Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008

1
Displacement,Velocityand
Acceleration
measurements


ME ME487 487 Measurement and Instrumentation
Displacement, velocity, and acceleration Displacement, velocity, and acceleration
The kinematic equations are used to represent the relationship between
displacement (s, ), velocity (v,), and acceleration (a,)
Linear motion Linear motion
Differentiate Integrate
Displacement s s = _ :Jt
t
t
u

m m
S
Velocity
Acceleration a
o =
J:
Jt

: =
Js
Jt
: = _ oJt
t
t
u

u
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
2
Displacement, velocity, and acceleration Displacement, velocity, and acceleration
The kinematic equations are used to represent the relationship between
displacement (s, ), velocity (v,), and acceleration (a,)
Angular motion Angular motion
Differentiate Integrate
Angular displacement

m
m

0 = _ mJt
t
t

Angular velocity
Angular acceleration

m =
J0
Jt

o =
Jm
Jt
_
t
u
m = _ oJt
t
t
u

Measurement of linear and angular Measurement of linear and angular
displacement, velocity, and acceleration displacement, velocity, and acceleration
When one of the three quantities is measured, the other may be
bt i d b i t ti diff ti ti th d d i l obtained by integrating or differentiating the recorded signal.
Signal integration Error-smoothing process
Note: Integrator circuits are relatively unaffected by high-frequency noise as integration
averages out noise.
Signal differentiation Error-amplifying process
Note: Differentiator circuits will amplify high-frequency noise in signals to the point of
masking the true signal.
In general, the signal integration is widely used. In general, the signal integration is widely used.
Acceleration Acceleration Velocity Displacement
Integrate Integrate
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
3
Seismictransducermodel Seismictransducermodel
Displacement, velocity, or acceleration measurements are referred to as
shock or vibration measurements vibration measurements depending on the waveform of the
forcing function that causes the acceleration
m
k c
x
m
x
h
x
r
Seismic pickup
transducer
forcing function that causes the acceleration.
Three basic elements
(1) Spring-damper system
(2) Protective housing
(3) Appropriate output transducer
Motion to be
measured
where x
h
= Displacement of the housing
x
m
= Displacement of the seismic mass m
x
\r
= Relative displacement = x
m
- x
i
(3) Appropriate output transducer
Equation Equation ofmotion ofmotion oftheseismicmass oftheseismicmass
( ) x x m x m x C x k & & & & & & & = = + ( )
r h m r r
x x m x m x C x k = = +
The solution for x
r
is
) (
2 2 2
2
) (
2 2 2
2
) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) (

+
=
+
=
t j h t j h
r
e
r r
x r
e
C m k
x m
x
where
) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( + + r r C m k
m k
n
/ = m k C = 4 / n
r / =
Natural frequency of
the seismic pickup
Frequency of the housing
Damping ratio
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
4
Frequency response of the seismic transducer Frequency response of the seismic transducer
o r
x x =
i h
x x =
- Seismic transducer should have
a natural frequency smaller than
the expected input frequency.
- Damping ratios near 0.7 are
common for such an instrument

common for such an instrument.

Seismic(absolute)displacementpickups
When 1 >> r
x
m
Seismic pickup
transducer
LVDT
1. Natural frequency of the pickup is smaller
than that of the object
2. Damping ratio is 0.6-0.7
Frequency response
x x
m
k c
x
h
x
r
Motion to be
measured
0
x x
i

Note: In this case, the spring constant is relatively small
0
x x
i

0
x x
i

Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
5
Seismic(absolute)velocitypickups
y Differentiatingthedisplacementsolutionwithrespectto
thetime,wewillobtainthevelocityfunctionas thetime,wewillobtainthevelocityfunctionas
) (
2 2 2
2
) (
2 2 2
2
) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (

+
=
+
=
t j h t j h
r
e
r r
x r
e
r r
x j r
x
&
&
1 >> r
r h
x x & &
x
m
Seismic pickup
transducer
Moving coil
velocity pickup
r h
+
0
x x
i
r h
x x & &
Typical sensitivity = 0.1 V/(in/s), displacement range = +/- 0.25 in and frequency range 8-700 Hz
m
k c
x
h
x
r
Motion to be
measured
y p p
Movingcoilvelocitypickups
y The output voltage, generated when a
conductorexperiencesadisplacement ina
ti fi ld i li l d d t
8
0
10 ) (

= v l B e
magnetic field, is linearly dependent on
thecoilvelocitybythefollowingequation
where e
0
=outputvoltage [Volt]
Typical sensitivity = 0.02 V/(cm/s) and Full scale displacement = 3.8 mm
B =magneticflux density [Volts/cm
2
]
l =coillength[cm]
v =relativevelocity [cm/s]
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
6
Seismic(absolute)accelerationpickups
y Considerthedisplacementsolution
( )
2
j ( )
) (
2 2 2 2
2
0
) 2 ( ) 1 (




+
=
t j
n
i
e
r r
x j
x
If 1 << r
Natural frequency of the pickup is much higher than that of the object.
r h
x
k
m
x & &
( )
) (
2
) (
2
2
t j
n
h t j
n
h
r
e
x
e
x j
x


& &
=
r h
k
0
x x
i
& &
Note: In this case, the spring constant is relatively large
Advantages of acceleration pickups
yHave a wide range of frequency responses
( ) (from 0 to
max
, as long as
max
<<
n
)
yCan obtain displacements and velocities by integration process.
yCan measure transient responses.
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
7
Source: http://www.mitutoyo.co.jp/eng/products/menu/QuickGuide_Vibration-Testing-Machines.pdf
ForceandTorque
measurements


ME ME487 487 Measurement and Instrumentation
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
8
Mechanicalforces
can be divided into
1) Static forces (when all forces acting on an object are
balanced)
2) Kinematic force (when the resultant force acting on an object
a=0
F F
are unbalanced, as a result the object moves with the
acceleration, a)
F
a
Methodsofforcemeasurement
An unknown force may be measured by the following means:
1) Balancing the unknown force against a standard mass 1) Balancing the unknown force against a standard mass
through a system of levers.
2) Measuring the acceleration of a known mass.
3) Distributing the force on a specific area to generate
pressure, and then measuring the pressure.
4) Converting the applied force into the deformation of an
elastic element.
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
9
Forcemeasurementbyloadcells
Load cell is a transducer that generates a voltage
signal as a result of an applied force Such force signal as a result of an applied force. Such force
transducers often consist of an elastic member and a
deflection sensor.
Strain-gauge load cells
1) Column-type load cells
2) Beam-type load cells
3) Ring-type load cells
Strain Straingaugeloadcells gaugeloadcells
consists of a structure that elastically deforms when subjected to a
f d t i t k th t d l t i l i l
Displacement
Input Output
force and a strain gage network that produces an electrical signal
proportional to this deformation.
Elastic Elastic
member member
Strain gauge
(Deflection sensor)
Displacement
Voltage Force
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
10
Strain Straingaugeloadcells gaugeloadcells
yElastic members are most often constructed of a metal, and have
a shape such that the range of forces to be measured results in a
measureable output voltage over the desired operating range.
L E
F
E
D = 2R
t
y
y
L
E A
F

=
L y
y
L
I E
F
3
3
=
Column Cantilever beam Ring
y
R
t w E
F
3
3
558 . 0

y
Column Columntypeloadcells typeloadcells
y The load F can be either tensile or compressive.
The four strain gages are bonded to the column
such that two are in the axial direction and two are
in the transverse direction.
Strain gage 1 and 3 measure axial strains
Four strain gages are identical
Strain gage 2 and 4 measure transverse strains
R R R R R = = = =
4 3 2 1
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
11
AxialstrainandTransversestrain
AE
F
a
=
AE
F
t
= Axial strain, Transverse strain,
y The response of the gages to the applied load F is given as
AE
F
S S
R
R
R
R
g a g
= =

3
3
1
1
F
S S
R R
= =

4 2
a
g
R R
S

/
=
Axial strains
Transverse strains
y The output voltage from the Wheatstone bridge is expressed as
AE
S S
R R
g t g
= = =
4 2
s
e
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
e

=
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
4
1
RelationshipbetweenF and e
0
yThe output voltage can be written in terms of the load F as
following; following;
or
s
g
e
AE
F S
e
2
) 1 (
0
+
=
0 0
) 1 (
2
e C e
e S
AE
F
s g
=
+
=

Calibration constant
The sensitivity of the load cell-Wheatstone bridge combination is
given as
AE
e S
S
s g
2
) 1 ( +
=
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
12
yare commonly employed for measuring low-level loads where the
l t l d ll i t tiff t b ff ti
Beam Beamtypeloadcells typeloadcells
column-type load cell is too stiff to be effective
2
6
Ebh
FL
a
=
2
6
Ebh
FL
a
=
Axial strain (tension),
Axial strain (compression),
L
F
h
E
Gage 1 and 3 on the top
yThe strains due to the load P are
Gage 2 and 4 on the bottom
b
2
4 3 2 1
6
Ebh
FL
= = = =
yThe output voltage from bride circuit is expressed by
Beam Beamtypeloadcells typeloadcells(cont.) (cont.)
For identical strain gages, the output voltage can be approximated as
Therefore,
s o
e R R e ) / ( =
e
o
= e
s
[ - ]
R
3
R
3
+R
4
R
2
R
1
+R
2
or o o
s g
e C e
L e S
Ebh
F = =
6
2
s
g
o
e
Ebh
FL S
e
2
6
=
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
13
y incorporate a proving ring as the elastic element. The ring
l t b d i d t id f l d b
Ring Ringtypeloadcells typeloadcells
element can be designed to cover a very wide range of loads by
varying the radius R, the thickness t, or the depth w of the ring.
D = 2R
t
s LVDT
e S y e =
0
FR S
3
y
R
t w E
F
3
3
558 . 0

y
s
LVDT
e
Ewt
FR S
e =
3
0
79 . 1
0 0
3
3
56 . 0 e C e
e R S
Ewt
F
s LVDT
=
Torqueloadcells Torqueloadcells
y are commonly used for torque or mechanical power measurements.
Strain-gauge-based torque cells are constructed in a manner similar to Strain-gauge-based torque cells are constructed in a manner similar to
load cells, in which a torsional strain in an elastic element (a circular shaft)
is sensed by strain gauges appropriately placed on the elastic element.
T
G1 G3
x
y
G2 G4
3
16
2 d
T
J
d T
xz

=
z
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
14
y For a circular shaft in pure torsion, there are no normal stresses.
Torqueloadcells Torqueloadcells
Principle stresses
1
(axial) and
2
(transverse) can be obtained from
Principle strains are given by
0 = = =
z y x

3 2 1
16
d
T
xz

= = =

( )

+
= =
E d
T
E

1 16 1
3 2 1 1
( )

+
= =
E d
T
E

1 16 1
3 1 2 2
Mohrs circle Mohrs circle
for pure torsion for pure torsion
1

y The response of the gages to the applied torque T is given as

RelationshipbetweenT and e
0

+
= =

E d
T
S S
R
R
R
R
g g

1 16
3 1
3
3
1
1

+
= =

E d
T
S S
R
R
R
R
g g

1 16
3 2
4
4
2
2
The applied torque can be written in terms of the output voltage as
following;
0 0
3
) 1 ( 16
e C e
e S
E d
T
s g
=
+
=

Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
15
HW#2
1) An acceleration pickup has a strain gauge bonded at the base as shown in
the following figure.
D = 35 mm
Metal
Density of metal = 7850 kg/m
3
2) A square column-type load cell are constructed of an aluminum (E = 68.9x10
9
Pa, = 0.33). Four identical strain gauges (S = 2, R = 350) are bonded
m
20 mm
10 mm
Straingage
Plastic
y g
Density of plastic = 1450 kg/m
3
Youngs modulus of plastic = 2.8 GPa
Frequency range = 0 0.2 fn
, ) g g (
g
,
g
)
to the column. The maximum load is 1000 kg and the ratio of e
o
to e
s
at
maximum load = 2 mV/V, determine
(a) the cross-sectional area of the column
(b) the sensitivity of the load cell if the maximum output voltage is 24 mV.
Viscosity,pH,Specific
gravity,CO2andO2
measurements easu e e ts


Measurement and Instrumentation Measurement and Instrumentation
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
16
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity
(viscosity) (viscosity)
(shear stress) (fluid friction)
= /(du/dy)
[Pa.s cP]
Kinematic viscosity
= /
[m
2
/s]
centipoise


= 1 cP = 1 m
2
/s
Measurement and Instrumentation Measurement and Instrumentation
Viscometer
U-tube viscometers

Falling sphere viscometers

A-B capillary

t


= 2/9 r
2
g (
s

f
) V
-1
V
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
17
// (pH) (pH) acidity alkalinity
pH meter probe



Sensing part
AgCl
probe electrode

AgCl
pH = - log
10
(
H+
)
= activity


Measurement and Instrumentation Measurement and Instrumentation
CO
2
andO
2
measurements


Measurement and Instrumentation Measurement and Instrumentation
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
18
CO CO
22
Respiration Respiration Combustion Combustion
Fuel + O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O + Heat Sugar + O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O + Heat
CO
2
Concentration (PPM)
Greenhouse gases: CO
2
, CH
4
, CFC, NO
x
, etc
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
19
Indoor air quality (IAQ) is a term referring to the air quality within
and around buildings and structures, especially as it relates to the
health and comfort of building occupants
Concentration of CO Concentration of CO
22
~ 40 000 ppm from human breathing ~ 40,000 ppm from human breathing
5,000 ppm limit of CO
2
level in workplaces
>1,000 ppm get drowsy or headache
1,000 ppm recommended CO
2
level in building
400 ppm Fresh air
NDIR CO
2
sensor
are spectroscopic sensors to detect CO
2
in a gaseous
environment by its characteristic absorption. The key
components are an infrared source, a light tube, an interference
(wavelength = 4.26 m ) filter, and an infrared detector. The gas (wavelength 4.26 m ) filter, and an infrared detector. The gas
is pumped or diffuses into the light tube, and the electronics
measures the absorption of the characteristic wavelength of light.
I
0
I
I = I
0
10
-
I = NDIR light intensity [Lux or Lumen/m
2
]
= absorbance
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
20
NDIR CO
2
sensor
Miniaturized NDIR sensors
Applications Applications
Room
CO
2
sensor
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
21
OO
22
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Combustion Combustion
A/F (lean mixture)
Fuel + O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O + O
2
+ Heat CO
2
+ H
2
O + light Glucose + O
2
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis
Fuel + O
2
CO + H
2
O ++ Heat
A/F (thick mixture)
Light
Zirconia O
2
sensor
(Lambda sensor)
The zirconium dioxide, or zirconia, lambda sensor is based on a solid-
state electrochemical fuel cell called the Nernst cell. Its two electrodes provide
an output voltage corresponding to the quantity of oxygen in the exhaust a output o tage co espo d g to t e qua t ty o o yge t e e aust
relative to that in the atmosphere.
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO
2
)
Zirconia + O
2
+ heat emf
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
22
Zirconia O
2
sensor
(Lambda sensor)
Nernst equation
= 8.31441 J/K-mol [V-coulomb/K-mol]
= 96500 coulombs/mol
Zirconia O
2
sensor (Lambda sensor)
Lambda, = AFR / AFR
stoich
< 1 rich mixture
= 1 stoichiometry
AFR = Air-Fuel ratio
= 1 stoichiometry
> 1 lean mixture
Chapter 2 ( ) 12/2/2008
23
Flue gas analyzer