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that it is willing to shoulder for an environmental cause. The vehicular fleet of the country is mostly compatible with 5% ethanol blended petrol. With the implementation of the blending programme from the current 5% to the higher levels of EBP (as envisaged in the National Policy for Biofuels, sufficient lead time would be needed for the automobile industry to make the suitable change to the engines.
Notes
1 No other central taxes and duties were proposed to be levied on biodiesel and bioethanol. Customs and excise duty concessions would be provided on plant and machinery for the production of biodiesel or bioethanol, as well as for all engines run on biofuels, if these are not manufactured indigenously. 2 Grade C molasses is the last category of molasses syrup remaining after repeatedly boiling sugar cane juice of which the maximum possible crystallisable sugar has been extracted. Grade B molasses has comparatively higher percentage of fermentable sugar left and Grade A the highest percentage of these categories.

3 Pohit et al (2009). The ISMA publications assume an average yield of 240 litres alcohol per tonne of molasses. 4 In comparison to grains, sugar, and lignocellulosic biomass, sweet sorghum has a very high per hectare yield in India (Planning Commission 2003). 5 About 48.83% of Indias total land area is arable, of which more than 85% is already under cultivation. Land not cultivated at present (including waste and fallow lands, permanent pastures, grazing lands and miscellaneous tree crops) is estimated at around 42 million hectares. Most of this is occupied by marginal and submarginal lands, and the extension of cultivation to this area will be costly, as it requires extensive works for soil and water conservation, irrigation and reclamation. Source: http://agropedia.iitk. ac.in/openaccess/sites/default/files/WS%20 9%20JPS.pdf; https://www.cia.gov/library/ publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2097. html and http://www.krishiworld.com/html/ land_utilisation2.html 6 It was also announced that any other authority fixing a price for the crop above the FRP would have to bear the difference. Thus, effectively the new system would discourage the states from announcing their SAPs as they have to bear its burden. The FRP is fixed after taking into consideration the margins for sugar cane farmers on account of risk and profit on the cost of production of sugar cane. 7 The price of petrol has been taken as the petrol price after payment of all excise, education cess,

state surcharge, etc, but before the payment of sales tax, dealers commission, etc. 8 The ethanol cost has been estimated based on the distillery gate prices, denaturing charges, duty structure and transportation costs till the storage point. 9 The price of ethanol blended petrol has been estimated by assuming a 5% ethanol blend. The price of blended petrol has then been calculated as a weighted average of the blend proportions and the relative prices of the two constituents. 10 The Prime Ministers Economic Advisory Council (PMEAC) has also suggested that the price of ethanol should be market determined (Business Standard, 17 August 2011).

References
Gonsalves, J B (2006): An Assessment of the Biofuels Industry in India, Working Paper No UNCTAD/ DITC/TED/2006/6, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Geneva. ISMA (2008-09): Indian Sugar Year Book, 2008-09, Indian Sugar Mills Association. Planning Commission (2003): Report of the Committee on Development of Biofuel, Government of India, April, http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/ genrep/cmtt_bio.pdf Pohit, S, P K Biswas, R Kumar and J Jha (2009): International Experience of Ethanol as Transport Fuel: Policy Implications for India, Energy Policy, 37, 4540-48.

Disaster Response Preparedness in India and China


Mihir R Bhatt

In India, disaster response preparedness still means rebuilding what has been destroyed. In China, disaster response is an opportunity not only to rebuild, but also to develop the affected areas and communities.

Mihir R Bhatt (mihir@aidmi.org) is currently reviewing disaster response preparedness of China, Myanmar, Fiji, Indonesia, and Solomon Islands.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW

hina is not only growing more rapidly than India, but also it is better in protecting the results of economic growth from natural disasters. Recent reports about Chinas disaster response preparedness and recovery indicate that New Delhi can carefully watch Beijing in this matter. India has taken a broad-based approach to reach out across the country through its administration. Mainly with the highpowered and central National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), India has achieved widespread but low levels of scattered results in terms of public awareness about impending floods, droughts, earthquakes, cyclones and more. Important activities, according to NDMA, include the preparation of guidelines, and improvements in risk assessment, early warning systems, capacity-building, and expanding communication networks.1 Despite these activities, there is still a widespread lack of
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public appreciation for disaster preparedness and there is a limited policy interest in disaster risk reduction (DRR).2 In Indias case, its broad focus may detract from establishing institutions at all levels which raise awareness of disaster and the ways to effectively respond to disasters. This is, of course, a crucial aspect of effective disaster management which builds on the knowledge base of local people and strong institutions. In contrast, China has taken the approach of concentrating on key areas shelter, infrastructure, industry and it achieved almost full results in terms of sector-wide awareness about disaster risks. It has done so primarily with its central administration, the Communist Party of China and Peoples Liberation Army as well as the small but well-targeted help of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), through a series of training activities aimed at local leaders, institutions and rural women in using the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA).3 The HFA 2005-15 emerged from the World Conference on Disaster Reduction in 2005 held in Kobe, Japan. Five key priorities for action were developed in HFA 2005-15, comprising: emphasise DRR at the national and local level; identify and monitor disaster risks and improve early warning systems; build a culture of safety

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and resilience; mitigate key risk factors; and improve disaster preparedness for better response. Under each priority area, a list of concrete practical activities was identified. Furthermore, the HFA document assesses the roles of states, regional and international organisations in relation to HFA priorities for action and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR).4 China has achieved impressive results vis--vis HFA priorities through local-level training and capacity-building and the UNISDR has done well to apply the HFA to help concentrate Chinas own initiatives. In line with sound disaster management practice, the main objective has been to implement the HFA at the local level through the promotion of sustainable practices, training, and capacity-building activities.5 One key but very small project commensurate with good local-level disaster management practice has been the safe schools and hospitals campaigns supported by UNISDR aiming to raise awareness and generate resources for ensuring safer buildings and safety equipment.6 This project throws light on the importance of building and protecting human capital, while at the same time, involving youth in disaster management programmes. In this area, China has produced results on the ground that match good DRR theory.

Indias Focus on Guidelines


On the other hand, India has constructed a patchy conceptual framework for DRR with even less application. For example, it has produced detailed and wide-ranging guidelines for management of earthquakes, floods and cyclones. However, specific guidelines for tsunamis, droughts, nuclear accidents and urban flooding have yet to be fully developed and circulated among relative states and ministries. A good next step for more effective disaster management would be to develop these guidelines and raise the level of information exchange and coordination across agencies. In this regard, China has exhibited strong coordination between government and the UN agencies to achieve positive outcomes. Conversely, the Government of India and its disaster authority have often been unable to build and strengthen preparedness from the national to the state and thence to the local level. According to Pragati (2010), While the NDMA has made

progress in establishing overall structure for disaster management, several gaps continue to exist in Indias disaster preparedness that require focus. One key gap is NDMAs oversight in articulating a list of natural and manmade disasters for which the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) would apply to. This lack of clarity has left funding options for relief and rehabilitation more ambiguous.7 Moreover, partially as a result of this gap, so far the guidelines have not been backed up with the resources to implement them; institutions lack resources and are often incapable in carrying out the necessary activities.8 Thus, building the capacity of institutions and increasing the flow of resources must become a critical priority of NDMA. It must also aim to raise public awareness through collaboration with non-governmental organisations (NGOs), local government bodies, and primarily through panchayati raj institutions. Today, India has entered multiple multilevel partnerships with the United Nations (UN), international NGOs, investment banks and the private sector to improve its knowledge and response muscle. The UNDP plays a critical role in coordination and sectoral interventions of national and state governments although the amounts involved are very small. It also works with educational institutions, the International Labour Organisation (ILO), various other UN agencies, bilateral agencies including, but not limited to, the United States Agency for International Development, the Australian Agency for International Development, Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, and Japan International Cooperation Agency.9 It has worked with Oxfam America to improve community-level preparedness through microfinance activities, village planning, hazard assessments, evacuation planning and task force formation and training.10 With the support from the government, the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has incorporated a short disaster management course in the school curriculum which includes activities targeted at both teachers and students.11 Moreover, India has performed well with certain elements of post-disaster reconstruction and recovery in particular geographic areas. For example, the Asian Disaster Reduction Centre highlighted good practices in the Gujarat Earthquake 2001 response
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such as creating a viable framework for cooperation among different stakeholders, sound needs assessment, capacity-building and implementation with a view towards sustainability and resiliency via strengthening local institutions.12 Nonetheless, these achievements are not widespread and are lacking in many disaster-prone areas.

Chinas Focus
China has focused on the key areas of investments, infrastructure and information and concentrated on achieving results on the ground. It has moved ahead with a few but key partners including the UNDP, the United Nations Environment Programme, the United Nations Childrens Fund, World Bank, the French government, investment banks, and the private sector with resources, technology and relevant information. It has strategically partnered with line research institutions space, engineering, meteorological institutions and regional agencies to formulate and implement policy at national and local levels. It has paid attention to capacity-building, and addressed the causes of risks and vulnerability. It has focused on improvement of partnerships for disaster management; integration of disaster risk reduction into development initiatives; and determination of needs to create efficient disaster information management system. Specific results have been achieved in creating a national disaster reduction action plan, improving capacity in flood disaster predictions, assessment supported institution building for a recently established China Flood Disaster Reduction Centre, and a community level project which contributes to risk assessment and preparedness for children.13 China has also achieved results in awareness-raising at the community-level and emergency response, via, strengthening local institutions.14

Conclusions
In India, disaster response preparedness still means rebuilding what has been lost or destroyed, while in China, a disaster response is clearly an opportunity not only to rebuild, but to develop (economically) areas and communities. Instead of rebuilding lost roads or old bridges, if communities needed basic education and more job security, China provides it first. The Communist Party had a clear say in making risk reduction focus
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on people. Moreover, a focus on livelihoods was possible with the ILO, promoting capacity-building and training as well as the ideas for generating income and assets.15 In response to the 2008 earthquake in Sichuan the ILO partnered with the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, the All-China Womens Federation and local authorities to implement response to regenerate employment and address social security issues. Along with the United Kingdoms Department for International Development, the ILO launched the Emergency Start and Improve Your Business (E-SIYB) project, which helped to re-establish over a 1,000 destroyed businesses and create 700 new businesses for those people who had lost jobs.16 Though this number is too small to have any impact on Chinas economy, the concept of central planning is not bad. In contrast, India has focused less on rebuilding livelihoods after a disaster although this may be changing to a degree.

For example, the Jamsetji Tata Centre for Disaster Management of the Tata Institute of Social Sciences is organising a five-day training programme in December 2010 for regenerating and enhancing livelihoods after disasters.17 These types of training programmes are a good first step in shifting the focus to resiliency or the ability to recover after a disaster. Yet, India would do well to increase its efforts and look more closely at Chinas good practice in emphasising livelihoods regeneration post-disaster. Not that India should go the China way: India is India and China is China. What is in Indias interest is to be a bit more reflective on what it sets out to achieve, and what it is achieving on the ground to protect its economic growth.
Notes
1 http://gov.in/ndma/impmsg/articles/Tamil_Merchants_Chamber_DM_Article1.pdf 2 http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/RAV/conf/IDRiM06/pres/krishna.pdf

3 http://www.undp.org/cpr/disred/documents/ publications/corporatereport/asia/china.pdf 4 http://www.unisdr.org/wcdr/intergover/officialdoc/L-docs/Hyogo-framework-for-action-english.pdf 5 http://www.unisdr.org/eng/partner-netw.localgovernment/12-14Nov2008-China/ITCILO-AgendaChengdu.pdf 6 http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID= 34321&Cr=quake&Cr1= 7 http://pragati.nationalinterest.in/2010/05/whereis-the-national-disaster-management-authority/ 8 http://pragati.nationalinterest.in/2010/05/whereis-the-national-disaster-management-authority/ 9 http://drr.upeace.org/english/documents//References//Topic 10 http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/RAV/conf/IDRiM06/pres/krishna.pdf 11 http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/ documents/APCITY/UNPAN025880.pdf 12 http://www.adrc.asia/publications/TDRM2005/ TDRM_Good_Practices/PDF/PDF-2005e/Chapter3_ 3.1.4-1.pdf 13 http://www.undp.org/cpr/disred/documents/publications/corporatereport/asia/china.pdf 14 http://www.undp.org/cpr/disred/documents/publications/corporatereport/asia/china.pdf 15 http://www.unisdr.org/eng/partner-netw.localgovernment/12-14Nov2008-China/ITCILO-AgendaChengdu.pdf 16 http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ 17 http://www.tiss.edu/events/attachments/RegenerationEnhancementLivelihoods2010.pdf

Enrolment and Dropout Rate in School Education


Satadru Sikdar, Anit N Mukherjee

The disaggregated analysis of the unit level data of the 64th round of the National Sample Survey Office (2007-08) reveals that universal enrolment, retention and completion in both elementary and secondary education can only be achieved by improving quality and mitigating financial constraints, especially for the lower classes.

he Government of India passed the Right to Education Act in 2010 which obliges the State to provide free and compulsory education to all children between the ages of six to 14 years. This is the culmination of various schemes of the union government over the last two decades to encourage children to get enrolled in schools and continue their studies in the secondary level. However, a large number of children are still unable to enrol and even if enrolled, unable to continue their education. In this article, our intention is to find the reasons behind the inability to enrol and for dropping out among the children of elementary school age (between five and 14 years) and secondary school age (between 15 and 18 years).

(2007-08) data observes that within the elementary school age, 12.8% of rural children and 7.3% of urban children are never enrolled in school; 5.3% of rural children and 3.9% of urban children have dropped out within this age group. This data also depicts that, among the children in the secondary school age, almost 90% have enrolled into school but 50% are unable to continue studying. The proportions of dropouts are 42.8% in the rural sector and 33.3% in the urban sector in the secondary school age.

Enrolment and Dropouts


First, we have tried to trace the reasons behind not enrolling and not completing elementary school education and later turned to the reasons behind high dropouts at the secondary school age. In the survey questionnaire, 20 types of reasons have been specified. We have grouped these 20 reasons into eight categories, viz, (1) household atmosphere (parents not interested, no tradition in the community and education not considered necessary), (2) access and infrastructure of school (inadequate number of teachers, school is far away, timing of educational institute is not suitable, unfriendly atmosphere in school, non-availability of lady teachers

Satadru Sikdar (satadru@nipfp.org.in) and Anit N Mukherjee (anit@nipfp.org.in) are with the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW

Current Scenario A close look at the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) 64th round survey on the participation and expenditure in education
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