void fraction expressions is also presented.

A survey of correlations for pressure drop and heat transfer developed based on these two phase models, experimental and CFD studies reported in the literature are presented in Chapter - III.

CHAPTER - III LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1

Condensation inside a Horizontal Tube

Heat transfer and pressure drop studies on condensation inside

a horizontal tube can be categorized into analytical/semi empirical studies and experimental studies. The information available in the literature on two phase flow and in-tube condensation is presented as follows. i) Analytical/ Semi empirical Models a) Pressure drop Correlations b) Heat Transfer Correlations ii) iii) Experimental Analysis CFD Analysis

34

3.2 Analytical/ Semi empirical Models

In many applications where condensation occurs the dominant flow regime is annular with gravity driven flow regimes occupying only 10 to 20% of the total quality range. Hence, most of the analytical models to determine pressure drop and heat transfer are based on annular flow regime.

3.2.1 Pressure drop Correlations Pressure drop prediction is important in the thermal design of condensers as the local condensing temperature is a function of local pressure. Thus pressure drop affects the mean temperature difference in the heat exchanger and hence its heat duty. Pressure drop during condensation inside a horizontal tube of constant cross sectional area, is sum of terms involving wall friction and momentum transfer (flow acceleration/ deceleration), given by Eq. (3.1). (3.1) During evaporation the momentum transfer term, contributes to the overall pressure drop due to the increase of vapor quality. However, for a condensing flow the kinetic energy of outgoing flow is smaller than that of incoming flow. Hence the momentum pressure head results in an increase in the pressure at the exit than at the inlet, i.e. a pressure recovery. For condensing flows, it is common to ignore the momentum recovery as only some of it may 35

actually be realized in the flow and ignoring it provides some conservatism in the design. pressure gradient, Hence, the correlations of frictional

developed using the two-phase frictional

multiplier approach are presented as follows.

3.2.1.a Frictional Pressure Drop The two phase multipliers pioneered by Lockhart and Martinelli [1947] for adiabatic air-water mixtures are introduced in Chapter II. Their correlations were later modified for diabatic flows by Martnelli and Nelson [1948]. These multipliers are functions of Martinelli parameter, which is dimensionless combination of the physical is being used in several convective

properties. Subsequently,

condensation and boiling correlations as one of the governing parameters. The generality of Lockhart and Martinelli multipliers is thus well acclaimed in two phase studies. Later many correlations were developed using two phase multiplier approach. In general, the frictional pressure gradient, is represented as, (3.2) in terms of two phase multiplier

where

is calculated for liquid only flow as,

36

(3.3) The two phase multiplier, presented in Table 3.1. given by different correlations is

Table 3.1

Frictional Pressure Drop Correlations

37

Description Grnnerud Correlation [1979]

Correlation (3.4) (3.5) If , or if , where (3.6)

Chisholm Correlation [1973] Flow Regime: Adiabatic twophase flowannular Range: >1000 & G > 100 kg/m2s

(3.7) where

=0.25 and is

For , Chisholms parameter calculated as: for for for For , is: for for For , is:

(3.8)

Friedel Correlation [1979] Flow Regime: Adiabatic twophase flowannular Range: <1000 MllerSteinhagen and Heck Correlation[1986 ]

(3.9) where

and (3.10) (3.11) (3.12)

The liquid Weber,

is defined as, (3.13)

Where the factor

is,

(3.14)

and are the frictional pressure gradients for all the flow liquid flow, and for all vapor flow, .

38

Grnnerud correlation [1979] is developed for refrigerants. Chisholm method [1973] is recommended for fluids with property index, . Friedel [1979] developed a correlation

for two phase multiplier for vertical upward and horizontal flow in round tubes and is recommended for fluids with
.

Mller-

Steinhagen and Heck [1986] proposed an empirical interpolation between all liquid and all vapor flow. All these correlations though developed for two phase flows at atmospheric pressure and for evaporating flows, were used extensively for pressure drop predictions and analytical modeling of condensing flows also. 3.2.2 Heat Transfer Correlations The heat transfer correlations available in the literature can be classified into gravity driven and annular flow correlations based on the dominant flow regime. The correlations of gravity driven condensation are presented in Table 3.2. 3.2.2.a Gravity Driven Condensation At low vapor velocities, gravitational forces that tend to pull condensate down the tube wall are much stronger than vapor shear forces that tend to pull the condensate in the direction of the flow as shown in Fig. 3.1. In this case, the Nusselt [1916] theory for laminar condensation is generally valid over the top, thin film region of the tube. The gravity-driven flow regimes include stratified, wavy, and slug flow regions. These regimes are often lumped together as the

39

dominant heat transfer mechanism in each of the regimes is conduction across the film at the top of the tube.

Fig 3.1

Gravity Driven Condensation in Stratified Flow Regime [1998]

Chato [1962] developed a similarity solution to the upper portion of the tube considering the vapor as stagnant and the condensate flows under hydraulic gradient as shown in Fig 3.1. It was modeled after Chens [1961] analysis of falling film condensation outside a horizontal cylinder and obtained Nusselt type correlation. Jaster and Kosky [1976] proposed a correlation similar to Chatos for stratified flow condensation. To account for the variation of liquid pool depth in a manner consistent with pressure driven flow, where the condensate at the tube outlet fills the tube cross section as shown in Fig 3.2, they replaced the constant in Eq. (3.15) given in Table 3.2, with a function of void fraction, , given by Eq. (3.16).

Fig.3.2

Stratified Flow Regime under Pressure Gradient [1962]

40

Chato and Jaster and Kosky correlations, both neglected heat transfer in the liquid pool at the bottom of the tube. However, it is observed that for high mass flux and low quality situations, convective heat transfer prevails at the bottom of the tube.
Table 3.2 Gravity Driven Condensation Correlations

Description Chato Correlation [1962] Jaster and Kosky Correlation [1976]

Correlation (3.15)

(3.16)

- Zivi Void fraction model (3.17) Rosson and Meyers Correlation[1965] (3.18) and (3.19)

(3.20) (3.21) if

if

(3.22)

Rosson and Meyers [1965] collected experimental data for stratified, wavy and slug flows and suggested that film condensation occurs at the top of the tube with superimposed effects of vapor shear, 41

thus modifying the constant in Nusselt solution with a empirically determined function of vapor Reynolds number, given by Eq. (3.19) in Table 3.2. In the bottom of the tube, they postulated forced convective heat transfer using heat and momentum transfer analogy, given by Eq. (3.20). They defined a parameter, that represents the fraction of

tube perimeter over which film condensation occurs. 3.2.2.b Annular Flow Correlations Generally, annular flow correlations are classified into three categories, viz. two-phase multiplier based, shear-based and boundary layer based as given by Dobson et al. [1998]. Two Phase Multiplier Correlations Two-phase multiplier-based correlations were pioneered for predicting convective evaporation data by Dengler and Addoms [1956] and were adapted for condensation by Shah [1979]. The hypothesis is that the heat transfer process in annular two-phase flow is similar to that in single-phase flow of the liquid, through which all of the heat is transferred and thus their ratio may be characterized by a two-phase multiplier, using the same rationale as the Lockhart-Martinelli twophase multiplier, developed for the prediction of two-phase frictional pressure drop. The single-phase heat transfer coefficients are typically predicted by the Dittus - Boelter correlation [1930]. The correlations of heat transfer using two-phase multiplier approach are presented in Table 3.3. The most widely cited correlation of two phase multiplier type is that of Shah [1979] correlation. It is developed based on the similarity 42

between the mechanisms of condensation and evaporation in the absence of nucleate boiling. Cavallini and Zecchin [1974] used the results of a theoretical annular flow analysis to deduce the dimensionless groups and later performed regression analysis to develop the correlation. Dobson [1994] developed a correlation for annular based on their experimental data, considering the data with Froude number given by Soliman et al. [1983]). Sarma et al. [2002] solved forced convective condensation of vapors treating it as homogeneous model. In the estimation of two phase multiplier, , they employed several models that satisfy the (Modified

relevant boundary conditions.

Table 3.3 Two Phase Multiplier Correlations for Heat Transfer Coefficient

Description Shah Correlation [1979] Cavallini and Zecchin Correlation [1974] Dobson Correlation[1994] Sarma et al. Correlation [2002]

Correlation (3.23)

(3.24)

(3.25)

(3.26)

Shear Based Correlations Carpenter and Colburn [1951] pioneered the development of shear-based correlations for annular flow condensation. These

43

correlations presented in Table 3.4 assume that the dominant thermal resistance to heat transfer occurs in the laminar sub-layer of the liquid film and that the vapor core causes the film to become turbulent at much lower Reynolds numbers than for single-phase flow. Soliman et al. [1968] proposed an equation utilizing the frame work of Carpenter and Colburn to predict local condensation heat transfer coefficient. The index 0.65 to liquid Prandtl number was

chosen to satisfy the correlation for wide range of organic liquids. Chen et al. [1987] developed a generalized correlation for vertical flow using the pressure drop model of Dukler [1960] and neglecting acceleration head. They stated that the correlation was also appropriate for horizontal flows, though they made no comparison with horizontal flow data.
Table 3.4 Shear-Based Correlations for Heat Transfer Coefficient

Description Soliman et al. Correlation [1968] Chen et al. Correlation [1987]

Correlation (3.27)

(3.28)

Boundary Layer Based Correlations Boundary layer-based correlations are similar to shear-based correlations, except that the thermal resistance throughout the entire liquid film thickness is considered, instead of only in the laminar sub-

44

layer. These correlations, presented in Table 3.5 are all similar in approach that they apply the momentum and heat transfer analogy to an annular flow model using the Von Karman [1939] universal velocity distribution to describe the liquid film. Kosky and Staub [1971] applied this analogy, assuming uniform thickness of annular film to develop an expression for heat transfer coefficient in terms of non dimensional temperature and non dimensional film thickness, . The Traviss et al. [1973] correlation is

another most widely quoted correlation in this class. Traviss et al. [1973] stated that their expression agree well with experimental data for low vapor qualities or high values of Martinelli parameter, , but

significantly under-predicted the data at high qualities or low values of . The above mentioned correlations of heat transfer coefficient are generally applicable to pure refrigerants. In case of refrigerant mixtures, mass transfer correction should be incorporated given by, Silver [1947] and Bell-Ghaly method [1973]. Accordingly, the effective heat transfer coefficient, of mixture refrigerants is,

(3.29)

where, condensation heat transfer coefficient,

can be obtained from

any of the two phase heat transfer correlations for pure fluids and vapor heat transfer coefficient, is obtained using Dittus-Boelter

45

equation. The parameter,

is the ratio of the sensible cooling of the

vapor to the total cooling rate given by Eq. (3.30). (3.30)

Table 3.5

Boundary Layer-Based Correlations for Heat Transfer Coefficient

Description Kosky and Staub Correlation [1971]

Correlation (3.31) Where , and frictional pressure drop is

obtained using Wallis [1969] separate cylinders model. for for for for for (3.33) Traviss et al. Correlation [1973] (3.34) for (3.32)

for for 3.2.2.c Flow Regime Based Correlations Flow regime based correlations are the improvement over analytical correlations and recent flow regime based correlations were (3.35)

46

developed by Thome et al. [2003a, 2003b] and Cavallini et al. [2002]. The detailed description of Cavallini et al. correlation is presented as follows. Cavallini et al. [2002] correlation is developed for all flow regimes using a large data base of halogenated refrigerants. Their predictive procedure is given in Table 3.6. They reported that their computational method can be used for condensation of halogenated refrigerants inside tubes of diameter greater than 3 mm, at reduced pressure, <0.75 and density ratio, >4. The flow regime and Martinelli

parameters are dimensionless vapor velocity, parameter,

. The model is based on the flow regime map developed

by Cavallini et al. [2002] as shown in Fig 3.3. For annular flow regime, when Kosky and Staub model is used. When as shown in Fig 3.3, and , the flow

enters annular-stratified flow transition and stratified flow region. The heat transfer coefficient, is calculated from a linear interpolation

between the heat transfer coefficient at the boundary of the annular flow region and that for fully stratified flow, In stratified flow, at very low .

, heat is transferred in the upper

part of the tube through a thin gravity driven film and, in the lower part of the tube, through a thick liquid film. Accordingly, the heat transfer coefficient is expressed as the sum of film condensation

47

on the upper part of tube and convective term that refers to the lower part of the tube.

Fig 3.3

Cavallini et al. [2002] Flow Regime Map

Table 3.6

Cavallini et al. [2002] Flow Regime Based Correlation

Cavallini et al. [2002] Correlation For annular flow with : (3.36) for for for for and ; ; and for & & for (3.37) (3.38) (3.39)

48

and For annular-stratified flow when

for and :

(3.40)

(3.41) Where at a given is obtained from annular flow equations, Eqs. (3.36)-(3.40) and . (3.42) (3.43)

; and For stratified and slug flow when Where

(3.44) (3.45) and : (3.46) (3.47)

is calculated from Eqs. (3.41) (3.45).

3.3 Experimental work

Two types of experimental methods are generally used in analyzing heat transfer coefficients Local heat transfer method, where heat transfer information is obtained with associated small changes in vapor quality and is reported for the average vapor quality. Thus the heat transfer coefficients obtained are quasi local values for the average vapor quality of test section. The method presents an insight into the condensation process by relating heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop with the prevailing flow regime.

49

Average heat transfer method, where observations are made over a broad range of vapor quality change, viz. from vapor (x = 1.0) to nearly liquid (x = 0.0). The second method is widely used as it requires less time for

setting up of experiment and is more cost-effective, but provides limited insight into mechanisms of the flow condensation process. The first method is more desirable, although the resulting test matrix would be time consuming due to the large number of test combinations that need to be covered. A detailed review of recent quasi local condensation studies of refrigerants is presented as follows and a summary is presented in Table 3.7.

Dobson and Chato [1994] conducted an experimental study of heat transfer and flow regimes for refrigerants, R12, R22, R134a and near-azeotropic blends of R32 and R125 inside horizontal tubes of diameter ranging from 3.14 mm to 7.04 mm for a mass flux ranging from 25 to 800 kg/m2s. Their technical paper [1998] gives a very good insight of in-tube condensation and a comprehensive classification of flow regimes. They proposed new correlations for annular and wavy flow regimes, based on two broad flow regime categories of gravity dominated and shear dominated. They reported that their correlations predicted the experimental data with a mean deviation of 4.4 - 13.7 %. They stated that the correlations apply reasonably well for larger diameter tubes, higher mass fluxes and can also accommodate

50

refrigerant mixtures. Later, Sweeny and Chato [1996] extended the Dobson correlations to zeotropic refrigerant blends, by using a Sweeny multiplier based on the experimental data of zeotrope, R407C. Dobson et al. also performed extensive review of existing flow regime maps. Accordingly, they stated that Taitel-Dukler [1976] map and Soliman [1983] flow regime predictors matched their experimental observations very well.

Experiments on flow condensation of pure R32, R134a and their mixtures was performed by Shao and Granryd [1998] for a range of mass flux, 130 400 kg/m2s inside a tube of diameter, 6mm and length, 10 m divided into subsections to study the behavior of NARMs (Non-Azeotropic Refrigerant Mixtures or Zeotropes) on heat transfer performance. They observed that the potential causes of heat transfer degradation associated with NARMs are due to the combined effects of non-ideal properties of NARMs, temperature glide and concentration difference between liquid and vapor phases during phase change. Granryd [1991] proposed a theoretical approach to evaluate two phase heat transfer coefficient of refrigerant mixtures for evaporation and condensation using the similar assumptions implemented by Silver [1947] and Bell-Ghaly [1973] method.

Boissieux et al. [2000] conducted experiments using zeotropic refrigerants, Isceon 59, R407C and R 404A inside horizontal tube of

51

3/8 diameter and 4 m length for range of mass flux, 150 400 kg/m2s and compared their experimental results with Shah [1979], and Dobson et al. [1998] correlations. In general, they observed the Shah correlation to satisfactorily predict their experimental data with a overall standard deviation of 9.1%. They reported that although Dobson et al. correlation with Sweeny multiplier was initially based on R407C data, it also predicted the experimental data of Isceon 59 and R 404A well with a tendency to over predict below vapor quality of 0.5.

Li et al [2000] performed experiments for R12 and R134a inside a horizontal tube of diameter, 11 mm and length, 1300 mm for a mass flux ranging from 200 to 510 kg/m2s. They also presented a numerical model for predicting the local heat transfer coefficient using Von Karman law of universal velocity distribution for the annular liquid film in a circular tube and Lockhart-Martinelli method for determining two phase flow pressure drop. They reported a good agreement between the predicted and measured heat transfer coefficients in the range of vapor quality, 0.4 to 1.0. They observed that the predicted heat transfer coefficient was not very sensitive to the vapor quality distribution along the flow direction and a uniform vapor quality gradient can be considered as a good approximation. They reported that the largest deviations of their numerical model with the experimental data were within 31% and 35% for R12 and R134a respectively.

52

Cavallini

et

al.

[2001]

had

conducted

experimental

investigations of HFCs, R134a, R125, R32, R410A and R236ea inside a horizontal tube of diameter, 8mm and length, 1m for a mass flux ranging from 100 to 750 kg/m2s. They observed that for low mass flux, condensation heat transfer coefficients increase with the decrease of difference between saturation temperature and wall temperature and at high mass flux, there is no dependence of heat transfer coefficient on temperature difference with forced convection as the sole driving heat transfer mechanism due to fully developed annular flow. They also measured pressure drop data for HFCs and observed that low pressure fluids show higher pressure drop. They plotted their experimental data at different saturation temperatures on Breber et al. [1980] and Tandon et al. [1982] flow regime maps and observed that while saturation temperature strongly affects the heat transfer coefficient, it does not show similar effect on flow pattern. They reported that their experimental data is well predicted by Kosky and Staub [1971] and Jaster and Kosky [1976] models valid for annular and stratified flow regime respectively. They suggested the use of Friedel model [1979] of frictional pressure drop in conjunction with Kosky and Staub model for prediction of heat transfer coefficient. When the flow is not fully annular, Cavallini et al. suggested to apply both Kosky and Staub [1971] and Jaster and Kosky [1976] models and higher of the two to be taken as predicted heat transfer coefficient. 53

Smit et al. [2002a] performed experimental studies using HCFC zeotropic mixtures of R22 and R142b inside a horizontal tube of 3/8 diameter divided into eight subsections, each of length, 1.603 m for mass flux ranging 40 to 350 kg/m2s at a condensing temperature of 600C. They observed that at low mass flux with predominantly wavy flow regime, the average heat transfer coefficient is decreased by 33% from pure R22 to 50% of R22 in a mixture of R22 and R142b while at high mass flux where the flow regime is annular, the heat transfer coefficients were not strongly influenced by refrigerant mass fraction, with only 7% decrease of average heat transfer coefficient. Smit et al. [2002b] in another paper compared their experimental results with Shah [1979], Cavallini and Zecchin [1974] and Dobson et al. [1998] correlations and for mixtures, they applied Silver-Bell-Ghaly method for mass correction. They concluded that for predominantly annular flow regime, Shah correlation predicts the heat transfer coefficients very well. They observed that in general, Dobson et al. [1998] correlations for annular and stratified wavy regimes predicted the heat transfer coefficients well with a maximum deviation of 8%.

Flow condensation heat transfer coefficients of R12, R22, R32, R123, R125, R134a and R142b were experimentally measured by Dongsoo Jung et al. [2003] inside horizontal tubes of 3/8 diameter and 1m length for mass fluxes, 100, 200 and 300 kg/m2s. At the

54

same mass flux, they found that the heat transfer coefficients of R32 and R142b were higher than R22 by 8 to 34%, while heat transfer coefficients of R134a and R123 were similar to that of R22. They compared their experimental data with correlations of Traviss et al. [1973], Cavallini and Zecchin [1974], Shah [1979] and, Dobson et al. [1998] that showed average deviations of less than 8%, while the correlations by Akers and Rosson [1960], Soliman et al [1968] and Tandon et al [1985] showed larger deviations with average deviations more than 15%. They modified Dobson et al. correlation to fit their experimental data by incorporating a non dimensional parameter, Boiling number, which is the ratio of heat flux to the mass flux

with latent heat of condensation.

Later Dongsoo Jung et al. [2004] also conducted experiments with R22, R134a, R407C and R410A and observed that the heat transfer coefficients of R134a and R410A were similar to those of R22 while heat transfer coefficient of R407C were 11-15% lower than those of R22, due to strong mass transfer resistance. They explained the comparative performance of condensing refrigerants using liquid property combination, flows. given by Jung et al. [1989] for evaporating

Aprea et al. [2003] obtained quasi local heat transfer coefficients of R22 and R407C for gravity driven flow regime inside a tube of

55

diameter, 20mm and length, 6.6 m divided into 12 subsections for mass flux ranging from 45 120 kg/m2s. They reported that the heat transfer coefficient of R22 is always greater than R407C with percentage difference decreasing with increasing mass flux. They compared their experimental data with correlations of gravity driven condensation, using Silver-Bell-Ghaly correction factor for mixtures and reported that Dobson et al. correlation is best fitting for their experimental data.

Infante Farreira et al. [2003] obtained condensation heat transfer coefficients of R404A inside a horizontal tube of 3/8 diameter and 1m length for a mass flux ranging 200 600 kg/m2s. They compared their experimental data with Dobson et al. [1998] and Shah [1979] correlations and observed that Dobson correlation under predicted the wavy flow region by about 20%. Shah correlation predicted the experimental data well with an average error of 3%. They compared their findings with that of Boissieux et al. [2000] for R404A.

Thome et al. [2003a, 2003b] adapted Kattan-Thome-Favrat flow regime map [1998] for evaporation and developed a new flow pattern map for condensation inside horizontal tubes. Based on their flow regime map, they developed a new heat transfer model including the effects of flow regime and interfacial roughness that predicts the heat transfer coefficient for all flow regimes of stratified, stratified wavy,

56

intermediate, annular and mist flows. They compared their model with experimental data of 15 different fluids for mass flux range of 24 to 1022 kg/m2s, reduced pressure ranging 0.02 to 0.8 and internal diameters range of 3.1 to 21.4 mm. They noted that their model predicts 85% of the data excluding hydrocarbons within 20% and predicts 75% of the entire data including hydrocarbons within 20%.

Jiang et al. [2006] presented experimental results of R404A and R410A inside horizontal tube of diameters, 6.2 mm and 9.4 mm at high reduced pressures ( is 0.8-0.9) for a mass flux range of 200

800 kg/m2s using thermal amplification technique to measure heat duty accurately. The experimental data primarily fell into annular and stratified-wavy flow regime and they observed that none of the available correlations in literature were able to satisfactorily predict the heat transfer coefficients of blends used at such high pressures. They reported that the wavy flow model of Dobson et al. [1998] under predicted the data while their annular model over predicted the data. They observed that the correlations of Cavallini et al. [2002] and Thome et al. [2003b] resulted into better predictions comparatively.

Condensation heat transfer coefficients of hydrocarbons, R1270, R-290, R-600a and R22 were experimentally measured by Lee et al [2006] inside tubes of diameters, 9.52 mm and 12.70 mm. They reported that local heat transfer coefficients of hydrocarbons were 57

generally higher by at least 31% than that of R22. However, the hydrocarbon refrigerants suffer from higher pressure drops by at least 50% than those of R22. They compared their experimental data with Shah [1979], Traviss et al. [1973] and Cavallini-Zecchin [1974] correlations and found the agreement consistently within 20%, though Shah correlation over predicted the data comparatively.

An experimental investigation of pressure drop and heat transfer for in-tube condensation of ammonia with and without miscible oil inside smooth aluminum tube of diameter, 8.1 mm for a mass flux range of 20270 kg/m2s is performed by Park and Hrnjak [2008]. They reported that most correlations over predict measured heat transfer coefficients of ammonia, up to 300%. The reasons are attributed to difference in thermophysical properties of ammonia compared to other halogenated refrigerants used in generation and validation of the correlations. Based on their experimental data, they developed a new correlation by modifying Thome et al. [2003b] correlation that predicted most of the measured values within 20%. They also measured pressure drop of ammonia and observed that Mller Steinhagen and Heck and Friedel correlations based on separated flow model predict the pressure drop relatively well at pressure drop higher than 1 kPa/m, while a homogeneous model (McAdams Model) yielded acceptable values at pressure drop less than 1 kPa/m.

58

Description

Refrigerants Tested

Mass Flux Correlations Compared

Correlations Developed For annular and wavy regimes Reported

Dobson

R12, R22, 25-800 ----R134a and et al. blends of R32 Table [1994,1998 3.7 Summary of Recent Experimental Work and R125 ]

Shao & R32, R134a 130-400 -----Modified Granryd and their Tandon et al. [1998] mixtures 3.4 CFD Analysis of In-Tube Two Phase Flowcorrelation and developed model for One of the major difficulties in modeling two phase flow is NARMS determining the distribution of the liquid Shahthe vapor phase in the and and Boissieux Isceon 59, 150-400 -----et al.[2000] R407C and Dobson et flow channel. R404A performance parameters such as heat transfer As the al. Li 200-510 Analytical and pressureR12, R134a closely related---- this distribution, the drop are to et al.[2000] Model is developed using calculation of the two-phase flow pattern by means of computational Von Karman Velocity fluid dynamics (CFD) can be very useful. However, there is not much Distributions work reported in the R125, 100-750 CFD analysis of multi phase Cavallini et R134a, literature on the Jaster and Developed a al. [2001, R32, R410A flows in general. A review 2002] and R236ea Kosky & Flow Regime recent literature on the based Kosky and correlation Staub CFD/numerical analysis of two phase flow inside a horizontal tube is Smit et al. Mixtures of 40-350 Shah, ----presented as follows. R22 and Cavallini [2002a, R142b and 2002b] Zecchin and Dobson A detailed one-dimensional, steady al. transient numerical et and of the Dongsoo 100-300 Traviss et Modified simulation of Purethermal and fluid-dynamic behavior of double pipe the and Jung et al. Mixtures of al,Cavallini Dobson et al. HCFCs been and correlation heat exchangers had and carried out by Valladares et al. [2004]. The [2003, HFCs Zecchin, 2004] Shah, governing equations inside the internal tube and the annulus, Dobson et together with the energy equation in the al., Akerstube wall, external internal and tube wall and insulation, were solved Rosson, iteratively in a segregated Tandon and Soliman manner. The discretized governing equations in the zones with fluid Aprea et al. R22, R407C 45-120 Dobson et -----flow were coupled using an implicit step al, Jaster by step method. They used [2003] and Kosky empirical correlations viz., Dobson et al. correlation [1998] for the & Rosson and Myers evaluation of convective heat transfer, Friedels two phase multiplier Infante R404A 200-600 Shah and -----Ferreira et Dobson et 59 al. [2003] al. Thome et Pure and 24-1022 ----Developed Flow

[1979] for shear stress evaluation and Premoli [1971] model for the evaluation of void fraction. An implicit central difference numerical scheme and a line-by-line solver were used in the internal and external tube walls and insulation. They compared their numerical data for variation of temperature of refrigerant along the tube with the experimental data of Boissieux et al.[2000] and Takamatsu et al. [1993a, 1993b] and observed that their results are in good agreement with the experimental data.

Vaze et al. [2008] performed CFD analysis of two phase flow through pipes and square ducts using commercial CFD package, FLUENT for air velocity varied from 1 to 12.5 m/s and water velocity from 0.0066 to 0.1 m/s. They used Volume of Fluid method for a tube of diameter, 0.1 m and length, 1 m. They applied constant heat flux boundary condition to conduct heat transfer studies and observed that the effective heat transfer coefficient is a function of both water and air flow rates.

Schepper et al. [2008] used Volume of Fluid (VOF) model with piecewise linear interface (PLIC) reconstruction method in each computational cell as implemented in a computational fluid dynamics code and obtained the flow regimes. The flow regimes for waterair flow and gas oil flow were reproduced. They reported that all simulations were in good agreement with the flow regimes predicted from the Baker map [1954]. As reported by them, all flow regimes 60

predicted by Baker map are simulated for the first time. Their work confirmed that CFD codes are able to simulate the two-phase flow regimes as predicted by the Baker chart.

3.5 Scope for the Present Study

The review of quasi local experimental work presented in the previous sections can be classified into experimental studies for understanding the behavior of alternative refrigerants in order to replace the existing CFCs and experimental studies for developing better predictive procedures for the evaluation of performance parameters as the better design practices and overall system efficiency contribute to the reduction of carbon footprint in the atmosphere. The recent experimental studies are of second type, performed for different fluids, viz., HCFCs, HFCs, HCs and their mixtures and inorganic refrigerants like ammonia etc. Based on the experimental studies, reported by Jiang et al. [2006] and Park et al. [2008], it is observed that the correlations including recently developed ones could not predict the experimental data for pure and mixture refrigerants at high reduced pressures and also for non-halogenated refrigerants. Review of analytical models for two phase condensing flows reveals that they have limited applications as they are developed based on simplified models like homogeneous and separated models. These correlations for heat transfer exhibited better predictions for

61

only a particular range of mass flux and vapor quality, thus leaving lot of scope for the development of new models. Very limited work is reported in the literature on the numerical models for condensing flows or on CFD analysis for two phase flow in general. The numerical models reported were developed by discretizing the simplified, one dimensional governing equations which in turn use semi empirical correlations for heat transfer and pressure drop. The CFD analysis of two phase flow reported in the literature is scarce with applications to adiabatic flows or diabatic flows without phase change. Therefore, the present study investigates the experimental evaluation of heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop for different flow regimes. A predictive procedure for the simulation of flow regimes, and for the evaluation of pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient using the combination of CFD analysis and numerical model is developed.

3.5.1 Objectives of Present Study The objective of the present study is primarily to design and fabricate an experimental setup for measuring the performance parameters of two phase flow, viz., heat transfer and pressure drop for three different refrigerants, R22, R134a and R407C using quasi local experimentation technique.

62

To study the two phase flow at high pressures in the range of 1016 bar, corresponding to a condensing temperature of 400C for three refrigerants.

To study the effect of mixture refrigerant on the performance parameters of two phase flow in comparison with the pure refrigerants. Secondly, the work of Schepper et al. [2008] for air water and

gas oil mixtures at atmospheric pressures is extended to vapor liquid flow of refrigerants at high pressures to simulate flow regimes as flow regimes could not be visualized in the experimental study and hence to evaluate the two phase pressure drop. Thirdly, the objective of the present study is to develop a predictive procedure for two phase flow using a combination of CFD analysis to predict the flow regimes and pressure drop; and numerical model to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient for any fluid and at any operating pressure. To compare the resulting numerical heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop with the experimental data from the present study and with some of the widely used correlations of pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient from the literature.

63