The use of embedded steel plate in such situations (Fig. 1.2e) would provide an efficient system that can resist high shear stresses. For the existing bridges, the plate appears appropriate to be externally applied for strengthening in shear. The plate could be attached to the sides of the cross member by mechanical connectors such as bolts and nuts by drilling through the section (Fig. 1.2f).

1.4 Present Research

As it can be seen that there are tremendous scopes for the application of steel plate in construction. Thus the present research is undertaken to provide a basic understanding of the behaviour of the system.

The research forms the continuation and detailed study on the application of steel plate in reinforced concrete beams which has been started by Subedi (1989). This work is concentrated on simply

supported beams. Simply supported beams were chosen as the easiest construction that can provide such fundamental understanding of the behaviour of the system. With proper perception of the system it will lead to the development of design criteria/procedures which later can be applied

-A-,---,w-g-/-4-.,-,...---wc.....-4,2., Stu d
s ie..' oho.

P l
'l LI

steel ri A 1 e
I

i. I

co crele F--- -111

n

I [

1 1

'A

r.j 1 ,. I

..: ...% \\... \\

(a) Breakwater caisson (Yokota & Kiyomiya 1987)

(b) Submerged tube structure (Wright eta' 1991)

0 0

RSJ

R'aie 1

shear Ncil

Main oars

Main bars

Wall
'

I
I: I

Coupling beam

Wall \\
I 11 . : .

\ \ \\ \ \

Bars cannot get tnrough RSJ

Bars yet through around plats

(c) Steel plate in coupling beam of shear wall structure (Subedi 1989)

(d) Reinforced steel plate shear wall

Fig. t2: Examples of plate reinforced constructions

10 Fig. 1.2: Examples of plate reinforced constructions (cont.)

6.;

diaphragm

steel plate

reinforcemen

.0

pier

pier

(e) Bridge diaphragm

steel n----- plate bolt and nut

(f) Externally plated beam

11 to any type of the structures.

The work incorporates testing of 15 specimens, under two symmetrical point loads with different plate thicknesses and configurations. The detail of the specimens is given in Chapter Three.

1.4.1 Objective of The Research

The main objectives of this research are;

i) To establish the use of steel plate as shear reinforcement in simply supported reinforced concrete beams. ii) To determine the possibility of increasing the shear capacity of the beams beyond those recommended by British Code BS 8110 (1985). iii)To study the overall structural behaviour of the beams and consequently to develop appropriate method of analysis to predict mode of failure, ultimate failure loads, crack widths and other serviceability requirements. iv) To assess the suitability of the method with respect to construction and economic application.

1.5 Outline of The Thesis

In the next chapter a critical review of the methods of analysis for shear failure of reinforced concrete beams is presented. The discussion is developed to bring a clear picture of the current methods of analysis adopted by many building codes. The current codes are shown to be oversimplified and inadequate whenever high shear stresses are concerned.

12

In Chapter Three, the experimental programme, materials properties and results obtained from the tests including information on deformation, crack widths, crack pattern, strain readings of steel and concrete and the general response of test beams are presented.

The proposed method of analysis for the prediction of the ultimate strength and general behaviour of the test beams is given in Chapter Four. The serviceability requirements of such beams are also discussed.

The application of the Non-Linear Finite Element Analysis Package, ABAQUS, to analyse the test beams is dealt with in Chapter Five.

In Chapter Six the discussion on the behaviour of the beams observed in test and comparison with the method of analysis is presented.

The suitability of the method with respect to economic and construction consideration is discussed in Chapter Seven.

Overall conclusions of the study and recommendations for further research in this area are given in Chapter Eight.

13 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW ON THE THEORY OF SHEAR FAILURES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

2.1 Introduction

The progress towards a better understanding of shear failures in reinforced concrete beams is reviewed and critically discussed. It is considered that this aspect is important for the beams in the present research which are designed to resist shear stresses.

The chapter begins by looking at the background research on the theory of shear failure in reinforced concrete beams without and with shear reinforcement. From the discussion on the different available approaches, it is shown that at present, none of the theories can accurately predict the shear transfer in reinforced concrete beams. Therefore, there is scope for developing a more rational unified theory. It is also shown that the method of analysis adopted by the current codes of practice (BS 8110 1985) developed for the case of stirrups as shear reinforcement, is subjected to limitation when high shear stresses are involved. In conclusion, the need for a new type of shear reinforcement and method of analysis is justified.

2.2 Mechanism of Shear Resistance

The mechanism of shear resistance of reinforced concrete beams without and with web reinforcement is considerably different. Both situations will be discussed in the sections to follow.

14 2.2.1 Beams Without Web Reinforcement

For beams without web reinforcement, various theoretical approaches have been suggested. The approaches can be divided into three major categories as follows;

i) Concrete tooth analogy, ii) Interface and shear compression zone theories and iii)Plastic analysis.

The discussion on these theories are dealt briefly since the details have already been extensively treated by other researchers for whom the project concentrated on the shear failure of reinforced concrete beams, for example works by Chana (1986). The purpose of the discussion here is to show that there are many theories of shear failure and they differ considerably in approach.

2.2.1.1 Concrete Tooth Analogy

Kani (1964, 1966) was the first researcher to introduce this type of approach. He compares the concrete of a beam containing flexural cracks to a comb, the backbone of which is the compressive zone while the tooth are the segments of concrete between the flexural cracks, as shown in Fig. 2.1a.

The function of every concrete tooth can be compared to that of a short vertical cantilever anchored in the compression zone of the beams and acted on by a horizontal force, ST (Fig. 2.1b). As long as the concrete teeth are capable of carrying the ST forces, the comb-like structures is essentially

15 a beam. Consequently if the flexural stiffness of the concrete cantilever is reduced, then the teeth will break away which marks the shear failure of the beam.

(a)

Fig. 2.1: Concrete Tooth Analogy (Kani 1964)

At failure, the ultimate moment at which the concrete teeth break away is directly related to the shear span/effective depth ratios (aid) and can be expressed as,

MMa.=

a x A 4 0 (-T)(- -1)

(2.1)

where M, is the flexural capacity of the cross section, and (Ox/s) is a factor which depends on the geometry of the concrete teeth (as shown in Fig. 2.1b).

Kani (1966) considered the average tooth rather than the longest and the weakest one. He also neglected any shear force transferred across the crack, either by dowel or by aggregate interlock actions. Later, Hamadi & Regan (1980) used similar model but with the dowel and aggregate interlock actions taken into consideration. The proposed method of analysis gave a good agreement

16 with the test results. It should be pointed out that this model was only relevant for shear span/effective depth ratios greater than 3.0, where shear cracks form from the existing flexural cracks. For smaller aid ratios, others models would be appropriate.

2.2.1.2 Interface and Shear Compression Zone Theories

As the name implies, this theory considers that the shear stress is transferred through two important ways, namely through the concrete compression zone and across the crack faces by aggregate interlock and dowel action (Fenwick & Paulay 1968, Hofbeck et. al 1969, Taylor 1974, Millard & Johnson 1985). Evidence of the contributions to shear transfer is claimed on the basis of the fact that the critical crack is always inclined in the shear span towards the transverse load. If these effects are neglected, the critical crack would be almost vertical.

The aggregate interlock and the dowel action are inter-related as a function of crack width across the cracks. At an early stage when the crack width is small the aggregate interlock is the most effective, but is slowly dominated by the dowel action as the crack width increase at failure. Next in order of effectiveness is the concrete compression zone.

Thus, the shear transfer is effectively a combination of three major actions, i.e the action of the compression zone above the inclined cracking in the shear span, the interface shear transfer by aggregate interlock, and the dowel action. Fig. 2.2 shows the free body diagram of these contributions.

Many experimental works have been carried out to quantify the relative contributions of these actions

17 (Houde and Mirza 1974, Taylor 1974, Smith & Fereig 1977). The main conclusion from these works showed that the contribution of the individual action is approximately in the following proportions; compression zone 20 - 40%, aggregate interlock 30 - 50 % and dowel action 10 - 30%.

Gh

V
(a) Free body diagram (b) Force polygon

Fig. 2.2: Forces acting on shear span of a beam

where V = shear force C = flexural compression force T = flexural tension force Vc1 = shear force in the compression zone Vd = dowel action G = aggregate interlock

2.2.1.3 Plastic Analysis

The theory of plasticity has also been used to explain the shear resistance of reinforced concrete beams. In Denmark as early as 1966, Nielsen (Nielsen eta! 1978) was the first to use this concepts

18 to study the shear strength of beams.

The theory uses the concept of 'virtual work' in its solution. In the case of reinforced concrete beams without shear reinforcement when subjected to point loads, it is assumed that the failure mechanisms is a single yield line running from the load point to the support as indicated in Fig. 2.3 (Nielsen & Braestrup 1978). The relative displacement, wd at the yield line is uniform along the line and inclined at an angle ad to it. With some assumptions and by minimizing the relationship obtained by virtual work, the yield shear stress of the beams can be expressed as follows;

= wdv \I 1 +( 21) 2 -(2.1

(2.2)

fa

wd,

where fc is concrete cylinder strength, wd,, is relative vertical displacement rate at yield line and .1:1 is a total tension and compression steel parameter, which is given by astfy/fchb.

V CL , b

yield one.

Fig: 2.3: Failure mechanisms for shear span subjected to point load

19 The work was extended with some modifications in United Kingdom by Kemp & Al-Safi (1981). It is not intended here to give details of their mathematical formulation, but it is worthwhile to note that this method when compared to the methods suggested by Australian Standard (AS 36001988), ACI Standard (AC1 318-83 1983) or Canadian Standard (CAN 3-A23.3-M84 1984) has been found to give a good correlation with the experimental results for both reinforced and prestressed concrete beams (Rangan 1991). The theory was also proved to be successfully applied for the case of beams with web reinforcement.

2.2.2 Beam With Web Reinforcement

a The inclusion of web reinforcement in/reinforced concrete beam will increase the strength of the beam. Generally the web reinforcement is simply considered as the added contribution to that of the concrete. There are two main approaches to the behaviour of the beams with web reinforcements. The first is known as truss analogy method and the second is splitting method.

2.2.2.1 The Truss Analogy Method

For beam with web reinforcement, (in this case the web reinforcement is referred to vertical or inclined stirrups) the stress in stirrup is analysed by the truss analogy method.

The use of truss analogy to simulate the action of a reinforced concrete beam subjected to shear and bending was originated over a century ago by Ritter and Morsh (ACI-ASCE Committee 326 1962). This classical analogy assumed the internal structure of a beam as pin jointed truss. The longitudinal steel in the tension zone is analogous to tension chord, the stirrups are the tension ties

20 whilst the concrete between diagonal cracks acts as compressive struts (Fig. 2.4). By considering the vertical equilibrium of the free body to the left of the line A-A, the following equation is obtained;

v = A 3vfyv(cosa + sinacot13)(AL4) s
sv

(2.3)

where Aufr, is capacity of the stirrups, s, is spacing of the stirrups, B and a are the strut and stirrup inclination angles to the beam axis respectively. For the particular case of vertical stirrup where a is 90 and recommended 13 of 45 (ACI-ASCE Committee 426 1973), the Equation 2.3 becomes

V = Asifyvd s
sv

(2.4)

This equation shows that the failure of the beam is governed by the yielding of the stirrups.

stirrup _,...

sv

Fig: 2.4:

Truss analogy

21 The use of fixed angle of 13 = 45 is known as fixed truss model. In recent development, various attempts have been made to modify this basic model, which is known as variable truss model (Lampert & Thurlimann 1971, Collins 1978). From the improved truss model, the angle of the inclination of the concrete struts is found to be lower than 45 (Collins 1978).

This method of design is widely used in codes of practices including BS 8110 (1985). Further discussion on the shear design method adopted by BS 8110 (1985) will be given in Section 2.3.

2.2.2.2 The Splitting Method

The shear failure mode of a short shear span beam, which is initiated by a diagonal crack joining the support towards the loading point has been considered analogous to the splitting cylinder test (Brazillian Test). Thus the shear resistance of the beam is expressed in term of tensile strength of concrete to resist the splitting along the failure crack.

Brock (1964) was the first to introduce the splitting cylinder analogy. In a cylinder test the tensile strength, ft is calculated from the equation

2P 4 - Irdcylcy

(2.5)

where P is diametral compressive force, d cy and Icy are the diameter and length of the concrete cylinder respectively.

By resolving the force along the diameter of 'imaginary cylinder', as shown in Figure 2.5 , Brock

22 (1964) produced the following relationship to express the cylinder tensile strength, f1;

f .t

2 Vsin A,

(2.6a)

II( sinl )17

or the ultimate shear force, V is given by;

V = 3.14ftbh

(2.6b)

where 2n. is inclination of failure surface to the horizontal. In this case the active force that causes the splitting is the diametral compressive force.

1
imaginary cylinder
/ /. \ /

Fig. 2.5:

Splitting cylinder analogy

The method has been used by Ramakrishnan and Ananthanarayana (1968) in analyzing 26 deep A beamsXsimilar expression was used, but the suggested value for the constant was 2.24 instead of 3.14. The lower value was justified by the fact that the splitting strength varies with shape and size

23 of sample. For larger sample.; the splitting strength is lower than that obtained from smaller samples. This safer value was introduced to fit the experimental results.

the InkBrock (1964) and Ramakrishnan & Ananthanarayanan (1968) methods, it is assumed that the web steel yieldsat failure. However in a later work by Desayi (1974) who used similar approach, the web steel was not considered to yield at failure. Desayi (1974) calculated the steel strain using a modular ratio concept. Nevertheless the proposed formulation produced a prediction which in general did not correlate well with experimental results.

Kong et. al (1972) improved this basic idea of splitting by including the shear span/depth ratio in the proposed equation. Kong et. al (1972) produced the following equation to define the ultimate load (Fig. 2.6);

V = C1 (1 - C3 -) fthb + CzE AwZ sin2 a w h

(2.7)

Three numerical coefficient

C I , 02 and 03

were introduced in the equation to fit the test data, where

the best value for 03 is 0.35. C i is the coefficient related to type of concrete whilst 02 is coefficient related to type of web reinforcement. The meaning of other symbols is defined in Fig. 2.6.
a V c.

typical web bar(Aw)

main tonqitudinat steel

Fig. 2.6: Meaning of symbols (Kong eta11972)

24 The application of this formula is limited to cases where the ajh values does not depart from the experimental range of 0.23 to 0.70, and where the main longitudinal reinforcement is anchored at the end.

Later development in the study of deep beams at Dundee University, led to a more realistic equation in determining the ultimate shear strength (Subedi 1983, 1986, 1988). The method of analysis developed by Subedi (1988) is based on the concept of equilibrium of forces at failure. The splitting will occur when the stress of concrete reaches its limiting tensile strength. At splitting, the forces which keep the section in equilibrium are shown as in Fig. 2.7;

14

b I.4n.,

Fig. 2.7: Equilibrium of forces (Subedi 1988)

25 Thus, the proposed equation takes the following general form;

1 V = (iii bftc + A2Pst + A3Ph + A4Pv) a

(2.8)

where

ft, = limiting tensile strength of concrete in biaxial tension-compression state of stress, P s, = horizontal tensile force due to main reinforcement, 13, and P h = vertical and horizontal forces due to web reinforcement,

A I , A2, A3 and A4 are factors which depend upon geometric parameters of the beams. All the factors which might effect the strength of the beams, such as the strength of materials, the amount of reinforcement, and the position of loading are taken into account.

The important feature that has been included by Subedi (1988) in his method is the concept of web strength control. In this concept, if there is insufficient amount of web reinforcement the failure will happen the moment the concrete splits. However, if the reinforcement is sufficient, then the concrete will not contribute and the web reinforcement takes over the control of the splitting force. The method is also able to predict the mode of failure, either flexural shear or diagonal splitting.

This method was used in analyzing the behaviour of coupling beams of shear wall structures (Subedi 1989, 1990, 1991a, 1991b). In almost all cases, the proposed method correlated well with experimental results.

2.2.3 Remarks

Up to now there have been a vast amount of test carried out in order to support the methods predicting the shear transfer of reinforced concrete beams. It is profound to note that, in addition

26 to the main approaches which have been discussed in this chapter, there are other approaches proposed by other researchers that used totally different concepts in predicting the shear in reinforced concrete beams, for example works by Hawkins et. al (197.

In the case of beams without web reinforcement, it is apparent that, at present, no real agreement has yet been reached on this problem and none of the existing theories can accurately predict the shear transfer of the reinforced concrete beams.

In the case of beam with web reinforcement, the classical fixed-angle truss and the splitting analogy differ in their concepts. The classical fixed angle truss has shortcomings in its approach. Although conceptually convenient, it presents an over simplified model of reinforced concrete beams in shear. For instance, it assumes that the failure is initiated by the excessive deformation of the web reinforcement. Therefore, for the very thin webbed beams, for which failure may be due to crushing, the method would give unsafe result. The truss method, however, is widely used in codes including BS 8110 (1985). The likehood of the failure of very thin webbed beams in this case is eliminated by placing an upper limit on the shear stress acting on the section. The upper limit of shear stress is 5 NI/me (or 0.84f, whichever is smaller). This limit already include an allowance for the partial safety factor ym of 1.25.

The current method cannot be applied to sections subjected to shear stresses higher than 5 Nirrie or 0.84f, whichever is smaller. As a result, it is appropriate to study the potential of the use of steel plate as an alternative to the problem of high shear stresses. It is also necessary to establish more rational method for the analysis of such beams.

27 The discussion show that the truss analogy method is over simplified in approach. It assumes that the failure is initiated by excessive deformation of web reinforcement. The splitting method due to Kong eta! (1972) and Desayi (1974) although do not depend on the strength of web steel at ultimate, but the method (Kong et. al 1972) was empirically developed. Some factors have been used to agree with the experimental results. In such cases the method cannot be applied to wide range of problems. The splitting method developed by Subedi (1988), however, is different as it was theoretically determined. The method takes account all the factors which might affect the strength of the beam. The method is also able to predict the mode of failure.

It is clear that there is no fully satisfactory and rational method suitable for determining shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams. Nonetheless, the systematic application of Subedi Method (1988) has considerable potential.

2.3 Design of the Ultimate Shear Strength in BS 8110 (1985)

The design practice adopted by BS 8110 (1985) is conventional in its approach. It is assumed that the ultimate shear strength of the beam is contributed by concrete and shear reinforcement separately. That is V u = V, + Vs, where V, is the strength provided by concrete and V s is the strength provided by shear reinforcement.

2.3.1 Strength Provided by Concrete, V,

BS 8110 (1985) uses the following equation to obtain the strength provided by concrete, V0,

28
(100As)ir3

vc = (=) faiii3

( 400 ) 1/4

bd

(2.9)

Ym

bd

where b is the breadth of the web, d is the effective depth (in mm) and y, is the partial safety factor with regard to the material strength and V, is in Newton (N).

This equation expresses empirically three major parameters influencing the shear strength of the concrete, namely the ratio of main longitudinal reinforcement, concrete compressive strength and size of the member. The factor of 0.27 is a constant which takes account of other factors which have minor influence on the shear strength of beams, such as the influence of the presence of axial compressive or/and tensile forces in the beam.

This equation is derived based on extensive study of test data as shown in Fig. 2.8 (quoted from The Handbook to BS 8110 1987).

0
0 CC'C' ,..+1,.. A'...

\c:C \C' A ,

-e

00 v

shear stress vc (Nimm2) 9----

00 c!,5,.....

0 sN'..,,

0 5\GI4

.'' 5

8 c. 0

o o

....

0 0 C &C A tests other tests

1 2 3
4 5

10

tp fo.01/2 (400)% d

Fig. 2.8:

Shear strength of beams without shear reinforcement (Handbook to BS 8110 1987)

29 For the case of short shear span or deep reinforced concrete beams, the value of this shear strength has to be modified. The test data (Fig. 2.9) shows that the shear strength is increased for beams loaded close to support. In such cases BS 8110 (1985) treats members with aid < 2.0 with an enhancement factor of 2(d/a). Although BS 8110 (1985) gives special treatment to the beams of short shear span, but the code does not cover deep beams, for which designers are referred to specialist literature such as CIRIA Guide 2 (1977).

experiment Code line

Fig. 2.9: Ultimate shear stresses for beams loaded close to supports (Handbook to BS 8110 1987)

30 2.3.2 Strength Provided by the Shear Reinforcement, V,.

In BS 8110 (1985), the design procedure assumes that the web reinforcement needs to be designed to carry only shear stress in excess of the concrete contribution, V. Thus, V, = Vu Vc (2.10)

The contribution of the shear reinforcement is calculated using the traditional truss analogy method, which produces the formula (as previously described in Section 2.2.2.1)shown as below;

V, = Asvf34,11 sv

(2.4)

2.3.3. Remarks

Shear design method adopted by BS 8110 (1985) clearly shows that it is over simplified in its approach. The contribution provided by concrete which is given by Equation 2.9 is empirically in nature. Even though it was based on large amount of test data, it has to be reminded that the data was largely based on the test of rectangular sections, having cube strength in the region of 20 to 40 Nime. The disadvantage of empirical (or semi-empirical) expressions is obvious; that they only cover a limited range of problems.

The contribution of the web reinforcement (stirrups) is based on the classical truss analogy method. This method was discussed in detail in Section 2.2.2.1. It is subjected to limitation as far as the range of application is concerned.

31 CHAPTER THREE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME AND TEST RESULTS

3.1 Introduction

In order to establish the possibility of using steel plate as shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams, tests were carried out on 15 specimens. In this research, steel plates of different thicknesses were embedded in the reinforced concrete beams. This chapter presents the details of test programme, material properties and test results.

3.2 Test Programme

All the beams for test were 100 mm x 400 mm in cross section, with thirteen of them 2500 mm long, and the remaining two 1800 mm long. The shear span was 400 mm, thus giving the shear span to depth ratio of 1.0. The beams were provided and designed with high amount of flexural reinforcement, so that failure would occur in shear. The main reinforcing bars were welded to steel channel at both ends to prevent anchorage failure (see Fig. 3.1).

The test beams were divided into three series, designated 1, 2 and 3. Table 3.1 shows details of the test beams. Series 1 consisted of six specimens in which three of them had single plates and the remaining three were double plated. Each series consisted of beams with different plate thicknesses, namely 2 mm, 4 mm and 6 mm. The plates used in series 1 were sand blasted. Series 2 consisted of seven beams; four beams were single plated and the remaining three were double plated. The specimens in Series 2 were the same as those in Series 1 except that the plates were not sand

32 blasted, instead they were thoroughly degreased. All beams in series 2 were provided with additional reinforcement for strengthening at the loading points. This measure was introduced to overcome the possibility of premature failure (i.e bearing followed by peeling-off of the concrete). Bearing failure was likely to terminate the load carrying capacity of the beams which were otherwise strong in flexural and shear. Details of strengthening methods employed at the loading point in Series 2 beams will be discussed in Section 3.6.5.7.

Series 3 consisted only of two specimens; one with 4 mm and the other with 6 mm plate. Both were double plated. The beams in Series 3 were identical to those in Series 2, except that the length was 1800 mm and that there was no additional detailing provided to strengthen at the loading points. Series 3 beams were used and tested by the undergraduate students as part for their honours project. The test and laboratory works were carried out under the guidance of the author.

Series

Designation*

Flexural Reinforcement Top (No.-Dia.(mm)) Bottom (No.-Dia.(mm)) 2-25 2-25 2-32 2-25 2-32 2-32 2-25 2-25 2-32 2-32 2-25 2-32 2-32 4-16 4-16

1S2 154 1S6 102 104 106 2S2 2S4 2S6 2S8 202 204 206 3D4 306

2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-16 2-16 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-16 2-8 2-16 2-16 2-8 2-16

Table 3.1: Details of Test Beam (* Numbering scheme: First number denotes series number, D means double plate, S means single plate and last number indicates thickness of the plate)

33 3.2.1 Details of Steel Plates

The steel plates were 370 mm deep and embedded along the length of the beams. They were punched with 80 mm diameter semi circular cut-outs at 160 mm centres along the longitudinal top and bottom edges. At the bottom cut-outs, additional 42 mm slots were incorporated to accommodate the main bars within the depth of the cut-out. The cut-outs were provided to act as shear connectors, to prevent any possibility of horizontal slip in case of insufficient bond between the plate and the concrete. In the cut-outs, additional links were provided. These links were provided for ensuring additional bond between the plate and concrete. These also act as shear connectors in transferring horizontal shear to the main bars.

the

For single plated beams, the plate was embedded between/tensile bars and vice-versa for double plated beams. Fig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3 show typical arrangement of single and double plated beams respectively.

It can be seen from Fig. 3.2, that the encasement of steel plate gives the structure an appearance of concrete-encased composite I-beams. But, there are differences between the two as in concrete encased I-beams, the concrete normally act as a protection against fire and/or corrosion to the !beams (Johnson 1968, Davies 1975, Johnson & Buckby 1986). In contrast, the encased steel plate are provided as shear reinforcement and the concrete encasement provides composite action as well as stability to the beam.

34

cn

cn

_S

CA 0

E E
cc>

C" x

cts CD = CM 'CD -. 0

E -E-E -a S'

CD -C

.=

-0 c)

C,,

--a 8 C::' .r.0 ...9 CD ". 8 Cr, -= CD X CO 0 U) "--. CD se. C6 C E cz C _, E -r ,..-- = c -0 a) a CD - tr. C -71 csi -5. 1D co w Cl) E --R , c6 CL al CD .6 -CI 4-66- cl- ua WI -r --- : iz C16 = _, C 4 ._CP= p 15- CtS OD "E 0 " - cr, CD .c7) CA 1D 0 1 c, ..5 cre,c . a C cp - Cl, 0 C C ) CD ,E -cD = 1.... f 'Es 5 .2 c.> crs 9 E 0 --7-_ = ..... c a, .

ca. :irc 0 0. 15 CC1 Z ..-: C \I c6 - 4-

CD

ts-j

35

'

SL-44

0047

36

-.I (...) -

37 3.3 Materials and Control Specimens

3.3.1 Concrete

The concrete materials used were uncrushed gravel aggregates with nominal size of 10 mm, natural river sand of zone 2 and ordinary portland cement. The mix proportion for all batches was 1:1.75:1.90. Water cement ratio (w/c) for the single plated beams was 0.48, whilst for double plated beams it was increased to 0.5 in order to give more workable concrete.

For every beam, three 100 mm cubes and three 100 mm x 300 mm cylinders were used for determining the compressive and tensile splitting strengths respectively on or near the day of test. Cube compressive strength, cylinder splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete were determined in accordance with Part 116, Part 117 and Part 121 of BS 1881 (1983) respectively. Table 3.2 gives the characteristics of the control specimens. The variation in concrete strength was principally due to variation in age at the day of testing.

38 Beam Cube Compressive Strength (N/m m2) 49.3 48.3 51.0 32.8 34.8 32.3 47.6 34.6 43.6 43.0 39.0 38.9 39.2 42.3 45.6 Cylinder Splitt. Strength (Nim m2) 2.74 2.81 2.81 2.46 2.69 2.60 2.88 2.58 2.72 2.71 2.88 2.59 2.75 3.10 3.03 Modulus of Elasticity (kNim m2) 21.5 21.5 21.5 20.7 20.7 20.7 22.3 21.7 22.3 22.3 22.2 22.2 22.2 22.9 22.8 Density (kN/m3)

1S2 184 1S6 1D2 1D4 1D6 2S2 2S4 2S6 2S8 2D2 2D4 2D6 3D4 3D6

22.21 22.24 22.17 21.49 21.47 21.44 22.66 21.79 22.62 22.52 22.86 22.65 22.53 Not available

Table 3.2: Concrete Characteristics

Note: 1. Cube crushing strength, cylinder splitting strength and density were determined at the day of testing of the beams. 2. Modulus of elasticity was determined at 28 days after casting.

3.3.2 Reinforcements

Reinforcements for Series 1 and 2 beams were deformed high yield bars. For Series 3 beams, high yield plain round bars were used. The strength characteristics of the bars were determined by tensile tests of at least three representative samples of each bar size. Tensile test was carried out in

39

accordance with BS 18 (1987). The properties of the bars are given in Table 3.3.

Beam Series

Bar Diameter (mm) 8 16 25 32 8 16 25 32 8 16

Yield Stress (0.2% Proof) (N/me) 578 518 504 462 547 516 500 520 443 462

Modulus of Elasticity (kNime) 204 203 200 201 200 198 202 199 227 209

Yield Strain (micro-strain)

2830 2550 2520 2300 2740 2610 2480 2610 1950 2210

Table 3.3: Reinforcements Characteristics

3.3.3 Steel Plate

All plates were of mild steel type. The main advantages of mild steel over high yield steel seems to be that the strength required to develop the full strain of the plate is less, thus making the plate fully utilised. This will be more economical.

The strengths of the plates were determined by tensile test on at least three representative samples for each thickness. All tests were carried out in accordance with BS 18 (1987). The strength characteristic of the plates are given in Table 3.4.

40 Beam Series Plate Thick. (mm) 2 4 6 2 4 6 8 4 6 Yield Stress (0.2% Proof) (N/mm2) 218 245 304 227 195 306 259 294 324 Modulus of Elasticity (kN/m m2) 201 199 200 204 194 204 205 200 165 Yield Strain (micro-strain)

1080 1230 1520 1130 1010 1500 1260 1470 1960

Table 3.4: Plate Characteristics

3.4 Preparation of Test Specimens

The main tensile bars were first welded to the steel angle at the predetermined positions. The steel plates were then carefully placed at their positions. The bottom edges of the plates were arranged to rest on the angles. To hold the plates in position, spot welding between the edges of the plates and the angles was used. This weld did not give any strength to the beam. Prior to its fixing, the plates were extensively mounted with electrical resistance strain gauges. Plate 3.1 shows typical arrangement of strain gauges on the steel plate.

The top bars were then placed at their positions. To hold the reinforcement, a vertical link was used at both ends of the beam. The assembly was completed by fixing the small links at the cut-outs at top and bottom.The assembly was then put into the formwork and ready for casting. The formwork was made of plywood.

41

42 3.4.1 Casting and Curing

The beams were cast from a batch of concrete, produced by a horizontal pan mixer of capacity of 0.1 m3. In some cases three beams of the same series were cast simultaneously requiring four batches of concrete. From each batch, the sample was taken for the determination of concrete characteristics (Section 3.3.1).

The concrete was placed in the formwork in layers of approximately 100 mm deep. The formworks were arranged on a casting table fitted with a vibrator on the underside. The compaction of the concrete was done by vibrating the table. In casting the beams every effort was made to produce a uniform concrete.

After casting, the test and control specimens were covered by wet hessian bags for 2 days before demoulding. They were then cured in the laboratory condition until ready for testing.

3.5 Test Arrangements

3.5.1 Test Set-up

All the beams were tested simply supported over their span, with two symmetrical point loads. The shear span of the beams was 400 mm. This position of loading was chosen in order to make the beams critical in shear.

The beams were supported on a roller bearing at each end. Load from the 6000 kN capacity

43 Losenhaousen Compression Testing Machine was applied through a stiffened spreader beam. The test arrangements are shown in Fig. 3.4 and Plate 3.2.

3.5.2 Instrumentation

Extensive instrumentation was used in each test beam. This consisted of transducers for the measurement of deformation, electrical resistance strain gauges (ERGs) for the measurement of strains in steel plate and reinforcement and Demec points for the measurement of surface strain of concrete (Demec points were used in Second Series beams only). The positions of transducers are as stipulated in Fig. 3.5, whilst the positions of ERGs will be shown later when the results of individual beam are described.

The deformations of the beams (vertical and horizontal) and the strains of steel plates and reinforcements were recorded on a data logger which was connected to an OPUS Computer. In such a case the load displacement and/or load-strain readings could be displayed and enabled a continuous assessment of the behaviour of the beam to be made. Surface strains of concrete were manually measured using a demountable 2" (50 mm) Demec gauge.

3.5.3 Test Procedure

The testing was carried out by applying the loads in small increments in three cycles. In the first two cycles the loads were applied within the elastic and elasto-plastic range of the structure. In the third and final cycle the beam was loaded in small steps of increment until failure. The failure load was the maximum load which the beam would sustain in test.

44

45

Plate 3.2: Test arrangement

46 In the test, the readings for the transducers and strains reading were taken for every increment of load, whilst Demec readings were taken at a larger interval of load. Throughout the test, the cracks were marked on the beam. The maximum diagonal crack width was measured at selected load increment. The measurement of crack width was carried out by using a hand-held microscope with magnifying power of ten times. Finally, the beam at failure was also recorded in photographs.

3.6 Test Observations and Results

In this section, the observations and results for the test beams are presented. These results will be presented in graphical forms for easy interpretation. Discussion on the test results is given in Chapter Six.

3.6.1 General Behaviour

All the beams were tested under similar loading and support conditions. In such a case they will generally behave in a similar manner. Initially the beams had developed few mapped fine cracks which were a result of shrinkage or handling. In double plated beams the cracks were more visible than that in single plated beams. In was believed that these cracks had no effect upon the overall structural behaviour of the test beams.

The initial behaviour of all the beams started with the formation of tiny flexural cracks originating from the soffit in the mid-span region. These cracks occurred at a relatively small load compared to the failure load (about 15%-25% of failure load).

47 - ing As the load was increased, there was no further occurrence of flexural crack. The beams then
TA

started to produce inclined cracks which originated from the edge of the supporting plate running diagonally towards the loading point. With further increase in load, these cracks propagated and widened and in some cases the cracks also branched out which normally happened at the middle of the web. The formation of the inclined cracks was usually accompanied by an audible splitting sound.

The failure usually happened when diagonal cracks were completed and some concrete crushing was noticed under the loading points. The actual behaviour of individual beams will be described in Section 3.6.5.

3.6.2 Deflections

3.6.2.1 Mid-span Deflection

The load mid-span deflections of the test beams are shown in Fig. 3.5. Fig. 3.5a shows the mid-span deflections of single plated beams and Fig. 3.5b for double plated beams. The deflections of some of the beams are not shown since their behaviour was the same as those shown in Fig. 3.5.

In general, the graphs indicate only one stage of behaviour. This shows that the beams behaved in a linear manner. This behaviour reflects that the formation of flexural cracks were very fine which did not affect the mid-span deflection of the beam. This also signify that the main bars remain unyielded until failure.

48 Fig. 3.5 also shows that the deflection of the beams with thicker steel plate is less than that of beams with thinner steel plates, for example the deflection of Beam 206 as compared to that of Beam 204 or 2D2 (Fig. 3.5b). It can be deduced from this that the steel plate has also contributed to the bending stiffness of the beams. To show this contribution, the comparison has been made between Beam 2S4 with 2D2 and between Beam 288 with 2D4 (Fig. 3.5c). In this figure the deflections between the beams in each pair are almost identical. Therefore, it would be appropriate if this contribution is taken into account in calculating the flexural capacity of the beams. However, the main resistance to flexural stiffness of the beam is due to the main tensile bar, which is shown by the difference in single plated beams (Fig. 3.5a). The beams with 32 mm tensile bars (i.e Beams 2S6 and 2S8) have less deflection compared to that with 25 mm bars (i.e Beams 182, 1S4, 2S2 and 2S4).

3.6.2.2 Under Load Deflection

The typical deflection of the beams under the loading points are shown in Fig. 3.6. Fig. 3.6a shows the deflection of Beam 2S2 and Fig. 3.6b shows the deflection of Beam 204. The other beams which are not shown here have also behaved in a similar manner.

As it would be expected, the deflections under the loading point in all cases are lower compared to their corresponding values at mid-span. These deflections are almost identical at both locations, i.e on the left hand side and on the right hand side of the beam. This implies that the loads were applied equally to both sides and consequently it means that the set-up of the test arrangement was appropriate.

49 (Single Plated Beams) Load (kN) (Double Plated Beams) Loads (kN)

1000

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0 (G )

10

12

14

0 0 (b) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Midspan Deflection (mm)

Midspan Deflection (mm)

1000

Loads (kN)

800

600

400

200

0 0 (c) Z 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Midspan Deflection (mm)

(For Comparison) Fig. 3.5: Mid-span deflections

50

Loads Vs Deflection
Beam 2S2
600

Loads (kN)

500

400 _

300

200

Position: Midspan

100

Under Load on LHS --,1( Under Load on RHS

10

12

14

(a)

Deflection (mm)

Loads Vs Deflection
Beam 2D4
1000

Loads (kN)

aoo

600

100

200

10 Deflection (mm)
6 8

12

14

Fig. 3.6: Under-load deflections

51 3.6.3 Crack Width

The measured maximum diagonal crack widths during the tests are shown in Fig. 3.7. Fig. 3.7a shows the maximum diagonal crack width of single plated beams whilst Fig. 3.7b shows that of double plated beams. Single plated beams of Series 1 are not shown here because they also produced similar pattern as shown by their corresponding beams in Series 2. The double plated beams in Series 1 are not shown because the measurements were not taken.

The maximum diagonal crack width observed in all the beams generally occurred at the mid-height. With reference to Fig. 3.7, as far as the shape of the curve is concerned, no appreciable difference could be observed for the different thicknesses of the steel plates used. However, for the beams with thinner steel plates, the bigger size of the crack was observed for the same applied loads (the relationship between the thickness of the plate and width of the crack is discussed in Section 4.5.2).

It also can be seen that after the formation of cracks, the curves maintained a stiff gradient at the beginning and becoming nearly horizontal towards the end (except Beam 206). This behaviour indicates the rapid widening of cracks with increasing loads.

3.6.4 Strain Readings

The results of strain readings will be presented in the next section. For each steel plate, the gauges were placed at various critical locations. In some beams (for example, Beam 102) up to 66 individual strain readings were obtained at each load level. Because of the large number of readings obtained, individual gauge readings will not be presented, instead the principal strains calculated from the

52 Loads Vs Maximum Diagonal Crack Width (Single Plated Beams) Loads (kN)
1000 1200

(Double Plated Beams) Loads (kN)

1000 800

800 600 600

400 400

200

ZOO

0 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

(a) Maximum Diagonal Crack Width (mm)

(b)

Maximum Diagonal Crack Width (mm)

Loads (kN)
1000

800

600

400

200

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Maximum Diagonal Crack Width (mm)

(For Comparison) (c)

Fig. 3.7: Maximum diagonal crack widths

53 measured values will be plotted. In cases where it is believed that the rosette was faulty, the results will not be presented. In describing the plate capacity, the plate is considered yielded if a certain region of it is found to be yielding. This assumption is consistent with the assumption made in determining the capacity of plate girder (Evans 1987).

The surface concrete strains which were measured using Demec points, it has been found that the readings were very much influenced by their positions relative to the cracks. In such instances, therefore, the Demec results need to be considered together with the crack pattern. In many cases, however, the results of Demec readings were unrealistic, hence these will not be included.

3.6.5 Test Response of Individual Beams

In this section, test results of individual beams are presented. For conciseness, only the important features of the behaviour under load are highlighted. The lengths of the cracks are given as a ratio of overall depth of the beam. In describing the beams' behaviour, width of the crack will not be given since it has been presented earlier in Section 3.6.3.

3.6.5.1 Beam 1S2

The first flexural crack for Beam 2S2 was observed at the load of 140 kN. This crack formed at mid span region extending vertically towards the compression face up to h/5. At 160 kN another crack formed, adjacent to the first one. There was no further activities of these cracks at further loads. At about 120 kN a diagonal crack started to form on the left hand side (LHS) of the beam. This crack originated from the edge of supporting plate extending diagonally towards the loading point, up to

54

h12 height. This crack widened as the load increased. On the right hand side (RHS) of the beam, also a diagonal crack started to form. At 380 kN, RHS crack branched out as did the LHS crack. Meanwhile few more flexural cracks formed at the region of maximum bending moment. With further increases of the load, failure happened suddenly at 580 kN when the inclined cracks reached up to the loading point.

The positions of rosettes are shown in Fig. 3.8 and the principal strains experienced by the steel plate are given in Fig. 3.9. The graphs show that many parts of the plate have yielded. It can be seen that the plate yielded at about 380 kN.

The graph (Fig. 3.9c) also indicates that the plate is in the state of pure shear behaviour. This behaviour develops when the element is subjected solely to the shear stresses and in which there is no influence by other stresses. Its behaviour is recognised by the identical results of the principal tensile and compressive stresses (or strains). At position R11, the principal strains (tensile and compressive) were almost identical. This shows that the plate is subjected to the state of pure shear.

The tensile strains in the main reinforcement at both locations, namely at mid-span and at the support, gave a value of about 1700 micro-strain which is far below its yield strain of 2520 micro strain. At mid-span the graph (Fig. 3.9f) shows a linear relationship up to failure, whereas at the support the graph changes its gradient at about 220 kN. This change in gradient could be attributed to the formation of diagonal crack at this location. As expected, the direct strain readings of the plate at the region of the maximum bending moment (Fig. 3.9e) show the behaviour; the top in compression, whilst the lower part in tension. These readings indicate that the plate contributes to the bending resistance to the beam. Fig. 3.10 and Plate 3.3 show the beam at failure.

55
1.00 1450

400

RIO R20
R4

R30

sl -I -S2 53

R8 0 R90 OR10 ORli R13 R120 0 0R14

R 0 R60 0R7

2Z- 1.12 *-171

,49 90 1,

*--11,, 1:894b9.L. '3 2,1,,L21.1

Fig. 3.8: Positions of rosettes (Beam 152)

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain

(Beam 1 S2) Locids (OA) 600 Loads (kik!)

600

500 400

500

400

300

300

200

200

100

100

(a)

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6)

500 1000 1500 2000 Principal Tensile Strain (x 10E-6)

2500

(Yield Sirain = 1C80 x10E-6)

Loads Vs Principal Strain

700 600 500 400 400 300 300 200 R6 R13 (=R6) 1000 1500 2000 500 Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6) 2500 100 200 Loads
(ktl)

600

Loads (kN)

500

(c)

-2000--1500--1000-500 0 500 1000 1500 200( Principal Strain (x10E-6)

(d)

Fig. 3.9: Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 1S2) (cont.)

56

Loads Vs Direct Strain

(1s2)
Loads (kN)

Loads Vs Bar's Strain

(132)
Loads (kN)

600

600

500

500

400

400

300 Position: ZOO S1 100

4

300

200 Position: 100 At Support Midspan 0 0 0 (fJ 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Strain (x10E-6)

32 33

0 1500 1000 500

(e)

500 1000 1500 Strain (x10E-6)

(Yield Strain = 2520 x 10E-6)

Fig. 3.9: (cont.)

3_ 0

4E01---7z,S2C0 320 400 360 200 25oY 320

320 200 220 3 6 0 160 , 380 2 20 36

48 0 zoo I / ?

Fig. 3.10: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 1S2)

57 3.6.5.2 Beam 1S4

The flexural cracks started to form at 160 kN. The cracks formed at mid span of the beam and extended towards the compression face up to h14. At 180 kN, a diagonal crack developed on the LHS of the beam. At 220 kN, a diagonal crack also formed on the RHS. As the load increased, both cracks extended and widened. Few more flexural cracks also appeared in the region of bending moment. At 470 IN, a small crushing of concrete under the load on the RHS was noticed. At 550 kN, there was more concrete crushing on the RHS, and the same phenomenon also happened on the LHS. As the load increased, a small amount of concrete was observed to be spalling on both sides. The crushing of concrete was bigger especially on the RHS. At 700 kN, the concrete crushed under the load on the RHS. The beam failed at 710 kN, when the inclined crack formed fully, together with the crushing under the load.

The principal strains in the plate are given in Fig. 3.12, the position of the rosettes being shown in Fig. 3.11. The graphs indicate that yielding has occurred in many parts of the plate, namely at R7, R6 and R4. These parts yielded at the load of about 650 kN. It is clear that after the yielding of these parts, the beam failed. The behaviour governed by pure shear in the web of the plate is clearly shown by the graph (Fig. 3.12d). The tensile strain in the main bars show that the bar did not yield. The recorded value was 2200 micro-strain. The direct strain values at the region of maximum bending moment are given in Fig. 3.12f. Fig. 3.13 and Plate 3.4 show the beam at failure.

3.6.5.3 Beam 1S6

The flexural cracks in Beam 186 formed, as in previous cases, at the soffit of mid-span region.

58

400

149

0
RI R2 0

R3

-7S1 I -rS2

0
R10

R8

0
0
R11

R9

R4

0 0 R7 0 -_____rtsft16")._

L.S3

04,294.190!....12242.2.54.

Fig. 3.11: Positions of rosettes (Beam 1S4)

(seam 1S4) Loads (kN)
Loads

(kN)

(a)

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6)

(Yield Strain =- 1230 x 10E-6)

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Principal Tensile Strain (x1 0E-6)

Loads Vs Principal Strain (IS 4)

800 Loads (kN) 800 Loads (kN)

600

600

400 Position: 200 R2 4-- R4 R6 (= R10) 1500 2000 2500 500 1000 Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6)

400

Z00

0 -2000-1500-1000-500 0 500 1000 1500 2000

(C)

(d)

Principal Strain (x10E-6)

Fig. 3.12: Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 1S4) (cont.)

59

Loads Vs Bar's Strain (1s4)

800 Loads (kN) 800

Loads Vs Direct Strain

(154) Loads (kN)

600

600

400

400

ki Position:

200

Si ZOO - 52
- - S3

0 0 (C) 500 1500 Strain (x10E-6) 1000 2000 2500

0 500 1000 1500 0 1500-1000 500 Direct Strain (x10E-6) (f)

Yield Strain = 2520 x 10E-6)

Fig. 3.12: (cont.)

..,

420/1
3 200 180 230 220 230 \ 0 ) 20 180

30 CO
60

)233 IGO

Fig. 3.13: Crack pattern at failure (Seam 1S4)

60 These cracks were noticed at about 300 kN. A diagonal crack was also observed at 300 kN on the RHS. This crack started from the edge of supporting plate towards the loading point extending up to h14. A diagonal crack appeared on the LHS at 360 kN. At 420 kN, both the diagonal cracks (RHS and LHS) were observed to extend almost up to the loading points. At 540 kN, an audible splitting sound was heard. No crushing of concrete was observed. As the load was increased further the cracks widened. At 700 kN a small area of concrete under the load on the LHS was observed to crush. The beam failed at 790 kN, when the diagonal crack on the RHS extended fully and the crushing of concrete under the load occurred.

The principal strains in the steel plate are shown in Fig. 3.15, the positions of the rosettes being shown in Fig. 3.14. The graphs show that the steel plate has yielded at the positions of R10 and R7. Like the 1S4 beam, these parts of the plate yielded when the beam reached close to failure. In other words, when some parts of the plate yielded, the failure happened. The tensile bars, however, remained unyielded. The principal compressive and tensile strains at the position of R4 are identical (Fig. 3.15c). This shows that the state of pure shear exist in the steel plate. The direct strain of the plate at mid-span is given by Fig. 3.15e. Fig. 3.16 and Plate 3.5 show the beam at failure.

3.6.5.4 Beam 1D2

The flexural cracks for Beam 1D2 were observed at 200 kN. These cracks extended up to h/4. As the load progressed, a few more flexural cracks formed. At 260 kN, a diagonal crack was noticed on both sides. At 500 kN, the 'crushing sound' was heard under the loading point on the LHS. On both sides it was noticed that some other diagonal cracks had formed. They were formed individually and separated from each other. At this stage it was found that the top-cast surface of the beam (i.e

61

1.00
r4-

.14

1460 Si-52= S3R8 0 R110 R100 R40

"
55

0 Ri

R3 0 R4 R6 0 R60 0 R7

0 R2

9.12".1Clw r.-1-24H-12-94-H

' _,,,,,.24,4,:22.t..,ja., 4.10 39 1 , ..

Fig. 3.14: Positions of rosettes (Beam 1S6)

(Beam 1 S6) 1000 800 600 400 200 Loads (kN) 1000 Loads (kN)

800

600 R1 (= R9) R3 (= R8) RIO (= R5) R7 (= R11) 200

400

Position:
n n

R2 R4 R6

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6) () (Yield Strain = 1520 x10E-6)

0 (b)

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6)

1000 Loads (kN)

800

600

400

ZOO

Rossefte R4: Prin. Comp 1 Prin. Tensile 1500

0 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 Principal Strain (x10E-6) (C)

Fig. 3.15: Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 1S6) (cont.)


62

Loads Vs Bar's Strain

(1S6)
Loads (kN)

Loads Vs Direct Strain (1s6)

1000 Loads (kN)

800

800 600

600 400 400 Position: 200 At Support ---- Midspan 700

t
Position: Si 1 52 ---4 33

0
0 (d) 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 1500-1000 500 (e) 0 500 1000 1500 Strain (x10E-6) Strain (x10E-6)

(Yield Strain = 2300 x 10E-6)

Fig. 3.15: (cont.)

T
Fig. 3.16: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 1S6)

63 near the loading point on the LHS) suffered excessive longitudinal cracking extending to the end of the beam. As the load progressed further this longitudinal crack widened and some crushing under the load occurred. The beam then failed at 535 kN. The failure of the beam was due to the formation of this longitudinal crack and some crushing the under load. The longitudinal crack is believed to have formed due to probably inadequate detailing under the loading point. The longitudinal splitting crack in effect caused the potential peeling-off of the concrete cover to the plate. The beam is treated as prematurely failed. Fig. 3.17 shows the longitudinal crack developed in the beam.

longitudinal crack

steel plate

ars 'steel angle

END SEC TION

longitudinal crack

..4
PLAN

rloading plate

Fig. 3.17: Longitudinal crack in Beam 1D2

64 The principal strains in the steel plates are presented in Fig. 3.19 with the rosette positions shown in Fig. 3.18a. In this case, rosettes were mounted on both plates (see Fig. 3.18b). Fig. 3.19 clearly shows that the steel plates have not yielded at failure. The average value of principal tensile strain was 800 micro-strain, which represents much lower value than its yielding strain of 1080 micro-strain. The strains in the tensile bar were also found to be much lower than its yielding value, the recorded value being only 1400 micro-strain at mid-span. The plate was subjected to pure shear behaviour as shown by Fig. 3.19d. Fig. 3.20 and Plate 3.6 show the beam at failure.

3.6.5.5 Beam 1D4

The initial flexural cracks for 1D4 appeared at 160 kN. They were formed at the soffit of the beam in region of maximum bending moment. The first diagonal crack formed on LHS of the beam at 260 kN. As the load was increased the diagonal crack extended further. At 340 kN, the crack extended up to a height of 0.75h. At this load, also a small portion of concrete under the loading point on the LHS was noticed to crush and spall. At 420 kN, the beam developed a longitudinal crack at its topcast surface. The beam failed at 515 kN partly due to the longitudinal splitting and partly crushing under the load.

The principal strains in the steel plate are shown in Fig. 3.22. The values of the strains indicate that the plate is far short of yielding at failure. The average recorded value was 500 micro-strain, which is much smaller than its yield value of 1230 micro-strain. The tensile bars did not yield either. The recorded strain was of the order of 1000 micro-strain. Again, the pure shear type behaviour was recorded in the web (at position R13). Fig. 3.23 and Plate 3.7show the beam at failure.

65

WO

plate-

plate 2

8
(a) SEAM SECTION

400

1450

400

R10

R2
551

0 O RL,
OR5

R3

CRS O R11

0R9 R10

00
RG

R14 0 OR13 OR12

1,..22_46194941.,..3z. "T:112.54.,

i) plate 1

b)

Fig. 3.18: Positions of rosettes (Beam 102)

66

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain

(Beam 1D2)
Loads (kN) 600 Loads (kN)
(1D2)

600

500

500

400

4.00

300

300 Position:

200

200 )K R3 ( = R8) 1-- R5 ( = R12, R18) R7 & R14 Faulty

100

100

0 0 (a) 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 140( (5) Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6)

(Yield Strain = 1080 x 10E-6)

(102)
Loads (kN)

Loads Vs Principal Strain (1D2)

Loads (kN)
600

600

500

500

400

400

300

300

200

200 Rosette R4:

100

100 - Prin. Comp. I Prin. Tensile

0 0 (C. ) 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Principal Tensile Strain (x1 0E-6)

0 1500 1000 500 ( d)

500

1000 150

Principal Strain (x10E-6)

Fig. 3.19: Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 1D2) (cont.)

67

Loads Vs Direct Strain (1D2)

Loads 600

Loads Vs Bar's Strain

(1D2) Loads (kN)

600

500

500

400

400

300

300

200

Position: Si (=54)

200

100 -

52 (=55)

100

53 (.56)
0 1500 1000 500 ( e)

500

1000 1500

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Direct Strain (x10E-6)

Strain (x1 0E-6) (Yield Strain = 2520 x 10E-6)

Fig. 3.19: (cont.)

"\O 30 420 330 521 270 5 /At 5 Cr/ .332703co '70 7,00 /(21Pj \Z7 S2

21 7)

Fig. 3.20: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 1D2)

68

400

14) (1

400

01

0 0 R1 R2 OR/.

0R3

\II-- \ -1--._.)----nJ-- \-...)-W\ -1---S1 = . R80 R3 0 S27 S3 R110

i

R 50 P60 0R7

0R10

9)I

Plate 1

pa'

1.00

145 0

>4.

400

0R12 5 -1 1 1747437, , _69j4 30,, OR13

S4

s5 1 R4 S6 -Cr) 1490,439:(50.1,1 R15

'It

1 25 7

ii)

Plate 2

Fig. 3.21: Positions of rosettes (Beam 1D4)

69

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain

(Beam 1D4) (104) Loads (kN)

600

Loads (kN) 600

500

500

400

400

300 Position: 200 R1 ( = R9, R12) 100 4 R3 ( = R8) R5 ( = R10, R15)

300

2.00

100

0 200 400 600 800 1000 12001400 1600

(a)

Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 160 ( b) Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6)

(Yield Strain = 1230 x 10E-6)

Loads Vs Principal Strain (1D4)

Loads (kN)

Loads Vs Direct Strain (1D4)

Loads (kN)

600

600

500

500

400

400

300

300 Position:

200 Rosette R4 (= R13): 100 - Prin. Comp. Prin. Tensile

700 SI (=S4 100 4 52 (=SS) 4 S3 (=56)

I

o
1500 1000 500 (c)

0
500 1000 1500

800 600 4.00 200 0 (c.1)

200 400 6

Principal Strain (x10E-6)

Strain (x10E-6)

Fig. 3.22: Strains in steel plate and main bars (Beam 104) (cont.)

70

Loads Vs Bar's Strain (1D4)

Loads (kN)

600

500

400

300

200 Position: 100 At Support

-H Midspan

0 (C)

200

4.00

600

800 1000 1200

Strain (x10E-6)

(Yield Strain = 2300 x 10E-6)

Fig. 3.22: (cont.)

340

340 340 320

440

,,, 2 2-340 " (

260

380

280 260 ,) ( (

180

203 360

Fig. 3.23: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 1D4)

71 3.6.5.6 Beam 1D6

The flexural cracks for this beam started to appear at 220 kN. At 300 kN a diagonal crack formed near the supporting plate on LHS extending towards the loading point to approximately h13. As the load increased, the crack extended and widened. A few more flexural cracks also formed in the region of maximum bending moment. At 430 liN, an audible sound of concrete splitting was heard on RHS. As the load reached 480 kN, it was found that its top-cast surface developed excessive longitudinal cracking. This crack was exactly similar to that of Beams 102 and 104 (see Fig. 3.17). With further increase of loads, the beam then failed at 520 kN. This is considered to be a premature failure. Fig. 3.24 and Plate 3.8 show the beam at failure.

No strain readings were obtained for this beam. This was due to malfunction of the data-logger during the test.

3.6.5.7 Remarks

From the strain results in the steel plates, it is evident that the single plated beams achieved their full capacity, whilst double plated beams failed prematurely. In order to avoid the repeat of premature failure, in all the Second Series beams, local strengthening of the beams were carried out by introducing improved detailing under the loading points.

The detail for strengthening used in single plated beams of the Second Series consisted of three inverted U shaped 6 mm diameter round bars. These bars were placed right under the loading point and rested on the steel plate, as shown in Fig. 3.25a. In double plated beams, the details consisted

72 of a 100 x 100 x 12 mm steel pad with four legs made of 6 mm diameter round bars welded vertically onto it. This steel pad was then inserted into the beam, in such a way that its upper surface formed at the same level with the top surface of the beam (Fig. 3.25b).

As regards to the principal tensile strains of the plates, it is clear that the shape of the graphs is identical in all beams for each corresponding positions. Likewise, the profile of strain results of tensile reinforcement, direct strains of steel plate at mid-span and the state of pure shear behaviour developed in the web area show no differences. The only difference is the magnitude of the strains. The thinner plates (i.e 2mm) have yielded at all locations, whilst thicker plates have yielded only in certain positions.

A further observation shows that all the beams in First Series behaved in a similar manner. The beams were subjected to the same test and loading conditions and consequently identical behaviour was observed. For Second Series beams, only the important results will be presented. For the first two beams, the results will be presented in detail. But for the remainder only the principal tensile strains in the plates will be given. The tensile strains in the main bars and the direct strains in the steel plates will not be included.

The crack pattern and the general behaviour of the beams in the Second Series were very much similar to that of their counterparts in First Series (except double plated beam). Therefore, the descriptions of the behaviour given in the next section will be brief and precise.

In the Second Series beams, the typical arrangements of the rosette on the steel plates are shown in Fig. 3.26. In this series the measurements of concrete surface strains were also taken. The typical

73

31.07--C1 80 360 340 /

%-:.150 \ .50(-

430

380 i 535

.e0 -.CO ,.., 0

450 450 '-' 40 . 00

r ) /340 \

220)

T
100

Fig. 3.24: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 106)

too
top of beam loading plate '00x 100 x 20

top ',tar

p awn
tie

c ut-cut round bar 06 mm steal plate

beam ,15 5. 26 6 26 G 15

(a) Single plated beams

SEC TION

100 top of beam

6 G '0

F stool pad 100030 x 12 cu t-ou t

12

weld

120

d 6mm rouna bar

Li
(b) Double plated beams

SECTION

Fig. 3.25: Improved detailing in Second Series Beams

74

7"N'N

"

Cf)

75

AN4,

76

77 position of the Demec points are given in Fig. 3.27.

3.6.5.8 Beam 2S2

The first flexural cracks for 2S2 appeared at a load of 100 kN. Some more cracks were formed as the load was increased. At 140 kN a diagonal crack formed on the RHS. At 180 kN a diagonal crack appeared on the LHS. Both cracks extended and widened as the load increased further. At 320 an audible splitting sound was heard on LHS. At further increment of load, the diagonal cracks on both sides started to branch out. At 590 liN failure happened when the diagonal crack was fully formed and that some concrete crushing had occurred under the load on RHS.

The principal tensile strains in the steel plate are shown in Fig. 3.28. The graphs show that many parts of the plate has yielded at failure. On average, the plate reached its yield strain at the load of about 420 kN (Fig. 3.28a). The graph also shows that the tensile bars have not yielded right up to the failure. The recorded strain value of 1700 micro-strain is less than its yield value of 2480 microstrain. The development of the direct strains in steel plate at mid-span is shown in Fig. 3.28b, which remain below the yield strain.

The principal strains on the surface of the concrete are shown in Fig. 3.28d. The readings were recorded up to 500 kN only. The strains at higher loads was found to be very much influenced by the presence of the diagonal crack. The graph shows the existence of tension-compression state of strain at mid-span. Demec strain readings at Cl, C2 and 03 (Fig. 3.27) were found to be unrealistic and will not be presented. Fig. 3.29 and Plate 3.9 show the beam at failure.

78

450
X

114_

0
RI

0
P2 0_, n-( 4

OR SI )
52 +' 0R 53--

Rosette arrangements here are slmilar those shown ooDosite.

_1111_
.12

C R5

1.89,1591,90.,

90 4_89

4, '19

_11

25

3.26: Fig. 3.26: Typical positions of rosettes on steel plate in Second Series Beams

400

1450

400

crt
1 -(1) LH S

C1

"7-

C2 C3

-.- 4-

-4E11)-

RHS Demo('

Demec

"11
125 221
221 ..5.,c25,

Fig. 3.27: Positions of Demec points in Second Series Beams

79

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain

(2S2)
Loads (kii)

Loads Vs Direct Strain (2S2)

600 Loads (IN

600

500

500

400

400

300

300

200

200

100

100

1000 1500 2000 (a) Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6) (Yield Strain = 1130 x 10E-6)

500

0 1000 (b)

_.,

500 0 500 Direct Strain (x10-6)

100C

Loads Vs Bar's Strain

(seam 2S2)
Loads (0)
500

Loads Vs Principal Strain (252)

Loads (IN

600

400

300

500

1500 Bar's Strain (x10E-6)

1000

2000

0 1 2 3 4

Principal Strain (x10E-3)

Fig. 3.28: Strains in steel plate, main bars and Demec concrete (Beam 2S2)

80 3.6.5.9 Beam 2S4

Crack pattern of the Beam 2S4 is shown in Fig. 3.30. The beam failed at 605 kN when the diagonal crack formed fully joining the support and the load. At failure some concrete crushing was also observed under the load.

The principal strains in the steel plate are shown in Fig. 3.31. The plate has yielded only at position R6. At other positions the strains are about 700 micro-strain at failure. In the main bars, the strain are below the yield value. Plate 3.10 shows the beam at failure.

3.6.5.10 Beam 2S6

The crack pattern of the beam at failure is shown in Fig. 3.32. The beam failed at 885 kN. The mode of failure was similar to that of Beam 284. Fig. 3.33a shows the principal strains in the plate. From the graphs, it can be seen that, just after the strain in the plate reached its yield value (in this case, at the positions of R3, R4, R5 and R6), the beam failed. In Fig. 3.33b, the direct strain readings in the plate and the concrete are shown. The point of interest from this graph is that, the magnitude of both strain readings at the same position (i.e at Si and C1) are similar and almost coincide with each other. This implies that no slip occurred in the beam. Plate 3.11 shows the beam at failure.

3.6.5.11 Beam 2S8

The crack pattern of this beam is illustrated in Fig. 3.34a. The beam failed at 938 kN. The failure

81

Fig. 3.29: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 2S2)

r2 240 220
2co

580 140
11.0

120 /C0/10

/140

140

2E0 10 180
leo

-\120

370

Fig. 3.30: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 2S4)

82

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain (2s4)

Loads (kN) 600

Loads Vs Direct Strain (254)

Loads (kN)

500 _

400

300 Position: 200 Si 100 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 + 52 *

53 Faulty

(a) Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6)

(Yield Strain = 1010 x 10E-6)

L ' 0 200 400 600 800 600 400 200 0 ( ID) Direct Strain (x1 0E-6)

Loads Vs Tension Bar's Strain (Beam 2S4.)

Loads (kN)

Loads Vs Principal Strain

(254)
Loads (kN)
500

700

400

300

200 -

LHS Concrete Demec:

100

Prin. Comp.

+ Prin. Tensile

o
0 200 400 600 800 1000 12001400 1600 ( C ) Strain (X 10E-6) (Yield Strain = 2480 x 10E-6) Fig. 3.31: Strains in steel plate, main bars and Demec concrete (Beam 2S4)
6 4 2 0 2 4 6

1
8

(a)

Principal Strain (x1 0E-3)

83

leD F203
140

180 -160 c240

27 IN 140 240- \7 152' 350

)60

50

T
Fig. 3.32: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 2S6)

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain (256)

Loads (kN)
10 00

Loads Vs Direct Strain (256)

Loads (kN)

800

'\

+\ \\

\\\\
\:*

600

Position: 314 SI (Steel Plate)

400

I CI (Concrete) 43 52 C2 (Unrealiable)

200

S3 (Faulty) C3 (Unrealiable)

0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 ( b) Direct Strain (x10E-6) 0 Principal Tensile Strain (x1 0E-6) (Yield Strain = 1500x10E-6)

Fig. 3.33: Strains in steel plate (Beam 2S6)

84 was very sudden and accompanied by an 'exploding sound' under the load on LHS. As it is noticed, a significant amount of concrete crushing under load was observed at failure. The failure of this beam is considered as bearing failure.

The principal tensile strain of the steel plate is shown in Fig. 3.35a. The graphs show that many parts of the plate have yielded, which occurred virtually at the same time as the failure of the beam.
Plate 3.12 shows the beam at failure.

3.6.5.12 Beams 2D2, 2D4 and 2D6

The behaviour of the beams 2D2, 204 and 206 may be described as similar. As in previous cases, the behaviour was characterised by the formation of flexural cracks at earlier loads. After that, as the load increased, diagonal cracks started to develop. During the application of the loads, at about 50-70% of the failure loads, an audible splitting sound was heard in all cases. The failure occurred when diagonal cracks developed fully and some crushing of the concrete occurred under the loads. The beams 202, 2D4 and 206 failed at 665 kN, 875 kN and 1120 kN respectively. After failure, the beams were examined. It was revealed that part of the concrete in the shear panel were beginning to peel-off from the plate. This feature, however, may have occurred after the beams had failed. Figs. 3.34b, 3.34c and 3.34d show the crack patterns of the Beams 2D2, 204 and 2D6 at failure respectively.

The principal strain readings of the beams are shown in Figs. 3.35b, 3.35c and 3.35d. It is clear from the graphs that only some parts of the plates have yielded at failure (notably at position of R4 and R6). The plates reached its yield values at about failure, indicating that the beams failed with the

85 yielding of the plate. Plates 3.13, 3.14 and 3.15 show the beams at failure.

3.6.5.13 Beams 3D4 and 3D6

The behaviour of these beams at the early loads were very similar to the beams previously described. Both beams failed at 660 kN. In these beams, there was no additional detailing under the loads (because the beams were tested earlier than any other beams). The failure was found due to concrete crushing followed by peeling-off of the concrete in shear panel area. The failure was considered to have occurred prematurely. For these beams, no strain readings were taken. Figs. 3.36 and 3.37 show Beams 3D4 and 3D6 at failure.

3.6.5.14 General Remarks

From the description of the behaviour of beams attest, two types of failure were prominent. The first type of failure is that due to bearing and some local crushing of concrete under the loads. This will happen when the local area under the load is subjected to high compressive stress. When this failure occurs, the full load carrying capacity may not be fully utilised (for example Beams 1D2, 1D4, 1D6, 2S8, 3D4 and 3D6). The failure can be avoided by strengthening the local areas under the loads or above the supports.

The second type of failure was the diagonal splitting. This type of failure is characterised with the formation of diagonal crack which started from the edge of supporting plate towards the loading point. The failure will happen when the diagonal crack is fully developed and some concrete crushing

86

390
'510 240

_no
)160 180 3Cq

720 220

390

(a)

Seam 2S8

840 cb\''
340 130

540 403 360

260

620

,.260 160 00 1100 ( leo

(180

200 1240 160 1

(c) Beam 204

630

670 7.00
.30

34

r200 %110 1

140

57Q

to

(d) Beam 206

Fig. 3.34: Crack pattern at failure

87

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain

(2S8)

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain

(2D2) Loads (kN)

700

600

500 Position: R1
300 -4 R3

400

200

11* R4 43 R5

100

R6

0 1500 2000 2500 1000 500 0 (a) Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-5) (Yield Strain = 1260 x 10E-6)

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1 400 1600 Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6) ( 5) (Yield Strain = 1130 x 10E-6)

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain

(204)
Loads (kN)

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Strain (2D6)

1200 Loads (kN)

800

1000 600 300

400

Position: R3
R4 R5

Position: R3
R4

200
4 R5 -43- R6 0 0 500 1000 1500

9 R6 0

2000

(C)

Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6)

0 ZOO 400 600 800 100012001400160C (d) Principal Tensile Strain (x10E-6) (Yield Strain = 1500 x 10E-6)

(Yield Strain = 1010 x10E-6)

Fig. 3.35: Principal strains in steel plate

88

Fig. 3.36: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 304)

._---/_---'-' it'

Fig. 3.37: Crack pattern at failure (Beam 306)

89

90

91

92

93 will take place under the load or/and above the support. The formation of the crack is usually accompanied by an audible splitting sound. All the beams, except those which failed in bearing, failed in this mode.

The graphs of principal tensile strain of the plates also indicate that the beams which failed in this type exhibited two further contrasting behaviours.

For the beams with thinner steel plate (i.e 1S2 and 2S2), the plate achieved its yield capacity at earlier loads compared to the failure loads. In such case, the failure happens when the concrete reaches its capacity at a later stage. For the beams with thicker steel plates (i.e 4 mm, 6 mm and 8 mm), it shows that the concrete reached its capacity earlier than the plates. In such case, when the plates (or some parts of the plate) started to yield, then the process of failure commence.

Further discussions on the behaviour of beams will be given in Chapter Six.

94 CHAPTER FOUR METHOD OF ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

The aim in this chapter is to present a simplified method of analysis for reinforced concrete beams with steel plate or plates for shear which could be developed for practical applications in design. In developing the method of analysis, three main factors have been considered; (a) that the method should be simple to use, (b) that the method must realistically represent the physical behaviour of t he such beams as observed inxtestsand (c) that the method must yield results within acceptable the accuracy as verified by the experiment and by a detail analysis usingkinite element method.

Initially, the physical behaviour of the beam including the mechanism at failure is described. Then, in the next section, a method for the analysis of reinforced concrete beams with plate reinforcement for shear is proposed. The following sections then discuss the capacity of the beams in flexural and bearing. The concrete cover to steel plate where it plays an important role in preventing the plate from buckling is also discussed. The problems of bond stresses between the plate and concrete and the determination of the number of cut-outs required to act as shear connector in the beams are discussed in Section 4.5. The serviceability requirements, particularly the deflection and cracking of the beams are dealt with at the end of the chapter. Discussion on the results by method of analysis is given in Chapter Six.

4.2 Mechanism at Failure

Failure of the beams may be identified by four different modes. The three basic modes are flexure,

95 diagonal splitting and flexural-shear. A fourth mode of failure which is common in beams when subjected to high stresses is bearing.

4.2.1 Flexure

Beams with low ratios of main tension reinforcement (under-reinforced) fail in flexure. The crack formation starts at a relatively small load. The vertical flexural cracks form at the region of maximum bending moment. With further increase in load, these cracks widen and propagate towards the compression zone. The failure is characterised by excessive deformation of tensile reinforcement, progression of vertical cracks upwards and large sagging at the region of maximum bending moment. Eventually the crushing of a small depth of concrete in the extreme fibres of the compression zone will take place. Fig. 4.1a illustrates this behaviour.

4.2.2 Diagonal splitting

The diagonal splitting mode of failure occurs in beams with shear span/depth ratio in the range 0.51.0 and with a moderate amount of tensile reinforcement. This failure is the commonest mode of failure in deep beams (Ramakrishnan & Ananthanarayana 1968, Kong et. a/1970, Subedi 1988, 1992).

Initially some flexural cracks may form in the mid-span region. Then some inclined cracks in the direction of load and support form in the shear span. The failure is identified with the splitting of the cracks as the limiting tensile strength of the web is reached. The appearance of the cracks usually accompanied by an audible sound of splitting. Just before the failure, a dominant crack extends

96 between the support and the loading point. Notional hinges form at the two ends of the splitting crack. To complete the failure mechanism, the crushing and/or spalling of the concrete will take place at the notional hinges. The tensile reinforcements do not yield at failure. The mechanism of diagonal splitting mode of failure is illustrated in Fig. 4.1b.

4.2.3 Flexural-shear

Flexural shear mode of failure occurs within a narrow band between the flexural mode and the diagonal splitting mode. It occurs when the magnitude of the main tensile force is adequate to prevent complete flexural failure but not adequate enough to form a clear diagonal splitting mode (Subedi 1992).

At first, flexural cracks develop on the soffit at or near the mid-span of the beam. As the load is increased, more flexural cracks follow accompanied by some inclined cracks. Failure occurs as the inclined cracks penetrates into the compression area which is accompanied by yielding of the main tensile reinforcement at the edge of support. Large deflection will be noticed causing the crushing of concrete in compression zone. Fig. 4.1c shows this type of failure.

4.2.4 Bearing

Bearing is a common mode of failure in beams with small shear span/depth ratio as the results of high compressive stress build up locally. Bearing failure occurs either under the loaded areas or above the supports (Fig. 4.1d). When bearing failure occurs, the full strength capacity of the beams may not be achieved.

97

F-7

(b) Diagonal Splitting

(c) Flexural-shear

"V<LI:Ly

(d) Bearing
Spatting & crushing

Fig. 4.1: Modes of failure (numbers indicate events)

98

4.3 Proposed Method of Analysis

In developing the method of analysis a few assumptions are made; i) Perfect bond exists between the plate and the concrete. ii) Plate is subjected to in-plane force under the action of shear force. iii)The concrete cover to steel plate is rigid enough in preventing the plate from buckling. iv) Plate is resisting shear and flexural stresses. v) The method of analysis is developed for both single and double plated beams. In double plate beams, the same formulae are applied but the thickness of the plate is doubled.

during the These assumptions are, in general, consistent with the observation of the beams/ tests.

4.3.1 Shear Strength

The method proposed in this section is based on the splitting concepts. The method assumes that, when the concrete reaches its limiting tensile strength, it splits. Consistent with the observation of the beams during the test, this splitting is noticed with an audible sound. The splitting in the beams will produce a diagonal crack in the shear panel area. With the gradual increase in loads, the crack will propagate and some concrete crushing and/or spalling under the load will form to complete the failure mechanism.

The equilibrium of forces at failure is considered at the failure plane. With reference to Fig. 4.2, the forces which keep the section in equilibrium are as follows;

99 1- a diagonal splitting force normal to the failure plane which depends on the limiting tensile strength of concrete, ft,. 2. the compressive force P,, above the diagonal crack. 3. a vertical shear force, V. 4. a horizontal tensile force, Pm which is the contribution of the main tensile reinforcement. 5. the horizontal and vertical forces, Pph and P to the steel plate.

6. the reaction, Pj2, in which P u is the ultimate load.

a
b

dcl

compression zone

V 1" -r
-n11

dP

I 1CP"

4A t

P u/2

Fig. 4.2: Forces at failure

100 In Fig. 4.2, dc is depth of the compression zone; dt is depth of the diagonal crack, defined by d-dc; tp is thickness of the plate; dp is the effective depth of the plate and d p, is depth of the plate which crosses the diagonal crack. Other symbols have their usual definitions.

In this case, for simplicity, the contribution from the compressive reinforcement and dowel resistance are neglected since they are too small, and this will be on the safe side.

Horizontal equilibrium; 0 (4.1)

PC

ftcbd t PPh Pst =

Moments about 0;

Pua

PA ftubce ftcba
Pst d t -

Pphdpc Ppvac

=0

(4.2)

By substituting Pc (from equations 4.1) into Equation 4.2, the ultimate load for the beam is expressed as;

Pu

Rdt + da + ( dt +
a

Pst

acP P bf Pv tc + (dc + dpu)--Lh + (14+ aP a

(4.3)

Equation 4.3 is the general equation. The contribution of the individual parameter, PM, ftcf Pp, and P and depend on particular case of test beam. The value of these parameters can be determined by using criteria tests with regard to the strength of the web and mode of failure.

101 4.3.1.1 Strength of The Web

The shear panel of the beam under the action of shear force will develop a state of pure shear behaviour (consistent with the strain results). The state of pure shear behaviour, in consequent will produce an equivalent biaxial compression-tension field of stress (Fig. 4.3). When the stress in concrete in this panel reaches its limiting tensile strength ft,, the concrete will split. In the state of pure shear behaviour, ft, is given by (Hobbs et. al 1977); (4.4)

a l = fcu

20a3

al and a3 are the biaxial compressive and tensile stresses respectively' (Fig 4.3b).

For pure shear situation al =a3=ft,, therefore; (4.5)

f tc =

cu

21

The limiting tensile strength adopted here is only depedent upon the value of f the concrete. This expression is neglecting other factors which may also affect the limiting tensile strength, such as the shear span/depth ratio and the presence of vertical compressive stresses (Mau & Hsu 1987, Shahidy 1992).

The Equation 4.5 being adopted by the fact that the beams in this investigation had a constant value of the shear span/depth ratio (i.e 1.0). In such cases, the shear panel area of the beams is subjected to the state of pure shear in which no direct compressive (or/and tensile) stresses exist. The principal strain results in the steel plate (see Chapter Three) supports this behaviour.

102

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.3: Splitting forces

The concrete splitting force is equal to ftcbs where s is Ad12+a,2). As the plate in the web undergoes compatible strain, the total of concrete splitting force, P, is equal to;

, 2 Pcs = ftc bs + mftc\I(Al2h +Apv )

(4.6)

where m is the modular ratio and A ph and A

the areas of steel plate crossing the diagonal crack

in horizontal and vertical projection respectively.

103 4.3.1.2 The Control of Web Strength

The control of web strength depends on the relative magnitude of the concrete splitting force, Ps, against the capacity of the steel plate in shear at the diagonal crack, V
Vsc = fp.1,1(4,1,+

is given by;

All)

(4.7)

where f

equal to fyp/43 (Henclv-Mises Criterion); and fyp is yield stress of the plate.

Depending on the relative magnitude of P. against V

possible situations will arise;

i) when P. > V.

This situation arises when the amount of steel plate is 'insufficient'. In this case, the failure of the beam happens at the instance of splitting, where the concrete reaches its full capacity. As the failure occurs, strains in the steel plate will suddenly increase. The sudden increase in steel plate strains is due to the stresses released from the concrete. This situation is known as concrete control.

ii)when P. < V.

When the magnitude of P. is smaller than that of V, the strength of the web is controlled by the steel plate. This situation occurs when there is 'sufficient' amount of steel plate in the beam. Under the application of the load, the concrete will reach its capacity earlier than that of the steel plate. The plate will take over the splitting force and the beam will be able to work further until the plate yields. In such cases, strains in the steel plate will gradually increase and the splitting capacity of the

104 concrete will not contribute.

iii) when P. = Vsc

When the capacity of the concrete is equal to that of the steel plate, the failure will happen as either one of these material reaches its capacity. This situation is known as the balanced section. Ideally, this situation is the most economical section that the beam will achieve. This is because at the time of splitting, both materials are being utilised to their maximum capacity.

Table 4.1 summarises the control of web strength of the beams.

P,

Control of Web Strength

> V = <

Concrete Balanced Steel Plate

Table 4.1: Control of Web Strength

4.3.1.3 Mode of Failure

The mode of failure, either flexural shear or diagonal splitting depends on the value of tensile strains in reinforcements, either yielded or not. Diagonal splitting mode of failure happens across a prominent diagonal crack in which the concrete in the compression area near the load and/or near

105 the support crushes (see Fig. 4.1b). In this case, tensile reinforcement may not yield. In contrast, the flexural shear mode of failure required the main reinforcement to be yielded (see Section 4.2.3).

The criteria test in determining the mode of failure is given in Table 4.2;

Psi

Predicted Mode of Failure

 Astfy < Asify

Flexural Shear (FS) Diagonal Splitting (DS)

Table 4.2: Criteria Test in Determining the Mode of Failure

4.3.1.4 Contribution of Tensile Reinforcement

The contribution from tensile reinforcements, P s, depends on the control of web strength. The value of Ps, is assumed to be equal to the capacity of the horizontal component of the splitting force. Referring to the idealised diagram in Fig. 4.4, the maximum force that the main reinforcement may be subjected to, is determined by the magnitude of the horizontal component of the splitting force.

Fig. 4.4: Contribution of 1352

106 Thus, when the mode of failure is diagonal splitting, there are two possibilities for the value of Pst; i) when concrete controls,

Pst = fte bdt + mftcAph

(4.8a)

or ii) when steel plate controls,

P= frisAph

(4.8b)

4.3.1.5 Ultimate Load

The ultimate load, P, is determined using Equation 4.3. The contribution of P st, P appropriate condition as discussed above is summarised in Table 4.3;

Pph for

Mode of Failure*

Web Strength Control Steel Plate Concrete Steel Plate Concrete

Pst

Pp h

P pv

Comment

FS FS DS DS

Astfy Astfy Aph fps ftsbdt+Aphnific

Aphfps
Aphniftc

Vs,
Apvrnftc

not contribute

Aphfps
Aphrnftc

Afp,

not contribute

Apvmftc

Table 4.3: Contribution of P st, Po and Pp

(* Note: DS = Diagonal splitting; FS = Flexural shear)

107 4.3.1.6 Depth of Compression Zone

The depth of the compression zone, dc is determined by considering the equilibrium of the horizontal forces. A rectangular concrete stress block of intensity 0.67f, is assumed. Steel plate is considered to resist both shear and flexural stresses.

dc

0.G7f bd

CU C

fYP t (d -c Pc

d pc plate thickness
tP

f tdr yp p

Ps t

Bars and Concrete SECTION

Plate

FORCE EQUILIBRIUM

Fig. 4.5: Determination of the compression depth, dc

Fig. 4.5 shows the cross section of the beam and the stress diagrams which are used in determining the depth of the compression zone d c. For equilibrium;

108
Asc f + yc

.
(4.9)

yp 0.67fbdc + f tp (dc di) = Pe + f tp dpc yp

where Aufy, and Pe are the forces due to the compression and tension bars, 0.67fbd, is the concrete compression force, and fyptp(dcd,) and fyptpdpc represent the compressive and tensile forces in the plate respectively. In this case, the value Pm is depedent upon the assumed mode of failure and web strength control, which is given in Table 4.3.

4.3.1.7 Solution Procedures

The method for determining web capacity of the beams as described above may be summarised as follows;

1. Find a value of dc. In finding the value of d0, an initial assumption with regard to the mode of failure and the control of web strength must be made in order to consider the horizontal forces. The value of dc may be calculated by the process of trial and error.

2. Find Pm by substituting the value of d c into an appropriate equation (as given in Table 4.3).

3a. Check the control of web strength (using the criteria given in Table 4.1). If the control of web strength is correct as previously assumed (Step 1) then proceed to the next steps. If not, repeat Step 1 and make another assumption with regard to the control of web strength.

3b. Check the mode of failure (using the criteria given in Table 4.2). If mode of failure is correct as previously assumed (Step 1), then proceed to the next steps. If not, repeat Step 1 and make another

109

assumption with regard to mode of failure.

4. Calculate the ultimate load by using Equation 4.3. Appropriate values of P so Pph and P in Table 4.3. If the web strength is controlled by steel plate, the value of f

given

zero.

The application of the method of analysis is illustrated in Appendix A.

4.3.2 Flexural Strength

Flexural failure of ordinary reinforced concrete beams may be recognised by yielding and final fracture of tensile reinforcement. Prior to failure, excessive deformation and significant vertical cracks will be appeared in the maximum bending moment region.

A number of methods are available in predicting the flexural capacity of shallow and deep beams. The most common method for shallow beams is using the strain compatibility approach. This approach also has been suggested for application in deep beams (Subedi 1988). This concept is based on the assumption that the strain at the critical cross section of the beam vary linearly with the ultimate value of concrete strain of 0.0035 at the outermost of the compression zone.

In deep beams, the recommendations from the European Concrete Committee (CEB-FIP 1970) is widely used. The recommendations are mainly based on the results of ultimate load tests. In these recommendations, the flexural strength is assessed on the basis of suggested expressions for the lever arm, which is expressed in term of depth and span of the beams, and the area of tensile reinforcement.

110 The beams tested in this project were provided with excessive tensile reinforcement, so the flexural failure will not be the case. Therefore, it is suggested to use the strain compatibility method in checking the flexural capacity of the beams.

Fig. 4.6 shows the cross section of a typical beam at the region of maximum bending moment, together with the strain and stress diagrams which are used in this method. The steel plate is also considered to resist flexural moment. The analytical procedure starts by using trial value for the compression depth, x until the equilibrium condition for the horizontal forces in Equation 4.10 is satisfied.
Psc Pc E Ppc = Pst E

(4.10)

where P and P 31 are the forces in the compression and tensile bars, P, is the concrete compressive force, Pp, and Pp, represent the tensile and compressive forces in the plate respectiveley.

0.0035 dx7 0.9x dP

pti Ppt 2 t concrete & bars SECTION STRAIN plate

STRESS DISTRIBUTION

Fig. 4.6: Strain compatibility

111 By the concept of strain compatibility, the bar strain in compression and tension and can be determined from the strain diagram (Fig. 4.6). Thus;

e ss . 0.0035 (xd1 x and

(4.11a)

e st = 0.0035 (dx) x

(4.11b)

where es, and est refer to the strains in compression and tension bars. Having determined the strains, the stresses and resulting forces in the bars can be evaluated by;

(4.12a)
fs
=

e8

Es

e s ey S

(4.12b)

Ps = As

fs

(4.12c)

where fs, es and Es are bar stress, strain and elastic modulus, whilst As is the area of bars and Ps is the corresponding force in the bars.

Similarly, the strain in compression and tension part of the plate can be determined. Thus;

112 = 0035( X
x
d x)

e pc and

(4.13a)

e =0 0035(
pt

dd + d ,,

x x

- x )

(4.13b)

where ep, and ept are the strain in compression and tension part of the steel plate. The stresses and forces in the plate are given by; (4.14a)

f =

e E P P

e s P

YP

= fyp

e s > e yp

(4.14b)

where fp, ep and Ep are plate stress, strain and elastic modulus respectively.

By using the Equation 4.14, when the entire plate yields, then; (4.15a)

yp Ppt = f tp (dp+dxx)

and (4.15b)

yp Ppc = f tp (xdx)

where P

forces in compression and tension part of the plate respectively.

Concrete compressive force, P, at failure can be computed from; (4.16)

Pc = 0.67fcc b(0.9x)

The ultimate moment of resistance, M u at the mid-span section can be determined by;

113 dp+ dx + x 2

Mu

= Pd + P (
Pt

Pd' - Pc (0.45x) -

+x Ppc(d) - )

(4.17)

The ultimate load, P u for a two point load beam can be computed by employing;

Pu

2g,

(4.18)

4.3.3 Bearing Strength

Bearing failure is a common mode of failure in deep beams subjected to point loads. It occurs either under the loaded areas or above the support, which is due to local high compressive stress. The concrete directly under the loaded area is subjected to a biaxial compression state of stress, whilst those above the support will be subjected to a biaxial compression-tension state of stress (Fig.4.7). Under such conditions, therefore, the concrete's resistance to crushing and spalling is greater under the load and less above the support. The actual capacity depends on how much strengthening is provided at these stress concentration areas.

The beams in this project were subjected to very high stresses. In such condition, it is expected that the failure due to bearing and crushing is most likely, eventhough some strengthening mechanisms have been provided in these areas. In this case it is reasonable to use the suggested value of bearing stresses for deep beams to be applied here.

114

comD-ComP

*71-7o ;ension-comp.

Fig. 4.7: Elements under the load and above the support

The CEB-FIP Recommendations (1970) limit the bearing stress of a deep beams to 1.2f, at interior supports and 0.8% at exterior supports, where f is cylinder compressive strength of concrete. Taner
et. al (1977) suggested a lower value for this situation, i.e 0.7% at both under the loaded areas and

above the supports. Subedi (1988) suggested a limiting value of bearing stress of deep beams to be 0.85f. under the load and 0.7f above the support.

A few recommendations above shows that they are not much different in this matter. Since Subedi's suggestion is in the middle between the other two suggestions, therefore, this recommendation is used in the case where there was no strengthening added to the bearing areas. When strdngthening has been employed, a factor of 1.5 is appropriate to be included in the recommended value.

4.4 Cover to steel Plate

The minimum concrete cover to the steel plate seems to be one of the vital criteria in designing the beams. For the single plated beams, the cover varied from 46 mm to 49 mm, depending on the plate thicknesses, whilst double plated beams had 15 mm cover.

115 The question of what is the minimum concrete cover to the steel plate at this moment was not experimentally verified. Nonetheless, from the 'tests, it was observed that in all single plated beams, the cover was enough. This implies that no beams suffered the peeling-off of concrete at failure. For the double plated beams, it was noticed that some of the beams had cover concrete peeled-off at failure. This situation, however, occured at the same time with the existance of longitudinal cracks in the beams (see Section 3.6.5). The longitudinal cracks is formed probably due to inadequate detailing under the loading point.

In the proposed method of analysis, it was assumed that the steel plate effectively utilised to its yielding value. In such assumption, therefore, the concrete cover surrounding it must be stiff in order to prevent the plate from buckling. The best and simple approximation to quantify the thickness of concrete cover is by using the concept of rigidity. As it can be visualised from Fig. 4.8, it is clear that, under the action of the load (the load is idealised as axial compression), both the plate and concrete tend to bend (buckle). Therefore, to prevent the plate from buckling, the flexural rigidity of the concrete cover must be at equal or bigger than that of steel plate, thus;

Et:

Et;

(4.19a)

[ 12(1 v2)I,,c 12(1 v2)10,0

or the minimum concrete cover, t, required may be expressed as;

2

to 

3 (1 -vo) tnto (1 -Vp 2)

(4.19b)

116

Fig. 4.8: Concrete cover preventing the plate from buckling

The calculated value of the concrete cover will be presented in Chapter Six.

4.5 Methods of Shear Connection

When steel plates are embedded in concrete, the composite action between the structural steel and concrete is necessary to be maintained by the provision of shear connectors. For the case of fully encased steel I beams in concrete, the natural bond between steel and concrete is also a factor which has to be considered. The next subsections will discuss these two methods as a means of shear connection for beams tested in this project. The available literature on the encased steel beams in concrete will be appropriate to be used for discussion.

4.5.1 Bond

In encased steel (I beams or steel plate) in concrete without shear connectors, the interaction is completely reliant upon bond. The transfer of shear by bond takes place in the compression zone,

117 so that the effective perimeter of the steel beam (or steel plate) profile for shear transfer is that above the elastic neutral axis as shown in Fig. 4.9 (Wong 1963, Hawkins 1973, Davies 1975).

Elastic Perimeter for calculating bond stress Neutral Axis

Reinforcement L_.... - - --I

Fig. 4.9: Effective perimeter of steel I-beam in concrete

Wong (1963), suggested the allowable bond stress, s h for encased steel joists in concrete for elastic design may be taken as 80 psi (0.55 Nimm 2). Later, Hawkins (1973) suggested a higher value for the encased I beams. He suggested the value of 100 psi (0.69 NI/me). The applied bond stress, sh in the beams is calculated from the following equation;

sb

vhb
=

(4.20)

oi

where vh is horizontal shear stress of the beam and o' is the steel perimeter above the elastic neutral axis (Fig. 4.9). vh is given by;

vh -

V(a i yl)
1,b

(4.21)

118 where I, is second moment of area of the transformed composite section and A'y' is statical moment of transformed concrete area about the neutral axis of the composite section.

In British Code BS 5400 Part 5 (1979), the bond stress in encased steel beams is limited to 0.5 NI/me. The bond may be assumed to be developed uniformly only over both sides of the web and the upper surface of the top flange of the steel beams. The soffits of the steel flange is excluded from consideration in order to give a safety factor to the possibility of poor compaction of concrete.

These values showed that the bond stress is very small and can only be relied in the beams within its elastic range (Johnson 1975). At the higher loads the bond stresses have little meaning due to the development of cracking and local bond failure (Johnson 1968). In this effect, since the beams in this research were subjected to the loads in excess of its elastic range, therefore, the beams have to be provided with shear connectors.

4.5.2 Cut-outs as Shear Connectors

The provision of shear connectors in composite beams is for two main purposes;

1) to transfer shear between the steel and concrete (i.e to limit the horizontal movement) and, ii) to prevent vertical separation between the steel and the concrete.

The detailed make-up of a connector must be such that both functions can be achieved. There are many type of connectors are available, ranging from the helical, channel, bar, 'tension' and the most widely used is headed stud connector (Fig. 4.10)

119

( a )

Helical

:71
(b) Channel
n

J14_
Load

JL

FIT
(c) Stud

n .)

ra-13"`

Load

(d)

Sar

(e)

Tension

Fig. 4.10: Types of shear connectors in composite constructions (Davies 1975)

In this project, the provision of semi circular cut-outs at the upper and bottom edges of steel plate is to act as shear connector (Fig. 4.11). These cut-outs were similar to the perfobond rib connector which has been used sucessfully as shear connector in the construction of a composite bridge in Venezuela (Veldanda & Hosain 1992). As shown in Fig 4.12, this perfobond rib connector is a flat steel plate containing a number of holes. As it can be seen from both figures (Figs. 4.11 and 4.12), the concrete plugs in the cut-outs and the holes will provide an effective resistance to the horizontal shear.

120 tp -.._..

Fig. 4.11: Cut-outs as shear connectors

60

-12

Fig. 4.12: Perfobond rib connector (Veldanda & Hosain 1992)

The number of shear connectors required in ordinary composite beams is based on ultimate strength behaviour. The strength of connector, P pu is determined by push-out test (BS 5400

121

1979). The number of connectors, Ni c then defined by;

Vh

Nc Ppu

(4.22)

In this project, there was no push-out test carried out. However, the number of cut-out required can be determined as follows. Referring to Fig. 4.13, total applied shear force in the region of shear stress is (virtually the cut-outs are effective only in this region);

V = Vh a tp

(4.23)

The resistance, Vr to this applied force will be;

V, = Nco doc,tp T c

(4.24)

where N, and d is the number and diameter of the cut-outs, and T, is shear strength of concrete under the state of pure shear behaviour which is 0.08f, (Bresler & Pister 1958).

resisting force, \ VT-

applied iorce,V

steel plate, thickness, tp

a 1-

Fig. 4.13: Determination of the number of cut-outs

122 By equating the total applied shear force to the resistance force, the number of cut-out required is given by;

ko - _

Vh a

0.08 fcc1,1
vha

(4.25)

0.068 fcucico

The required number of cut-outs must be evenly spaced in the region of shear force. For the case of two point loads, where there is a region of zero shear force, it is recommended to use at least minimum number of cut-outs. BS 5400 Part 5 (1979), recommends that the maximum longitudinal spacing of shear connectors in ordinary composite beams should be not greater than 600 mm. This recommendation is suggested to be used in this project. The calculated number of the cut-outs will be presented in Chapter Six.

4.6 Serviceability of The Beams

Having determined the strength of the beams, checks must be made to ensure whether its serviceability criteria is within the acceptable limits. Deflection and cracking are two important things in this case, which will be discussed in the following sub-sections.

4.6.1 Deflection

The deflection of the beams can be calculated using the transformed section method. The use of transformed method is consistent with the previous calculation which assumed a complete interaction between the steel and concrete.

123 The classical Moment Area Method can be used in calculating the deflections due to bending 88,

both under the load and at mid span. Since the beams are subjected to high shear force, the deflection due to shear force 8, has also to be considered. For the rectangular beam subjected to two symmetrical point loads, P/2 (shown in Fig. 4.14), total deflection ST under the load is given by;

P/ 01. 2 (1-23)L /2

ft

bending deformation

a,

_L_
shear deformation

8V

3v

Fig. 4.14: Deflection of the beam

124 EIT
=

5 B + 81, (DL) + 3)93 L 3 f 5Gcbh

8 _ P(1342 1 L

Ecl. [4

(4.26a)

and deflection at mid span is given by (since the shear force at mid span is zero, the deflection due to shear is same as under the load);

(0.125 - 112-)P13L3 or 6 +

2EG./e 5

3R3L Gcbh

(4.26b)

where E, and G, are elastic and shear modulus of concrete respectively, and I, is effective moment of inertia of the section.

The effective moment of inertia in calculating the deflection varies a great deal throughout the member and received significant study (Yu & Winter 1957, Branson 1972). It has been shown (Park & Paulay 1975, Wang & Salmon 1985), that the actual deflection of reinforced concrete beams lies within the computed values based on I transformed cracked section and I gross uncracked section. The use of transformed cracked section overestimates the deflection and the use of gross section underestimates the deflection. ACI Code 318-83 (1983) recommends the following expression for the effective moment of inertia, I, to be used in calculating the deflection;

M M Ie = ( E) 3 I + 1 - ( Er)3 I 1 Ma g [ Ma cr

(4.27)

where 19 = moment of inertia of gross uncracked section, I,= moment of inertia of the cracked section transformed to concrete,

125 Icr= moment of inertia of the cracked section transformed to concrete, Ma = maximum moment in member at stage at which the deflection is being computed and Mcr= moment at first cracking, is given by frldy, where fr is modulus of rupture of concrete and y, is distance from centroidal axis of gross section to the extreme tension fibre. Modulus of rupture of concrete, fr can be taken as 1.5f, (Kong & Evans 1989).

The above suggested formula for moment of inertia will be used in calculating the deflection of the beams in this project.

4.6.2 Cracking

The maximum width of cracks is one of the major serviceability requirements for concrete and encased steel structures. Wide cracks are aesthetically unpleasant and may impair durability of the structures by exposing the steel to corrosive agents.

To the best of author's knowledges, there has been no research on control of cracking in encased beams. For consistency, the rule for such beams is the same as that in BS 8110 (1985) for the reinforced concrete beams.

This section will propose a simple method in calculating the maximum diagonal crack width of the beams in this project. The shear panel area is shown in Fig. 4.15. When the crack starts to appear, concrete will relieve the strain and the applied force is taken up by the steel plate. Provided the bond between the concrete and plate is sufficient (which is consistent with previous assumptions), the

126
width of the crack, co will be equal to the total elongation of steel plate in the direction normal to the crack, thus;

(0 =

Xdep XdO

(4.28)

EP

where ; is strain of the steel plate in direction normal to the crack and x d is diagonal length of shear panel as shown in Fig. 4.15.

.2'
xY

(b) element at the centre

(a) Shear panel area

Fig. 4.15: Maximum diagonal crack width

127 If the maximum crack width is assumed to occur in middle of shear panel (this assumption is consistent with observation), then the shear stress at this location is given by;

(4.29)
TxY

where dp and tp are effective depth and thickness of the plate respectively.

In the state of pure shear behaviour, ;I, is equal to ay, hence from Equations 4.28 and 4.29, the maximum diagonal crack width may be expressed as;

co

3 4

Pxd Ed t PP

(4.30)

128 CHAPTER FIVE FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF THE BEAMS USING ABAQUS

5.1

Introduction

Following its appearance in the mid 1950s (Clough 1980), the finite element method (FEM) has become the most widely used numerical technique in engineering analysis. A decade after its inception, this powerful computational tool began to be applied to the analysis of concrete structures. The earliest published application of the FEM to reinforced concrete was by Ngo and Scordelis in 1967, where linear elastic analysis was performed to simple beams. With the development in understanding the behaviour of plain and reinforced concrete under multiaxial stress states together with the advent of powerful computers, the method has made a substantial progress on the nonlinear analysis. Of the many outstanding research works in this respect were, for example those accomplished by Nielson (1968), Kupfer et. al (1969, 1973), Jofriet and McNeice (1971), Hand et.
al (1973), Suidan and Schnobrich (1973), Phillips and Zienkiewicz (1976), Vecchio (1989). The

successful application of non-linear FEM to the analysis of reinforced concrete structures depends on realistic descriptions of constitutive relations for elastic and inelastic response under combined stress state, and failure criteria for the concrete, steel, bond and aggregate interlock. An excellent discussion of the application of FEM to reinforced concrete structures is given in the State-of-Art Report by the ASCE Task Committee on Finite Element Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures (1982) which will not be repeated here.

For this study, the application of non linear finite element analysis to the test beams was carried out by using a software package named ABAQUS (1989). The main objectives of this work are to

129 acquire a working knowledge on the theory of FEM and to study the response of the beams by using this method, in comparison with those obtained experimentally. The work was only a supplementary work, therefore, the presentation of this chapter is limited within that scope.

The next sections will discuss the general description of the package, idealization of the test beams, constitutive relationships of the materials and solution procedures. Analysis results for the beams will be given in Chapter Six.

5.2 General Description of ABAQUS

ABAQUS was developed by Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen Inc. (1989). It was designed as a flexible tool for numerical modelling of structural response. The ABAQUS system is capable of analysing linear, non-linear, dynamic, heat transfer and pore fluid diffusion problems. The package contains many type of elements in its library, such as truss element, plane stress and plane strain elements, beam element, axisymmetric element, membrane element and user defined element. ABAQUS also contains a wide range of both linear and non-linear material types which cover most engineering materials. In such situation, the package is capable of handling virtually almost all types of structural problems.

In using ABAQUS, a user has to provide a 'data deck' which will describe the problem so that ABAQUS can provide an analysis. The data deck contains 'model data' and 'history data'. Model data define a finite element model: the elements, nodes, element properties, material definition, boundary conditions and so on-any data that specify the model itself. History data define what happens to the model, i.e the sequence of events or loadings for which the model's response is

130 sought. This history is divided, by the user, into 'steps'. Each step is a period of response of a particular type of the load. For output request, ABAQUS can provide the printed results of element variables (i.e stress, strain etc.) and nodal variables (i.e displacements and reaction forces). The contour plots showing the variation of stress concentrations of the structures can also be produced.

For linear problems, the analysis is straight forward, but for non-linear analysis, some control the parameters have to be included to ensure thatAnon-linear problem is satisfied. For non-linear analysis, it is usually necessary to divide the step into a number of increments during which the loads are changed gradually. The accuracy in which the equilibrium must be satisfied at each node in non-linear analysis is specified by force and/or moment tolerance options. Choosing these tolerances is absolutely critical in obtaining good, and at the same time economical results. Very tight tolerances will cost more iterations, while loose tolerances will give bad answers.

Further details on non-linear analysis implemented in the package, especially the non-linearity of the materials, will be described through the discussion of its application to the test beams.

5.3 Analytical Models of The Test Beams

5.3.1 General Consideration and Assumption

It was considered that the stress variation across the thickness of the beam is negligible, i.e the state of plane stress conditions exists. This condition is practically achieved when the thickness of structural member is small compared with other dimensions. Perfect bond between the concrete and the steel plate was further assumed (this assumption is consistent with method of analysis). In such

131 assumption, therefore, the idealisation meshes of steel plate will be overlapping and coincide with those of the concrete. Since all the beams in this project were subjected to symmetrical loading conditions, hence, the model only consists half of the beams.

5.3.2 Idealization of The Test Beams

From the extensive element library available in ABAQUS, only one particular type of element has been selected, since it is proved to be satisfactory to model the concrete and steel plate. This element, named as CPS4 is a four node bilinear plane stress element. The basic formulation of the element is given in many finite element text books (Zienkiewicz 1977, Cook 1981, Rockey et. al 1983, Dawe 1984). The tensile and compressive reinforcements were modelled by using a REBAR option. In ABAQUS, REBAR option is used to model the reinforcement . Rebar isa ione dimensional strain element which is defined in embedded surface to model the reinforcement. This element is superimposed on the mesh of plain concrete elements, and used with standard metal plasticity models that describe the behaviour of the rebar material. The effects associated with the rebar/concrete interface, such as bond slip and dowel action, can be modelled approximately by introducing some 'tension stiffening' to simulate load transfer across crack through rebar.

The finite element idealisation for all the beams is shown in Fig. 5.1. As it is seen from the figure, the average size of an element in shear panel area is 50 mm x 51 mm. At the stress concentration areas (i.e under the load and above the support), finer meshes have been employed to allow a more detail study of these regions. The meshes for steel plate overlap with those of the concrete in which they were share the same nodes but with different element numbers.

132 In this case, both sides of concrete cover were combined together (Fig. 5.1a) The concrete element were numbered from 1 to 124 (Fig. 5.1b). In the input data, this is known as CONCRETE. Steel plate elements were numbered from 142 to 231, in which they share the same nodes with the concrete at node numbers 19 to 117 (Fig. 5.1d). Figs. 5.1c and 5.1e show the elements and nodes numbers of the concrete below and above the plate (see Fig. 5.1a). In the input data, these were known as CONCRETE2 and CONCRETE3 respectively. However, their material descriptions were same as those of CONCRETE. Tensile reinforcements were superimposed at the position of node numbers 19 to 36, whilst compressive reinforcements were at the position of nodes 117 to 134. The presence of the cut-outs in the plate was ignored.

The idealization adopted here is one of the approach which can be handled by ABAQUS. This approach is simple and easy to use in which perfect bond has to be assumed between the plate and the concrete. Another approach is by using an option MPC (Multi-point Constraints). This option allows constraints to be imposed between different degrees of freedom of the model. Details of this approach will not be discussed here.

5.3.3 Constitutive Relationships

The basic information required in modelling of non-linear behaviour of the beams in this project is the constitutive relations and failure theories which adequately describe the characteristics of concrete, steel plate and reinforcement upon loading.

133

CONCRETE 3 PLATE

(a) Beam idealization

CONCRETE 1 CONCRETE 2
Element number (-3-0 0/) ,108 i,

Node nuf

g (139)
96 81 66 51 36 21 6 6 7.

(11

(41) (142) (: 114 99 84 69 54 33 24 9 (9) 115 100 85 70 55 40 25 10 10) 11 101 86 71 56 41 26 11 (12) 102 87 72 57 42 27 12

.) 120 103 88 73 58 43 28 13 63)

(17:9) 121 104 89 74 59 44 29 14 12 2 105 90 76 GO 45 30 15 65)

110 135 OW

109 94 79

110 111 95 BO 65 50 35 20 5

112 97 82 67 52 37 22 7 8

113 98 83 613 53 38 23 8

123 106 91 76 GI 46 31 16
(12)

124 107 92 77 62

li

' ' 3
h ,

I'
I(

63

64 49 34 19 2 34

49 ) 33

47 32 17

18

010 C)(7) 5
,4c25

(14)
00

8050

44

165

175

1175 mm

(b) Concretel

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

(c) Concrete2

217 202 187 172 157 142

218 203 188 173 158 143

219 204

220

221

222 223 224 208 193

225

226 211 196

227 212 197 182 16 7 152

228

229 214

230 215 200 185 170 155

231 216 201 186 171 156

205 206 207 191 176 161 146 192

209 210 194 179 164 149 195

213 198 183 168 153

189 190 174 159 144 175 160 145

199 184 169 154

177 178 162 147 163 148

180 181 165 150 166 151

D
(d) Steel plate

5 232

233

234 235 _236 237 238 239

CNI

0.1

244

245

246

247

248

(e) Concrete3
Fig. 5.1: The idealization of test beams

134 stress
Failure point in compression (peak stress) (

Start of inelastic behavior

Unload /reload response Idealised ( elastic) unload! reload response Strain

strain
Softening
Cracking failure Stress

Fig. 5.2a: Uniaxial behaviour of plain concrete (ABAQUS 1989)

Stress,

Failure point
7

"tension stiffening" curve

eu t

Strain, e

Fig. 5.2b: Concrete in tension (ABAQUS 1989)

135 5.3.3.1 Non-linear Constitutive Relation for Concrete

The tensile and compressive responses of concrete that are incorporated in the model are illustrated by the uniaxial response of a specimen as shown in Fig. 5.2a.

When concrete is loaded in compression it initially exhibits elastic response. As the stress is increased some non-recoverable (inelastic) straining occurs, and the response of the material softens. After the material softens, an ultimate stress is reached where it can no longer carry any stress. The behaviour of concrete in tension is shown by its elastic response up to about 7%-10% of ultimate compressive stress, after which the cracks will form. Fig. 5.2b shows the behaviour of concrete in tension.

Under the action of multiaxial stress states, the behaviour of concrete was modelled by the failure surface. The concrete failure surface in plane stress analysis is shown in Fig. 5.3. This model is intended for the application of relatively monotonic loading cases only.

A "compression" failure surface forms the basis of the model for the non-linear response when the principal stresses are dominantly compressive. In tension (including tension-compression zone), cracking is assumed to occur when the stress reaches a failure surface which is called the "crack detection" surface. Once the crack occurs, ABAQUS uses a smeared crack approach in which constitutive calculations are performed independently at each integration point of the finite element model, and the presence of cracks enters into these calculations by the way that the cracks effect the stress and material stiffness associated with integration points.

136
"crack detection" surface

uniaxial tension

biaxial tension

II compressicn surface

/ /

biaxial compression

Fig. 5.3: Concrete failure surface in plane stress (ABAQUS 1989)

5.3.3.1.1 Concrete Input Option

In ABAQUS, three material properties options are required for non-linear analysis of concrete. The ELASTIC option is used to give elastic properties, the CONCRETE option is used to describe compressive stress-strain relationship outside the elastic range and the TENSION STIFFENING option is used to define the concrete's post failure behaviour after cracking. This TENSION STIFFENING option is primarily intended to allow some effects on the interaction of reinforcement with concrete and to allow the smearing of cracking in the model. The SHEAR RETENTION suboption was also used in the input data to describe the reduction of shear modulus associated with crack surfaces as a result of aggregate interlock and the effect of dowel action. Shear retention option assumes that the shear stiffness of open cracks reduces linearly to zero as the crack opening increases.

137 The list of concrete input data for Beam 1S4 is given below as a typical data of all other beams. *MATERIAL, NAME=CONCRETE *ELASTIC, TYP E=ISOTROP IC 21500,0.15 *CONCRETE 20.0,0.0 48.3,0.00105 *FAILURE RATIOS 1.125,0.08,1.20,0.333 *TENSION STIFFENING 0.0,1.0E-3 *SHEAR RETENTION 1.0,0.0,1.0,0.0

This example presents that the elastic modulus of concrete is 21500 N/rnm 2 and Poisson's ratio is 0.15. The uniaxial compressive strength is 48.3 Nimm 2 and the corresponding plastic strain is 0.00105. On the uniaxial stress-strain curve of the concrete, the relationship is assumed linear until the stress reaches 20.0 Nime, at which plastic strain is zero. The input data in FAILURE RATIO represent that the biaxial to uniaxial compressive strength ratio is 1.125, the uniaxial tension to uniaxial compressive strength ratio is 0.08, the ratio of plastic strain in biaxial compression to uniaxial compression is 1.20, and the cracking failure ratio in plane stress with one principal stress at compressive failure is 0.333. The TENSION STIFFENING data denote that the fraction of remaining stress to stress at cracking is zero, whilst the absolute value of the direct strain minus the direct strain at cracking is 1.0 x 10E-3. The values of the maximum direct strain across the crack, e a' for dry and wet concrete are zero and their corresponding values of (1-e/ema ) are 1.0. In many cases, when the actual data was not available, the default values were used.

5.3.3.2 Constitutive Relation for Steel

The behaviour of both steel plate and reinforcing bar are approximated by an elastic-perfect plastic

138 stress-strain relationship. ABAQUS recognises the effect of strain hardening of the steel, however, since the data from the test could not define the curve precisely, therefore an elastic-perfect plastic relationship was adopted. The stress-strain relationship of this model is shown in Fig. 5.4.

Stress 1

0.- Strain

Fig. 5.4: Stress-strain relationship for steel

5.3.3.2.1 Steel Input Option

For non-linear analysis of the steel, two material properties are required. The ELASTIC option is used to define linear elastic modulus and the PLASTIC option is required to specify the yield value of the material. The list of steel input option is for Beam 1S4 is given below as an example; *MATERIAL, NAME=STEEL *ELASTIC 199000, 0.30 *PLASTIC 245.0

139 The example indicates that the elastic modulus of the plate is 199 kN/me, the Poisson's ratio is 0.30 and the yield stress is 245 N/mrre.

5.4 Solution Procedures

ABAQUS uses Newton's Method as a numerical technique for solving non-linear equilibrium equations. The non-linear solution is then obtained by performing a succession of linear approximation until the constitutive relationships and conditions of equilibrium are satisfied within an acceptable error.

In ABAQUS, the problem of getting a convergent solution at minimum cost for non-linear analysis is handled by 'automatic control of time stepping'. The user only defines a step and certain tolerance or error measures. The step is divided into increments, by user control or by automatic program control. In each non-linear increment, ABAQUS iterates for equilibrium.

A static stress analysis was adopted to the test beams in which the loads were automatically applied in increments until the 'ultimate' load is achieved. The force tolerance (PTOL option) which is the basic tolerance measure for the solution of equilibrium equations at each increment, was taken as approximately 1% of the experimental failure load. The maximum number of iteration in an increment was specified to 6, and the maximum number of increment allowed was 70. The load proportionality factor was set at 1.20 of the experimental failure load, in which the analysis will end when it reaches this factor.

140 The example of solution control parameters for Beam 1S4 is given below; *STATIC, PTOL=4000, RIKS 0.2,1.01.20 *STEP, INC=70, SUBMAX *DLOAD 116,P3,38 117,P3,38 118,P3,38 119,P3,38 240,P3,38 241,P3,38 242,P3,38 243,P3,38

In this case, the ultimate failure load of the beam is 790 kN, so that the load on the half model will be 395 kN. The value of PTOL is set to 4 IN (4000 N) which is about 1% of the actual force. Since considerable non-linearity is expected in the response, including the situation when the concrete cracks, the RIKS option is used with automatic incrementation. With the RIKS option, the load data and solution parameters serve only to give an estimate of the initial increment of load. In this case, it seemed reasonable to apply an initial load of about 8 Nime over the loading patch of 100 mm x 100 mm (equivalent to a point load of 80 kN). This can be accomplished by specifying a distributed load (known as P3) of 38 Nime over the elements number 116 to 119 and 240 to 243 and an initial time increment of 0.2 for a time period of 1.0. The analysis is terminated when the load proportionality factor reaches 1.20, corresponding to a total load on the beam of 912 kN. The distributed type of load is chosen over the point load in order to avoid a premature local crushing under the load. The SUBMAX parameter is also included on the STEP card. This option forces ABAOUS to continue iterating up to the maximum iterations allowed before it subdivides the increment because of failure to achieve equilibrium.

The load level at which the analysis was terminated as the solution failed to converge due to

141 numerical instability is regarded as the analytical failure load of the beam.

5.5 Analysis Results for The Beams

The analysis results of the test beams such as deformations, stresses, strains and the ultimate loads will be discussed in Chapter Six.

142 CHAPTER SIX BEHAVIOUR OF THE BEAMS: TEST RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a detail discussion on the test results of the beams. The discussion includes the modes of failure, ultimate strength, cracking strength, beams' deformation, crack width and other related factors. The discussion is carried out through comparison between the results determined by the proposed method of analysis (see Chapter Four) with those experimentally obtained. The results of finite element analysis of the beams are also discussed.

6.2 Ultimate Behaviour of Test Beams

6.2.1 Mode of Failure

Table 6.1 shows the observed and predicted mode of failure for each beam. In general, the predicted mode of failure is in good agreement with those observed from the test. The observed modes of failure that have been identified are; i) diagonal splitting, ii) bearing and iii) bearing with the longitudinal cracks (along the top-cast surface of the beam and peeling-off of concrete).

143 6.2.1.1 Diagonal Splitting

The diagonal splitting mode of failure is a common mode of failure in deep beams (Subedi 1988, 1992). It occurs in beams with shear span/depth ratio in the range of 0.5-1.0 and with a moderate amount of web reinforcement. The failure is identified with the splitting of inclined crack between the support and the loading point, as the limiting tensile strength of the web is reached. The appearance of the cracks is usually accompanied by an audible sound of splitting. Just before the failure, a dominant crack extends between the support and the loading patch. Notional hinges form at the two ends of the splitting crack. To complete the failure mechanism, the crushing and/or spalling of the concrete will take place at the notional hinges. The tensile reinforcements do not yield at failure. The mechanism of diagonal splitting mode of failure is illustrated in Fig 6.1.

(a) Formation of diagonal splitting crack

notional hinge
I

1 I
I

........... -

_ 1

(b) Completion of failure mechanism Fig. 6.1: Mechanism of diagonal splitting mode of failure

144 Diagonal splitting was the primary cause of failure of the beams 1S2, 1S4, 2S2, 2S4, 2D2, 2D4. Three other beams, namely 1S6, 2S6 and 2D6 were also observed to follow the diagonal splitting failure criterion until the last stage. At the last stage, instead of the notional hinges being formed due to flexure and shear, crushing due to excessive bearing stress was observed. This is evident from the failure loads for these beams. For 1S6 and 206 the failure loads are between the predicted range of bearing and shear. For 2S6 the failure load is closer to both bearing and shear capacities. They are identified as failing in diagonal splitting and bearing modes.

The results of strains in tensile reinforcements for these beams (see Section 3.6.5) indicate that the reinforcements were not fully stressed near the support, when the maximum shear capacities for beams were reached. The range of tensile strain in the main bars were measured between 1900 micro strain to 2100 micro strain as compared to the yield strain of the bars, 2300 micro strain (Beam 1S6) and 2610 micro strain (Beams 2S6 and 206). This agrees well with the concept of diagonal splitting.

The strength of the web in diagonal splitting mode of failure may be controlled by either concrete or steel plate. In order for the steel plate to control the web strength, a sufficient amount of steel plate will be required. Beams 1S4, 2S4, 2S6, 202 and 2D4 satisfy this condition. The control of web strength by steel plate means that at the time of splitting, the splitting force is taken by steel plate. The failure occurs when the plate (or some parts of the plate) reaches its yield capacity. This behaviour is characterized by the increase of principal strain in the web area of steel plate. The measured strain behaviour of the steel plate in these beams (shown in Section 3.6.5) reflects this behaviour. For example in Beam 1S4, the principal strain for the plate at position R7 (see Fig. 3.12b) was measured to be 2000 micro-strain.

145

In the case of concrete control, once the concrete reaches its tensile strength capacity in biaxial tension-compression, the splitting will occur and this will determine the ultimate strength of the beam. According to analysis, this would mean that at the occurrence of the splitting, there will be a large increase in strain in the steel plate. However, as it can be seen from the load-strain curve of the Beams 1S2 and 282 (see Figs. 3.9 and 3.28 respectively), this behaviour was not clearly shown. However, the graphs do show that in many parts of the plate, yielding had occurred earlier before the failure load was attained. But the strain increment was gradual rather than sudden.

6.2.1.2 Bearing

Bearing is a common mode of failure in beams with small shear-span/depth ratio (Kong et. al l 970, Subedi et. al l992) as the results of high compressive stress build up locally. When bearing failure occurs, the full strength capacity of the beams may not be achieved. Beam 288 failed in bearing under the loading area. Beams 186, 2S6 and 206 also have been observed crushing locally (i.e under the loads and above the support). However, in all these beams, this situation was observed simultaneously as the beams would fail in diagonal splitting.

The predicted mode of failure of the beams 1D2, 1D4, 1D6, 3D4 and 3D6 were bearing. From the observations, this was not solely the cause of failure of these beams. As described in Section 3.6.5, Beams 102, 104 and 1D6 failed by the formation of longitudinal cracks along the top-cast surface of the beam and consequently some concrete crushing under the load. The peeling-off of the concrete took place as the result of this longitudinal crack. This behaviour, however, was observed at the later stage. At the beginning, the beams had developed the diagonal splitting cracks between the supports and the loading points. The beams failed earlier than expected due to inadequate

146 detailing provided under the load.

One way of avoiding such failures, is by improving detailing at these stress concentration areas, as was carried out in Second Series Beams. As a result, all the beams in this series had improved their capacity compared to their counterparts in the first series.

6.2.2 Ultimate Strength: Proposed Method

The ultimate strength of the beams is given in Table 6.1. As it can be seen, where bearing failure is prevented, the failure load of the beam is increased as the thickness of the plate increased.

The table also shows the predicted ultimate loads of test beams.The prediction of these loads was carried out by comparing the strength of the beams in different modes of failure, namely flexural capacity, bearing capacity and shear capacity. The lesser of these values is considered as the predicted ultimate load of the beams. The individual load carrying capacities of the beam was determined according to the methods of analysis presented in Chapter Four. In determining the capacity of the double plated beams, the same formulae was applied but the thickness of the plate was doubled.

Table 6.1 shows a good agreement between the predicted and the observed ultimate load of the beams. The mean value and coefficient of variation (CV) of the ratios of the predicted/measured ultimate loads are 0.82 and 14.89% respectively.

A close examination of Table 6.1 shows that the predicted failure loads of the Beams 1S2 and 2S2

147

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148 are less about 40% than that of the test results. In both cases, the predicted mode of failure was diagonal splitting with concrete controlling the web strength. This discrepancy means that the method of analysis underestimates the ultimate load when the concrete control concept is used. As pointed out in Section 6.2.1.1, according to the concept, at the time of splitting there should be a sudden large increases in strain in steel plate, but from the strain results this was not the case. This disagreement would possibly affect the predicted ultimate load. This, however, needs further verification.

The predicted ultimate loads for other beams compare well with the test results.

6.2.3 Ultimate Strength: 'BS 8110 (1985) Method'

The ultimate strength of the beams were also calculated by the method suggested by BS 8110 (1985). It should be emphasized that, BS 8110 (1985), however, does not give any recommendation for the analysis of the types of beam investigated in this study. The method adopted here is only based on the general concept of determining shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams as suggested in the BS 8110 (1985).

The ultimate shear strength of reinforced concrete beam is a direct summation of V, and V,, where V, is the strength provided by concrete and V, is the strength provided by shear reinforcement. The concrete contribution, V, can be calculated by using the suggested expression (as given in Chapter Two (Section 2.3.1));

149

Vc

0.27 Ym

f) 113 100As ir3 400 ) (-- )1I4bd 7 1 cu

bd

(2.9)

The enhancement factor of 2(d/a) is applicable in the equation since the aid <2.0.

In BS 8110 (1985), the strength provided by shear reinforcement is calculated by the truss analogy method which requires the stirrup to be yielded (see Section 2.3.2). By using the same philosophy, accordingly, the strength provided by steel plate, Vsp may be taken as the full capacity of the plate in shear, which is given by (Hencky-Mises Criterion);

= ( -113 -)d ptp

(6.1)

where fyp is yield stress of the plate, and d p and tp are effective depth and thickness of the plate.

Table 6.2 gives predicted shear capacity of the beams as calculated by this approach. Predicted ultimate load obtained by the proposed method of analysis is also given for comparison. In general, a good correlation is obtained between the experimental ultimate load and the loads predicted by the BS 8110 Method. The ratios of P uanalysifiutem obtained by both analytical methods in many cases are almost identical. For example the ratios of P ua,4sis/Putest of Beams 184 is 0.75 in both cases. This suggests that, the 'BS 8110 Method' is capable of predicting the shear capacity of the beams. However, the assumptions with regard to the mode of failure and method of resistance in BS 8110 (1985) need to be examined for plate reinforced beams.

150

Beam

TEST

ANALY.

'BS 8110 METHOD'

2V,/ P cr

P, amy/
Pu test

Fail. Load P

Diag. Crack Load P (kN)

1 20 180 300

Shear Load Pu3 (kN)

316 530 860

V, (kN)

V (kN)

Load
Pu4=

Proposed

BS
811C

2(V,i-Vs) 93 93 110 78 175 325 342 536 870 1.55 1.0 3 0.73 0.54 0.75 1.09 0.59 0.75 1.10

1S2 1S4 1S6

580 710 790

1D2 104 1D6

535 520 515

260 260 300

445 913 1497

78 91 89

156 350 651

468 882 1480

0.60 0.70 0.59

2S2 2S4 2S6 2S8

590 605 885 938

140 200 220 390

302 426 892 1003

92 83 104 104

81 139 327 370

346 444 862 948

1.16 0.83 0.95 0.53

0.51 0.70 1.01 -

0.59 0.73 0.97 -

202 2D4 206

665 875 1120

220 300 340

473 798 1529

82 94 94

162 278 655

488 744 1498

0.75 0.63 0.55

0.71 0.91 1.36.

0.73 0.85 1.34.

304 306

660 660

240 300

978 1591

81 83

386 637

934 1440

0.68 0.55

ean= 0.79 C.V=. 2 7. 19 % Table 6.2: Comparison of predicted shear capacity and cracking strength Note: Comparisons for Beams 1D2, 1D4, 1D6, 2S8, 304 and 3D6 cannot be made because they failed in different mode of failure. *Comparisons are not strictly correct because the beam failed in combined mode of failure.

151 6.2.4 Inclined Cracking Strength

Results of the diagonal cracking strength of the beams are tabulated in Table 6.1. The figures in brackets alongside the cracking load are the percentage of the experimental failure loads. From the table it can be seen that the diagonal cracking is found to vary between 24 and 58 percent of the failure load for all beams. In general, the diagonal cracking load increases with the increase in the failure load of the beam.

In designing conventional reinforced concrete beam without web reinforcement, the diagonal cracking load is generally considered as the ultimate load. This is simply because the margin of safety above the cracking load is highly inconsistent and unpredictable. If the same design basis is applied to the beams in this investigation, it is desirable to predict the diagonal cracking load. In this case, therefore, expression to evaluate shear capacity of the concrete (Equation 2.9) suggested by BS 8110 (1985) is taken as diagonal cracking strength of the beam. The computed values are presented in Table 6.2.

From the table, it is evident that the predictions made by BS 8110 (1985), are on the safe side (except Beams 1S2 and 2S2). The mean value for all beams is 0.79 while the coefficient of variation is 27.19%.

6.3 Contribution of Tensile Reinforcement

One of the main features in determining the shear capacity of the beam according to the proposed method of analysis is a need to calculate the contribution of tensile reinforcement, P r In diagonal

152 splitting mode of failure, Psi is assumed to be equal to the horizontal component of the splitting force at failure (Section 4.3.1.4).

A comparison is made between the calculated and measured value of P failure (Table 6.3). The measured values are determined from the strain reading in the bars at the location exactly above the support.

The results clearly show that in all cases, the predicted values were lower compared to the measured values. The ratio of predicted/measured is ranging from 0.42 to 0.84. The general tendency is that the predicted value is compared reasonably well with the measured value for the beams with bigger size of the bars. For example, the results of beams 1D4, 2D4 and 2D6 in which 32 mm diameter bars were used.

It, however, needs to be emphasized that the comparison made in Table 6.3 is not strictly correct. This is because the position of measured Pst is exactly above the support, whereas the calculated P the value considered at the interface of the diagonal crack and the bar (as shown in Fig. 6.2). The difference in the location may affect the results.

measured here t analysis here Ncdifferent in length

Fig. 6.2: The different of the location of Pst

153

Beam

Contribution of Tensile Reinforcement, Pst Measured (kN) Predicted (kN) 88 145 232

Predicted! Measured

1S2 1S4 1S6

183 306 552

0.48 0.47 0.42

102 104 1D6

294 307 Gauge faulty

123 249 389

0.42 0.81 -

2S2 2S4 2S6 2S8

184 220 388 491

85 113 226 267

0.46 0.51 0.58 0.54

2D2 204 2D6

283 327 479

131 217 401

0.46 0.66 0.84

304 3D6

Not available

246 398

Table 6.3: Comparison of The Contribution of Tensile Reinforcement, P.

154 6.4 Serviceability Parameters of The Beams

The main parameters governing the behaviour of beams in service are the maximum deflection and crack width. In order to satisfy the design requirements, both must remain within the prescribed limits.

6.4.1 Deflection

The load versus mid-span and under-load deflections for the Beams 2S4, 1S6 and 2D6 as typical samples are presented in Fig. 6.3a and Fig. 6.3b respectively. In each graph the comparison is made between the measured and calculated values. The result from the elastic theory using Equation 4.26 (Section 4.6.1) is referred as 'calculated' in the plots. The graph is a straight line. The deflections obtained by ABAQUS Program have also been superimposed in the same graphs. A discussion on the ABAQUS Program results is treated in Section 6.8.

The typical load-deflection characteristics from the test, Fig. 6.3, indicate that the behaviour is almost linear. There is only a light reduction of stiffness probably as a result of the formation of cracks as load is increased. The behaviour is typical of a shear dominated structure.

From the graphs, it is clear that there is a reasonable agreement between the calculated and the measured values. From Fig. 6.3b, the measured and calculated values at the positions under the load are practically overlapping (Beam 2S4 and 1S6), showing a good agreement. In deflection at mid-span (Fig. 6.3a), however, a small deviation is observed between the calculated and measured values. The calculated values overestimate the deflection but remain within an acceptable range of

155 about 10-20%.

The load-deflection characteristics provide an evidence that the composite action is realised between the plate and concrete. The calculated deflection is based on the transformed I value for the beams assuming the full composite interaction between the two materials.

From this study, the maximum deflection for the beams occur, as expected, at mid-span. The maximum deflections measured at test and the corresponding loads for the beams are shown in Table 6.4. Assuming that the service load for the beams are 0.6 times the ultimate or failure load, the maximum deflections at service will be as shown in column (4) in the table. These values are below the prescribed limit of span/250 (BS 8110 1985) (column 5). It would appear that the serviceability requirements for deflection will be well within the prescribed limits for the plate reinforced construction.

156

Load Vs Midspan Deflection

(Beam 2S4)
Loads (01) 700 300 (156)

Load (kN)

600 600

/ /
1/

500

400 .1 400 300

200

Experiment 200 Calculated

Experiment Calculated ABAQUS

100 ABAQUS

10

12

( a)

Midspan Deflection (rnm)

(b)

10

12

Midspan Deflection (mm)

(1D6)

Load (k11) 1200

P.

100 0

800

600

/
4.00

, / /
Experiment -".- Calculated ABAQUS

2.00

/
/.

2
(C)

10

12

14 16

Midspan Deflection (mm)

Fig. 6.3a: Mid-span deflection

Load Vs Underload Deflection

157
(156)

(Beam 2S4)

Load ( kN) 700 300

Load (kN)

500

600

400 400 300

I

Experiment 200 Calculated ABAOUS

0

Experiment Calculated

.1
1 ./

K ABAOUS

/
4

10
( b)

a,

10

Underload Deflection (mm)

ljncier load Deflection (mm)

1200

Load ( kN)

1000

,/
800

600

4i4

/ /

400

"4--

Experiment Calculated ABAOUS

ZOO

0 (c)

10

12

Underload Deflection (mm)

Fig. 6.3b: Under load deflection

158 Beam Failure Load* (kN) Maximum Deflection (mm) Max. Def. at Service Load (0.6 x Fail. Load) (mm) 4.27 6.06 4.56 Span/250 (mm)

1S2 1S4 1S6

580 (348) 710 (426) 790 (474)

8.27 10.87 6.78

9.0 9.0 9.0

1D2 1D4 1D6

535 (321) 515 (309) 520 (312)

7.80 6.90 not available

4.25 3.20

9.0 9.0 9.0

2S2 2S4 2S6 2S8

590 (354) 605 (363) 885 (531) 938 (563)

8.76 9.89 10.01 10.12

4.60 4.76 5.72 6.28

9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0

2D2 2D4 2D6

665 (399) 875 (525) 1120 (672)

10.62 10.86 11.67

5.40 5.84 6.84

9.0 9.0 9.0

304 3D6

660 (396) 660 (396)

7.49 5.49

3.30 3.05

6.4 6.4

Table 6.4: Maximum deflection at failure and service load (* Figures in brackets represent load at service (i.e 0.6 times failure load))

6.4.2 Crack Width

The load versus calculated and measured maximum diagonal crack widths for the Beams 2S2, 2S8,

159 2D2 and 2D6 are plotted in Fig. 6.4. These beams are chosen to represent the typical results of all the beams. Calculated values were determined using the proposed equation in Section 4.6.2, in which the width of the crack is proportionally expressed as a function of the strain of steel plate in diagonal direction. Hence, the graph of the calculated value is a straight line.

In general, the test results show that the beam with thinner steel plate produces a wider crack than that of the beam with thicker steel plate (for the same applied load). Fig. 6.4 shows clearly that the development of crack width is non-linear for most part of the curve. Diagonal crack width also increases at a faster rate, towards the last stages of loading before failure. There is also more ductility with the single plate system than with the double plate. The maximum width of the crack near failure for the double plate system varies between 0.4 to 0.75 mm. For the single plate system the maximum crack width is about 1.5 mm. The calculated values overestimates the width of the crack and the linear prediction is an over simplification of the real behaviour. The prediction needs further refinement.

6.5 Concrete Cover to Steel Plate

The thickness of the concrete cover required to prevent the possibility of buckling of steel plate is given in Table 6.5. The value were determined by a simple concept of rigidity as described in Section 4.4.

160

Load Vs Max. Diagonal Crack Width

(Beam 2S2)

(233)
Load ( kN)

600 Load (kN) 1000

500 800 400 600 300 1 400 r/ 200 //

100

Measured Calculated

Measured 1 Calculated 0 0.5 1 1.5 ( b) Max. Diagonal Crack Width (mm)

0.5

1.5

(o)

Max. Diagonal Crack Width (mm)

(2D2)
Load (kN) 1000 Load (kN)

(2D6)

700

600 800 I 500 t 600 / / 300 /

100

/
/
400 -

Measured 4 Calculated

ZOO Measured 100 Calculated 200 /

0.2

0.4.

0.6

0.8

0.2

0.4.

0.6

0.8

C) Max. Diagonal Crack Width (mm)

( d) Max. Diagonal Crack Width (mm)

Fig. 6.4: Maximum diagonal crack width

161

Plate Thickness (mm) 2 4 6 8

Cover Required (mm) 5 9 13 18

Cover Provided (mm) Single Plated Beam 49 48 47 46 Double Plated Beam

15

111

late cover

::
_

15 15

late
COVET

Table 6.5: Cover to Steel Plate

The cover required to prevent the buckling of steel plate varies from 5 mm to 18 mm depending on the thickness of the plate. These values are apparently less than that provided in all single plated beams. Thus, it is expected that in single plated beams, peeling-off of concrete will not occur as was the case observed in the test.

In the case of double plated beam, the cover of 15 mm seems to be just over the minimum required for up to 6 mm plate. In the last stages of the Beams 1D2, 1D4 and 1D6 failure was accompanied by the concrete peeling-off. The condition was much improved in the Second Series double plated beams, 2D2, 2D4 and 2D6, by the improvement of detailing under the load and at the support. Therefore, it is clear that both factors, (i) adequate cover, over the minimum required and (ii) proper detailing are important to prevent the concrete separating from the sides of the plates.

The proposed method of determining the cover is difficult to verify from the current test alone. The observation of the Beams 1D2, 1D4 and 1D6 cannot be taken as evidence of the inaccuracy of the method. This is because other factors might also influence the behaviour; for example the small links in the cut-outs. As it is shown in Fig. 6.5, the edge of the links is very near to the outer face of the

162
concrete, i.e about 5 mm. A second factor might be the initial imperfection of the plate which may have reduced cover less than 15 mm. The presence of a bundle of wires which were used to connect the strain gauges might have also contributed in reducing the thickness of the cover. There is scope for further research in this area.

BS 5400 Part 5 (1979), however, has made recommendation with regard to the minimum cover required for the steel I beams in encased concrete beam. The suggested cover is 50 mm in all direction. This value was suggested in order to prevent the possibility of spalling and peeling-off of concrete and also for the protection of the steel against fire. It is believed that the requirement for fire protection was the most important consideration in recommending a minimum cover of 50 mm.

Research works on concrete encased I beams by Wong (1963), Procter (1967) and in Australia by Hawkins (1973) also showed that the cover of 2 inches (50 mm) was sufficient for preventing the beams from premature failure by spalling and peeling-off of concrete. In fact one of the beams tested by Hawkins (1973) had only 1 inch (25 mm) cover which also proved to be sufficient.

It is suggested that further tests to be carried out to establish the minimum cover required to prevent the separation of concrete from the plate.
100 154 6

steel

edge of the small link is very near to the outer face of concrete

plate

15
4- it 14-

15

15

Fig. 6.5: Concrete cover in double plated beams

163 6.6 Bond Stress and Cut-outs

The calculated bond stress between the plate and concrete at failure is tabulated in Table 6.6. The values range from 0.13 Nime to 0.57 NI/me.

In this investigation, no pull out test was carried out to quantify the ultimate bond stress between the plate and concrete. Due to the absence of test data, it would be unjustifiable to draw any rigid conclusion whether the bond was sufficient or not.

The British Code BS 5400 (1979), however, limits the bond stress in encased steel beam to 0.5 Nime. If this value is taken as a guide, it is clear that in some of the beams in this investigation, the bond stress has exceeded the permissible value. These were Beams 1S6, 2S6 and 2S8. The bond stress of other beams were lower than 0.5 NI/me. Since the bond can only be relied in the beams within its elastic range (Johnson 1975), thus the steel plates were provided with cut-outs. These cut-outs were designed to act as an effective shear connector in the beams.

The theoretical number of the cut-out required by the beam in order to effectively act as shear connector is determined by the suggested expression as given in Section 4.5.2. The calculated numbers are presented in Table 6.6. It is seen from this table that the number of cut-out required in all beams is three, except Beam 2D6 which requires four, and Beams 104, 1D6 and 3D6 need two cut-outs. The cut-outs are required in the shear panel area. In the region of zero shear force, only a minimum number is required.

In all the test beams, the number of cut-out provided in shear panel area was three. Therefore, it

164 is considered that the beams have acted compositely and no slip has occurred. The direct strain in steel plate and surface Demec strain of the concrete at the same location as shown by the results of the Beam 2S6 (Fig. 3.42) supports that there was little or no slip between the steel and concrete.

This results also indicate that the influence of sand blasting on the steel plate upon the bond in this case is insignificant when compared with the degreased plate. This is because the Second Series Beams which were only degreased, have shown that there was no or little slip between the steel and concrete (result of the Beam 2S6-Fig. 3.42). This result, however, is difficult to be justified from this investigation as the beams also have been provided with the cut-outs. Therefore, a separate test to study the effect of sand blasting on steel plate upon the bond is recommended.

6.7 Average Shear Stress

In Table 6.6, the average shear stress of the beam at failure load is tabulated. The value is calculated by the expression V/bd. The stress varies from 7.46 N/mm 2 for Beam 1D4 to a maximum value of 16.23 N/me for Beam 206. These values in general represent a high value of shear stress and in excess of the upper limit for ordinary reinforced concrete beam which is 5 N/me (or 0.84f which ever is lesser) as suggested by the code (BS 8110 1985). This indicate that the application of steel plate in reinforced concrete beam is perfectly feasible to resist high shear stress.

A closer examination of Table 6.6 suggests that Beams 2S6, 2S8, 2D4 and 2D6 have resisted very high average shear stresses, between 12.26 to 16.23 N/me. In all these beams, the failure mechanism was a well developed diagonal splitting mode. The final stages was characterised by the crushing of concrete at the notional hinges due to what can be described as excessive bearing

165

Beam

TEST (kN) Failure Load Shear Force, V

Hanzontal shear stress at failure vh (N/m m2) 1.40 1.56 1.57

Bond Stress, sb (N/mm2)

No. of cut-outs required

Average shear stress, v (N/mm2)

Bearing stress under load & above support (N/mm2)

1S2 1S4 1S6

580 710 790

290 355 395

0.43 0.49 0.50

3 3 3

7.96 9.74 10.94

29.0 35.5 39.5

1D2 1D4 1D6

535 515 520

267.5 257.5 260

1.16 0.93 0.80

0.18 0.15 0.13

3 2 2

7.60 7.46 7.54

26.8 25.8 26.0

2S2 2S4 2S6 2S8

590 605 885 938

295 302.5 442.5 469

1.44 1.34 1.80 1.78

0.45 0.42 0.57 0.57

3 3 3 3

8.09 8.30 12.26 13.00

29.5 30.3 44.3 46.9

2D2 2D4 2D6

665 875 1120

332.5 437.5 560

1.44 1.63 1.75

0.23 0.25 0.29

3 3 4

9.45 12.68 16.23

33.3 43.8 56.0

304 3D6

660 660

330 330

1.25 1.15

0.20 0.19

3 2

9.19 9.19

33.0 33.0

Table 6.6: Bond Stress, Number of Cut-outs, Average Shear Stress and Bearing Stress of The Beams

166

rather than due to flexure and shear. It is clearly evident that even higher shear stresses can be resisted if adequate precaution is taken against bearing failure. Some of the methods that can be suggested are (i) proper detailing at the loading patch; making it part of the design requirement for such beams (ii) partial transfer of the applied load indirectly; for example by using concrete bracket attached to the side of the beam (Fig. 6.6), and (iii) using very high strength concrete, say 80 Nime.

It is envisaged that the proposed improvement in the design of beam will make the use of steel plate in concrete beams a very attractive and economic proposition for general application.

C_

/
)7

/,/ / /
ol

concrete bracket

\ . I load path

// /
A/ 47

/ 1/ /

\
//

reinforceme tie

SECTION

Fig. 6.6: Applied load transferred indirectly

167 6.8 ABAQUS Program Results

The application of the finite element ABAQUS Program to the test beams, is demonstrated by carrying out the comparison of the test results with those from the analysis. The results discussed in Section 6.8.1 to 6.8.3 was obtained using Version 4.8 of the ABAQUS (1989).

6.8.1 Behaviour of The Beams, Failure Load and Mode of Failure

The response to load for all the beams started with the formation of flexural cracks at the region of maximum bending moment (element numbers 12, 13, and 14 - see Fig. 5.1). These cracks appeared at the load of about 15%-30% of the 'failure' load. With further increases of the load, the cracks extended up to about half of the height of the beam (up to element 57, 58 and 59). A diagonal crack also formed, starting from the support (elements 2, 3 and 4) extending towards the loading point (elements 84, 85 and 100). Diagonal crack usually formed at the load of about 25% of the 'failure' load.

The development of the cracking pattern of the Beam 2S2 as predicted by ABAQUS is shown in Fig. 6.7. This beam represents a typical behaviour for all beams. The ABAQUS Program that was used in the analysis is incapable of plotting cracking pattern, so the figures were produced manually based on tabular results from the output file. The cracking pattern at failure of this beam is shown in Fig. 6.8. In general, the analytical cracking pattern is in good agreement with those observed from the test (see Fig 3.29 for comparison).

Depending on individual characteristics of the beam, in some beams the plate yielded (Beams 1S2,

168 1 D2, 2S2, 2S4 and 2D2) and followed concrete crushing at the support (elements 2,3,4 and 5) at 'failure'. For these beams, the failure is regarded as the diagonal splitting mode of failure. In other beams, the plates did not yield, but the concrete was found crushed at the support at 'failure'. These beams are considered as failed in bearing. The strain results of the tensile bars were also examined and were found to be not fully strained at 'failure'. This interpretation of the behaviour justify that the correct modes of failure have been adopted. Further discussion on the mode of failure of the beams will be presented in Section 6.8.4.2

Failure for both cases were assumed when the computer run was terminated due to numerical instability (i.e failed to converge). The load at this level is considered as the failure load for the beam.

The ABAQUS's failure load and modes of failure of the beams are presented in Table 6.7. The modes of failure and failure load obtained from the test and by the method of analysis are also presented for comparison. As it is seen from the table, the failure loads and the modes of failure correlate well between the prediction and the test results. The ABAQUS failure loads, in general, give lower estimation than that obtained from the test (except for Beams 1 D4 and 1 D6). This result was expected; because in ABAQUS, once the beam has developed excessive cracking and the concrete has started to crush, the solution will create numerical instability with the result of the run being terminated. This level was considered as the ABAQUS's 'failure' load, whereas the actual capacity of the beam is higher than this. The results, however, are on the safe side.

It is considered that the above assumption of failure had in the analysis can be improved with refinement in mesh around local areas and also by redefining the control parameters. This, however, is a matter of available time and effort set aside for this part of the work.

169

Beam

TEST (kN)

ANALYSIS (kN)

13,/

P,

ABAQUS Finite Element (kN) 'Fail. Load Paha 'Mode of Failure'

Pabl/
PU

Fail. Load P, 1S2 1S4 1S6 580 710 790

Mode of Failure

Fail. Load
PU4

Mode of Failure

DS (Conc.) DS (Plate) Bearing 0.54 0.75 0.90 462 522 722 DS* Bearing** Bearing 0.80 0.73 0.91

DS DS DS-Bearing

316 530 714

102 1D4 106

535 515 520

Diagonal splitting and excessive longitudinal cracks, followed by peeling-off of cover & bearing under load

445 487 452

DS-Bearing Bearing Bearing

0.83 0.95 0.87

490 556 550

DS Bearing Bearing

0.92 1.08 1.06

2S2 2S4 2S6 2S8

590 605 885 938

DS DS DS-Bearing Bearing Under Load

302 426 892 903

DS (Conc.) DS (Plate) DS-Bearing Bearing

0.51 0.70 1.01 0.96

480 438 684 675

DS DS Bearing Bearing

0.81 0.72 0.77 0.72

2D2 204 206

665 875 1120

DS DS DS-Bearing

473 798 823

DS DS-Bearing Bearing

0.71 0.91 0.73

490 550 650

DS Bearing Bearing

0.74 0.63 0.58

3D4 306

660 660

Diagonal splitting and bearing followed by peeling-off of cover

592 638

Bearing Bearing

0.90 0.97

Table 6.7: Comparison of Experimental Ultimate Loads and Modes of Failure with Those Predicted by ABAQUS Program and The Proposed Method of Analysis Note: DS refers to Diagonal Splitting Mode of Failure

DS Mode of Failure according to ABAQUS is considered when the beams have developed a complete diagonal crack,
followed by yielding of steel plate and some crushing of concrete at the support/under the load. **Bearing Mode of Failure according to ABAQUS is considered when the beams have developed diagonal cracks and then followed by crushing of the concrete at the support/under the load; without yielding of steel plate.

170

(a)

at

165 kN

(b)

at

217 kN

rL

(c)

at

290 kN

n (d)

at

400 kN

Fig. 6.7: Crack pattern development in Beam 2S2 as predicted by ABAQUS

171

LOO .165
165

-165

155

Fig. 6.8: Crack pattern at failure of Beam 2S2 according to ABAQUS

500 1L0

t11400 00

( 240

140

460 i L 140 ;CO

Fig. 3.29: Experimental crack pattern at failure of Beam 2S2 (for comparison)

172 6.8.2 Deflection

The typical deformed shape of the beam is shown in Fig. 6.9. The predicted deflections from ABAQUS at mid-span and under the load of the chosen beams were presented earlier in Fig. 6.3. For comparison purposes, the corresponding measured values were also plotted in the same graph. As it is seen, the ABAQUS prediction gave a lower estimate of deflection between 10% to 35% compared with the measured values. This discrepancy could be due to many reasons. One of the reasons could be the fineness of the mesh may not have been adequate.

In using ABAQUS, the termination of the run in some cases occurred at a fairly early stage, but the results indicate that the deflected shape of the curves were progressing towards the plot of the measured values. It is envisaged that, had it been possible to achieve convergence for the actual failure load, the maximum deflection would compare much better.

6.8.3 Strains in Tensile Bars and Steel Plate

Load versus strain in tensile bars for Beams 2S2 and 2S4 as samples are plotted in Fig. 6.10. The comparisons are made between the strains obtained from the ABAQUS Program and the measured values both at the support and mid-span. The results compare much better in the case of 2S4 than 2S2. However, the shape of the curves are similar, indicating that the predicted behaviour is similar. Fig. 6.11 shows the load versus principal stresses (and also load versus direct strain) of the Beams 2S2 and 2S4 at selected positions as obtained by the ABAQUS and from the test (the positions of the rosette are given in Fig 3.26).

173

Co

a) _o
CD

a) .c
CO

-o

8
a) -o 0. t-

it;
Co

174

Loads Vs Tension Bar's Strain

(Beam 2S2)
Loads (kN)

600

500

400

500 Position: 200 Mid span (Test) Mid span (ABACUS) 100 At Support (Test) At Support (ABACUS)

500

1000

1500

2000

( a )

Strain (x10E-6)

Loads Vs Tension Bar's Strain

(Beam 254)

Loads (kN)
700

600

500

-1-,V
400

+
300

200

/ . ..".

Midspun (Test) MIdspan (ABACUS) --I At Support (ABACUS) 4 At Support (Test)

100

( b)

200 400 800 800

Ian

1200 1400 1600

Strain (X 10E-6)

Fig. 6.10: Tension bars strain

175

Loads Vs Principal Tensile Stress (2s2)

Loads ( kN 600

(2.S2)

.d

500

400
,

/ 77

/4- /

300

e/

ZOO Position: R5 (Test) 100

4 R5 (ABA0US)

50

100

150

200

250

300

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Principal Tensile Stress (N/mmZ)

(a )

Principal Tensile Stress

(N/mm2)

( b)

(232)
HO

Loads Vs Direct Strain (232)

Loads (kN)

500

400 I-

300

PtIc rt: 6 Si (Test) A

2.00 -

--I-- S2 (Test) is 53 (Test)

\ \

S1 (ABAQUS) 00 52 (ABAQUS) S3 (ABAQUS)

(c)

50 100 150 ZOO 250 300 350 Principal Tensile Stress (N/mm

a
1000 500 0 500 1000

Direct Strain (x10-6)

Fig. 6.11a: Strain in steel plate of Beam 2S2 (positions of rosettes are shown in Fig. 3.26)

176

Loads Vs Principal Compressive Stress

(Beam 2S4)

(Beam 2S4)
Load (k N) 600 0 70 500 600 500
\ \ \ /

Loads (

41-

400

400 300

300

41/ /51 4

200 II

ositicn:
m3 (Test)

Position: R4 (Test) -4- R4 (ABACUS)

100 _

-14- R3 (ABACUS)

-160-140-120-100-80 -60 -40 -20 0 (a) Principal Comp. Stress (N/mm2)

50

100

150 200

250

300

(b) Principal Tensile Stress (N/rnm2)

Loads Vs Direct Strain (2S4)

Loads (kN)

600

500

400

300 Position: 200

-41-n 5.1

\ (Test)'

SZ (Test) 100 Si (ABACUS) -4- S2 (ABACUS) 0 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 ( c)

200 400 600

Direct Strain (x1 0E-6)

Fig. 6.11 b: Strain in steel plate of Beam 2S4 (positions of rosettes are shown in Fig. 3.26)

177 From 6.11 it is observed that a very good agreement is found between the analytical results and the measured values. The graphs of steel plate's principal stresses show almost identical results. This reinforces that the ABAQUS is a good tool which can be used to study the overall behaviour of the beams.

A very good correlation was also obtained in the case of direct strain results in the steel plate between the analysis and the test. This also provides the evidence that the beams were acting compositely. The analysis was carried out based on the assumption that a full composite action occured between the steel and the concrete.

6.8.4 ABAQUS Program Results (Current Version)

This section will discuss some changes on the data and results obtained by using the ABAQUS Program Version 5.2 (1993). This version has superseded the old version 4.8 (1989) which had been used earlier in this research. While the research was underway, the new version of the software was introduced. The new version was mounted on a new machine, SunSparc, using DUX System. The old version was mounted on the PRIME machine.

Some of the results which had yet to be obtained were the plot of principal stresses of the concrete and the plate in the beams. These plots are believed to be useful in the verification the proposed concept of diagonal splitting.

In using the current version, the same data file which had been created in the old version is transferred to the DUX system and then the analysis is carried out. However, in running The

178

Program, some changes in input data were made to incorporate with the new version.

6.8.4.1 Changes

After it was found that the run (hence, represent the 'failure load') in using the current version was terminated earlier than that previously obtained for the same data file, the data was modified. This modification was made in order to incorporate with the new version in which the CONCRETE input data has to be defined accurately. Besides this modification, some changes on the idealisation of the beams which was believed to have affected the run in the new version were also made. The changes are including the following;

i) The node numbers 20, 22 and 126 and 128 (see Fig. 5.1b) were found not connected to the neighbouring nodes. Therefore, these nodes had to be connected to their adjacent nodes. The node 20 was connected to nodes 37 and 38, node 22 was connected to nodes 38 and 39, node 126 was connected to nodes 109 and 110, while node 128 was connected to nodes 110 and 111. The changes were affected by the introduction of identical triangular elements replacing the original elements 18,19,101 and 102 as shown in Fig. 6.12.

ii)The support condition at nodes 1,2, 3 and 4 were changed to represent a 'true' simply supported system by allowing a free movement in horizontal and vertical directions. This was made possible by defining the support only at node 3 which is in contrast to the previous case (old version), where nodes 1,2,3 and 4 were defined as a support. In previous case, these nodes were defined as supports in order to avoid high concentrated stress which in turn wouiciterminate the run earlier. This situation, however, was overcome in the current version by introducing an 'equal pressure' at these

179

Element number Noce num

(3E) (131) (12..0 110 111 95 eo 65 50 35 20 5 5) 96

81

( 139) Q4 9) ( 141) Q42 ) ( 1:)1) 112 97 82 47 52 27 22 7 (7) (e.-1 ) 113 98 83 68 53 38 23 a (2) 8050 114 99 84 69 54 23 24 g 115 100 85 70 55 0 25 10 `21'.---1?=1 c ' . Z 101 96 71 56 41 26 11 102 87 72 57 42 27 12 120 103 BB 73 58 43 28 13

Em

Q49) 121 10 4 89 74 59 1.4 29 14 12 2 105 90 75 GO :5 30 15 lj5)

'10 135

050)

i
123 10G 91 76 GI 46 31 16

(51) 124 107 92 77 62 47 32 17

,111)

! 108 109 94 111 ., 79

, Al --

11 li

5
fi)

64 49 34 19 2 314

66 51 36 21 6

,c, ., ,0 ' 43 2 18 73) ..., 1

6D13 -;-11) 2 6)

. C(D(10(5)
'CED2q

OM '. 11 ) ( 12) (13 )

00

(14)

(16) 5

175

1175 mm

Fig 5.1b: Idealization

of test beam in Version 4.8 (showing element and node numbers)

3-node plane stress elements

Fig. 6.12:

Idealization of test beam in Version 5.2

180 nodes. This pressure which is always equal to the applied load was distributed at the nodes (i.e 1,2,3 and 4), and hence the high concentrated stress was not allowed to build up locally.

iii) In the current version, the CONCRETE input data had to be defined accurately. In previous case, two points on the uniaxial stress-strain curve were found 'enough' to defined the non-linearity of the concrete (see Section 5.3.3.1.1), but in the current version more points were required (Fig. 6.13). Therefore, under the CONCRETE option, the input data was;

*CONCRETE 20.0,0.0 25.0,0.00012 30.0,0.00022 35.0,0.00044 40.0,0.00072 45.0,0.00102 45.5,0.00108 46.0,0.00112 46.5,0.00116 47.0,0.00124 47.6,0.00150

The example given is for Beam 2S2, which represents the typical data of other beams. In this data, the first figure represents the compressive stress of the concrete, while the second figure is the corresponding value of the plastic strain which is defined by the stress-strain curve. In defining this curve, the value of elastic modulus of the concrete, Ec has also to be adjusted accordingly. For example, the adjusted E c value in this case is 33000 Nimm2 while the measured value was 22300 Nime.

6.8.4.2 Results

The typical deformed shape of the beams from Version 5.2 analysis is shown in Fig. 6.14. This plot

181

stress i

cU

10 9

11

point 1

.
strain

Fig. 6.13: Uniaxial stress-strain curve of the concrete

Note: * In ABAQUS Version 4.8, the CONCRETE input data was defined by points 1 and 11 only. * In ABAQUS Version 5.2, points 1 to 11 were used to define the non-linearity of the concrete.

182 is for Beam 2S2 at the load increment 20 (i.e at 0.735 of the total applied load). It can be seen that the edge of the beam (at nodes 1 and 2) is free to move in horizontal and vertical directions. This is in contrast with the previous plot (Fig. 6.9) where this edge was 'fixed' in vertical direction. The values of the deflection obtained by the current version, however, do not differ significantly with those obtained earlier, hence they will not be presented.

In using the current version, the plot of principal tensile and compressive stresses of the concrete and plate were obtained. Figs. 6.15 and 6.16 show the principal compressive and tensile stresses in the concrete of Beam 2S2 respectively, while Figs 6.17 and 6.18 show the corresponding stresses in the plate. These figures are the typical examples of other beams. These plots were obtained at the load increment of 20 which represents 0.735 of the total applied load.

These plots are further evidence to the proposed concept of diagonal splitting mode of failure. According to the concept, the failure happens as the limiting tensile strength of the concrete in shear panel area is reached. It can be seen from Fig. 6.16, the value of principal tensile stress at this area is obviuosly higher than its limiting value of 2.27 Nime. In this figure, the principal tensile stress at the shear panel area is about 2.79 N/me and at two places, the value is reached up to 3.84 Nimm2 (shown by a green contour). This contour clearly shows that the splitting is in progress.

On the other hand, the plot of compressive principal stress in concrete (Fig. 6.15) indicates that at the shear panel area, the value is less than its compressive strength (i.e 47.6 Nimm 2), indicating that the failure is not by the compression at this area. The highest recorded value (at this load increment) is 38.75 Nime which occurs under loading point (node 145), indicating that some concrete crushing will happen in this area.

183
Figs. 6.17 and 6.18 show the behaviour of the plate. The plots show that the plate behaved as expected; the top part in compression, while the bottom in tension. The recorded maximum principal tensile value of 270 NI/mm 2 which is higher than its yield value of 227 NI/me indicates that the plate is yielding at failure.

The results from this study verify that the concept of diagonal splitting of concrete at failure is a valid assumption.

Emu ciefilliEfinfflifj
MTMRE REETIMENE WORININEIMEN BEARSEIVE ENNINIRS. WI IV II NM WIC 'maw OP?

ihmstarainiar

Ersturannir

185

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-

'1' '1' 7 7
11 17) iIJ --

x -st.

1:1) (r1

/11/

1-

JII

Er3

187

sT:IMTo&iiO .,...

011%-1-ftIGI

"c.7

as

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cr.
011-

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189 CHAPTER SEVEN CONSTRUCTION AND ECONOMICS OF THE BEAMS

7.1 Introduction

One of the objectives of this study is to evaluate the suitability of the beams from the economics and construction consideration. This aspect cannot be neglected especially in the era of high construction cost. This chapter will discuss on the subject by making a direct comparison between the beams in this investigation with the conventional stirrups' beams.

The construction problems and cost implications for this part of the research were studied in consultation with the Department's Construction Management Research Unit.

7.2 Economics of the Beams

The benefit derived from the usage of steel plate as shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams is believed to be the reduction of the amount of steel.

To assess this advantage, a comparative study is made between the beam in this project with the conventional stirrups' beams. Table 7.1 presents the amount of the steel required as shear reinforcement between these two type of beams. The beams were designed with similar dimensions, loading condition and subjected to the same magnitude of load with the same flexural reinforcements.

190

Beam

Design Shear Force (I(N)

Volume of web steel required (x 10-3 m3 Stirrups 1.666 1.915 2.412 2.661 Steel Plates 2.142 3.752 5.362 6.973

Percentage of loss of steel plates against stirrups

2S2 1S4 2S6 238

295 355 442.5 469

28.57 95.93 122.31 162.04

Table 7.1: Comparison of the volume of steel required for shear reinforcement (throughout the beams).

The table shows that the volume of web steel required in steel plated beams is more compared to that of conventional stirrups' beams. The result is expected for this particular loading arrangement. This is because the use of minimum shear reinforcement is not applicable due to the continuous nature of the plate in the beams. In conventional beam, the minimum links are provided in the region where shear stress, v is less than 0.5v. This condition contributes to the saving of steel. On the other hand, the provision of the plate in between the loading points in plate reinforcement approach is virtually redundant (Fig. 7.1).

This situation, however, might change if different loading arrangements are adopted. The examples are a cantilever beam with a point load at the end and a beam subjected to a single point load (Fig. 7.2). In both cases, the shear forces exist throughout the section, hence the use of steel plate seems economical. To support this judgement, the same comparison is made on the volume of web steel required at the shear span only.

191 Beam Volume of web steel required (x 10-3 m3) Stirrup Steel Plate 0.711 1.202 1.691 2.185 Percentage of saving of steel plate against stirrup

2S2 1S4 2S6 2S8

1.493 1.742 2.239 2.488

52.38 31.00 24.48 21.02

Table 7.2: Comparison of the volume of steel required for shear reinforcement (at the shear span only).

The comparison given in Table 7.2 clearly shows that the steel required in the plated beams are less compared to that of conventional stirrup beams. In this particular example, a saving as much as 52% is obtained in 2 mm plated beam (i.e Beam 2S2). This result is in total contrast with that in Table 7.1.

From this point of consideration, it can be deduced that the steel plate approach is economical when the beam is subjected to high shear stress that exist throughout the beam. There are other factors which also influence the economics of the beams. These factors will be discussed in conjunction with the practicality and construction of the beam in the next section.

7.3 Practicality and Construction of The Beam

From the practicality and construction consideration, the plate reinforcement could be effective in many aspects.

192

(a) Beam

at this section, plate provided is redundant

(b) Shear force diagram Fig. 7.1: Beam under two point loads

40;

(a) Beam

(b) Shear force diagram (shear force exists throughout the beam)

Fig. 7.2: Cantilever beam and beam under a point load

193 It can be anticipated that the steel plate approach could reduce the time and consequently the cost of preparing and fixing if compared to the conventional stirrups. This is because the plate could be obtained directly from the manufacturers to the required size and profile and brought to the construction site by a truck. Even though the cost of manufacturing and transporting the plate may be high, but it is deemed that the overall cost is still small when compared with the cost of preparing, fixing and tying numerous individual links.

The need of semi-skilled labour to fix the stirrups is eliminated as the plate can be simply assembled in the beams. In such situation, the time of fixing will be reduced, hence increasing the speed of construction. The ease in the construction and detailing will further contribute to the saving of cost. The shorter the time required in preparing the beam, the greater the saving to the overall cost of the project.

The use of steel plate as shear reinforcement in the beam will eliminate the possibility of error or omission. In many cases, the stirrups' placement is often not thoroughly inspected on construction sites. A brief check of stirrups' placement is insufficient to adequately inspect the many important placement details. The possibility of errors, such as improper bending and/or omissions of the stirrups are high in the conventional approach. The use of steel plate, on the other hand, provides the opportunity to increase the quality control on sites. Since the plate is prefabricated in plants, the chance of missing and/or improper bending some stirrups is virtually eliminated. In addition, the use of steel plate also eliminates the possibility of misplacement since only one layer of plate is used on a given section.

The plate reinforcement approach, may also have disadvantages. In handling the plate on site, a

194 crane is needed. This is for (i) unloading from a truck to a storage warehouse (ii) transporting of the plate onto the formwork and (iii) placement of the plate into the section (either by crane or could be done by hand). In conventional stirrup approach, the use of crane is unnecessary, unless the amount of the stirrups is very large.

Another problem that was encountered in steel plated beams in this investigation is due to the presence of small links in the cut-outs (refer to Figs.3.2 and 3.3). These links are comparatively strenuous to be prepared.

The above problems, however, could be overcome. In handling on site, a small mobile crane is seems able to place the plate in most situations. Different types of cranes are available depending on the accessibility of the site and the size of the project. The small links in the cut-outs also could be eliminated, for example by the provision of shear hooks incorporated as part of the plate itself.

As conclusion, before the plate reinforcement could be used on site, the factors which need to be considered are;

i) ii) iii) iv) v)

Manufacturing the plate in factory Transporting to the site Storage Handling and lifting of the plate at the site Placement and fixing onto the formwork

These factors vary depending on the individual situation of the site. The actual cost involving

195 material, labour and equipment have to be determined accordingly.

From the discussion, it seems that the new approach promises a bright future ahead. The attractiveness of the method is not only confined to the practicality in construction, but also provides a better solution to the problem of high shear stress.

196 CHAPTER EIGHT CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

8.1 Introduction

The objective of the research was to study the structural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams with steel plate as shear reinforcement. This system was designed to provide an efficient solution for the problem of high shear stresses. Tests were carried out on fifteen simply supported reinforced concrete beams with embedded steel plate as shear reinforcement. Steel plates with different thicknesses and configurations were used.

8.2 Conclusions

Based on the experimental results and the analysis, the following general conclusions can be drawn;

1. Reinforced concrete beams with steel plate have a potential application both for common and special structural members, especially when high shear stresses are concerned.

2. Under the adopted loading arrangement (i.e the shear span/depth ratio of 1.0), diagonal splitting and bearing are the predominant modes of failure of the beams.

The diagonal splitting mode of failure occurred when the inclined crack between the support and the loading point splits, as the limiting tensile strength of the concrete in the web is reached. Notional hinges form at the two ends of the crack, and consequently the crushing and/or spalling of the

197

concrete will take place at the hinges for completion of the failure. Tensile reinforcements was not fully stressed at failure. Bearing failure occurred under the loads (or above the supports) due to over stressing of concrete. When bearing failure occurs, the full strength of the beams may not be achieved.

3. A proper detailing at the loading patch and adequate concrete cover to steel plate are necessary in order to avoid premature failure of the beams.

4. A method of analysis for the prediction of the shear strength and mode of failure of the beams was proposed. The method adopts the concept of equilibrium of forces at the section when the splitting occurs. The method is capable of taking account the influencing parameters on the strength of the beams, such as the strength of material (%Co ftc, fyp, fy), the amount of bar and plate (A9t, tp), the geometry of the beam (d, b) and the position of loading (a, c).

5. The predicted failure load and modes of failure of the beams were in good agreement with the test results. The mean value and coefficient of variation of the ratios of the predicted/measured ultimate loads were 0.82 and 14.89% respectively.

6. Shear strength and inclined cracking strength of the beams were also calculated by the method based on the general concept as suggested by BS 8110 (1985). In general, a good correlation was obtained between the experimental ultimate and cracking loads, and the loads predicted by 'BS 8110 (1985) Method'.

7. Shear strength of the beam increased as the thickness of the plate increased. The average shear

198 stress up to 16.23 Nimm 2 was achieved using a double 6 mm plate.

8. The behaviour of the beams with two plates was similar to that of single plated. The ultimate strength of double plated beams was about the same as the beams with single plate of the double thickness.

9. Deflection of the beams calculated by elastic theory gave a reasonable agreement with the experimental results.

10. A method for determining the maximum diagonal crack width of the beams was also proposed. The diagonal crack width of the beams was proportional to the total elongation of the steel plate in the diagonal direction. The predicted values overestimated the width of the crack. In general, the beam with thinner steel plate produced a wider crack than the beam with thicker steel plate.

11. A simple method of estimating the required concrete cover to prevent the buckling of steel plate was put forward. The method was based on the concept of rigidity. The reliability of this method against the test results, at this moment, cannot be fully justified. From the test, however, the cover of 46 mm or more seemed adequate.

12. The provision of semi circular cut-outs at the top and bottom edges of the plate was effective as the shear connector in the beams. Test results and analysis suggest that there was little or no slip between the steel plate and concrete.

13. An estimate suggests that plate reinforcement for shear provides an economic solution in term

199 of the volume of steel when the beam is subjected to shear stress that exists throughout the span.

8.3 Recommendations for Further Research

1. Verification on the proposed method of analysis by additional test data. Hence, the beams with different geometry, loading conditions and concrete strength are of immediate importance to be experimented.

2. The use of high strength concrete, say 80 Nime or more in the test beams. In such a case, bearing failure could be delayed and the beam may achieve its full capacity.

3. The behaviour of the beams with steel plate provided only at the region of shear stress.

4. A separate push out test to determine the capacity of the cut-outs.

5. A detail and separate study on the concrete cover is required in order to prevent the plate from buckling and from the possibility of being peeled-off.

6. Development of a design method for such beams to be applied in construction. This involves recommendations with regard to serviceability limits, ultimate limit and proper detailing.

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APPENDIX

APPENDIX A

Determination of the web capacity: Example Beam 2S2

Data:

f = 47.6 N/me; ft, = f,j21 = 2.27 N/me a = 400 mm; b = 100 mm; ac = 350 mm d = 364.5 mm; dp = 309 mm; dx = 35 mm fy, = 547 N/me A5 = 101 me; Am = 982 me; fyt = 500 N/me tp = 2 mm; f 227 N/mre modular ratio, m = Ep/E, = 204/22.3 = 9.15

Find the depth of compression zone, dc (see Fig. 4.5)

Assuming that the mode of failure is diagonal splitting and the web strength is controlled by the concrete. Thus; Pm = ftcbdt + mftcAph = ftcb( d -d ,) + mft,(dp+dx-d)tp = 2.27x100(364.5-do) + 9.15x2.27(344-d)x2
(*)

(Eqn. 4.8a)

Then, for horizontal equilibrium of forces (see Fig. 4.5),

Pm + fyptpdpc = As cfy, + 0.67fcubdc + fyptp(dedx) [2.27x100(364.5-dc) + 9.15x2.27(344-Qx2] + [227x2(344-c1,1 = [0.67x47.6x100dj + [227x2(d,-35)] solve this equation by trial and error, then; d, = 47 mm

Subtitute cl, = 47 mm into (*), then; Pm = 84.41 kN

Check the control of web strength

(i) Concrete capacity, P, P, = kips + mf1c4(Aph2 + Ap,2) where

Aph =

(Eqn. 4.6)

(344-dc)x2 = (344-47)x2 = 594 mm2

Ap,, = at = 350x2 = 700 mm2 and s = 4(a,2 + d12) = 4(350 2 + 317.52) = 473 mm

subtituting the values into (Eqn. 4.6), then; P, = 126.43 kN

(ii) Steel plate capacity, Vso V = fpsq (Aph 2

+A2 pv)

= (227/43)x(4(5942

+ 7002)

= 120.32 kN Since Pm > V therefore, the web strength is controlled by the concrete. Hence, the initial assumption with regard to the web strength control was correct.

Check the mode of failure

ktfyt = 982x500 = 491 kN > P a (84.14 kN) Therefore, the bars are not fully stressed at failure. Hence, the mode of failure is the Diagonal Splitting.

Calculate the ultimate load, P u (Eqn. 4.3)

PL,

is (24 + dc) Pi t

131c ( Cif + d4+ a c2)1

P + (dc + dpc)_,

apv + a cP

(4.3)

where (it = d-d, = 364.5-47 = 317.5 mm Pph = Aph rnftc (see Table 4.3) = 592x9.1 5x2.27 = 12338 N and Ppv = Apvnific (see Table 4.3) = 700x9.15x2.27 = 14539 N subtitutes the values into (Eqn. 4.3), then Pu; P u = [(2x317.5) + 40(84410/400] + [(317.52 + 317.5x47 + 3502)x1 00x2.27/400] + [(47 + (344-47))123381400] + [350x14539/400] = 302 kN. Therefore, shear strength capacity of the beam is 302 kN.