ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I Part 2 Fluid Statics

These presentations are prepared by Dr. Cneyt Sert Mechanical Engineering Department Middle East Technical University Ankara, Turkey csert@metu.edu.tr

Please ask for permission before using them. You are NOT allowed to modify them. 2-1

Fluid Statics
Fluids at rest can not support any shear stress (they are free of shear). For static fluids we can only talk about normal stress which is equal to pressure.

Determining the pressure distribution within the fluid is the main task here.
Applications include Pressure distribution in still atmosphere and oceans.

Pressure measurement using manometers.

Forces acting on submerged solid bodies. Bouyancy and stabilitiy of floating bodies. Fluids in rigid body motion are also free of shear forces and will be studied in this chapter.
http://www.cromwell.org.nz/aerial_photos/pages/Clyde Dam_jpg.htm

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Direction Dependency of Pressure

Exercise : For a fluid at rest, show that pressure at a point is independent of direction. Dam z

Absolute pressure is always a positive quantity and it acts on a surface in a compressive manner.
In a moving fluid pressure at a point will have a directional dependency. For moving fluids we need to differentiate between static and dynamic pressures.
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Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

As we dive deep into the sea we feel more pressure in our ears. When we travel to high altitudes atmospheric pressure decreases.

Following fluid element in a static fluid is not moving because no net force acts on it.

dz dx

dy
Body force acting on the fluid element should be balanced by another force. This other force is due to the pressure difference within the fluid. Exercise : Show that in a static fluid + = 0
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Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid

In a static fluid body force is balanced by the pressure gradient. This results in the following hydrostatic force balance + = 0 Net pressure force per unit volume Body force per unit volume

It is common to select to be in negative z direction, i.e. =

In this case general fluid statics equation reduces to

pressure does not change in x or y directions, pressure changes in z direction as =

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Pressure in an Incompressible Static Fluid (contd)

Question : How do and change with ?
Answer : It is safe to consider to be constant. At sea level it is 9.807 m/s2 and at 14 km altitude it is 9.764 m/s2. Also for simplicity lets consider constant density first. If is constant = can be integrated to give

+ = constant

1
1 2

1 + 1 = 2 + 2 2 = 1 + (1 2 )

2 = 1 +

As we go down in a constant density fluid pressure increases with depth as .

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Pressure in an Incompressible Static Fluid (contd)

Exercise : How deep in a pool should you dive to feel twice the atmospheric pressure ? In 1960 Trieste sea vessel carried two oceanographers to the deepest point in Earths oceans, Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench (10,916 m). What is the pressure there? Can we consider water density to be constant ?

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathyscaphe_Trieste

Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench 2-7

Pressure Variation in the Atmosphere

For atmospheric pressure calculations density variations need to be taken into account in integrating = . Considering air to be an ideal gas

According to the U.S. Standard atmosphere (see the next slide) temperature within the first 11 km drops linearly as = 0 where 0 = 288.16 K , = 0.0065 K/m

Integrating the above equation between = 0 where = 0 = 101325 and any value we get = 0 1
/() 0

Exercise : Calculate the atmospheric pressure at the top of Mount Everest, which is at 8,848 m ? Use = 287.1 /( ). How much error would there be if we assume atmospheric air to be an ideal gas at a constant temperature of 15 ?
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U.S. Standard Atmosphere

60 50 40 30 -56.5 20 10 0 20.1 km Altitude z [km] Altitude z [km] 60 50 40 30 20 10

Troposphere

11 km

-60

-40

-20

15

Temperature [oC]

40 80 120 Pressure [kPa]

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Pressure Variation in the Atmosphere (contd)

At sea level and 15 oC, atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pa = 1 atm

This value changes with elevation, however we assume it to be constant in laboratory scales, where the elevation difference is just a couple of meters.

At high altitudes air is less dense and we get less oxygen in one breathing. Therefore we get tired more easily. Also an automobile engine gets less air (in terms of mass) into its cylinders and performs poorly at high altitudes.

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Absolute vs Gage Pressure

Absolute pressure is measured with respect to complete vacuum.

Certain pressure measuring devices measure pressure with respect to the ambient pressure, which is usually the atmospheric pressure. This is called gage pressure. It is customary to use gage pressure values for tire pressure and blood pressure. When your cars manual says that you need to inflate the tires to 30 psi, it is actually trying to say 30 psi gage (30 psi g). If the local atmospheric pressure is 95 kPa, absolute pressure of air inside the tires would be 101.3 kPa 30 psi + 95 kPa = 301 kPa 14.7 psi Tire pressure is 301 kPa absolute = 95 kPa Pressure gage reads 30 psi g = 206 kPa g
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Mercury Barometer
In 1643 Toricelli demonstrated that atmospheric pressure can be measured using a mercury barometer. Greek word baros means weight. B
h A = 0 = = + =

= ?

For = 101,325 Pa and = 13,595 kg/m3 mercury rise will be = 0.76 m.

mmHg is a unit used for pressure. It gives the pressure difference between the top and bottom of a 1 mm mercury column
kg 1 mmHg = 13595 3 m m 9.81 2 s 103 m = 133.4 Pa
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1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 760 mmHg

Aneroid Barometer
Aneroid means without fluid. Aneroid barometer measures absolute pressure. It has a vacuumed chamber with an elastic surface. When pressure is imposed on this surface, it deflects inward.
www.stuffintheair.com

Due to this deflection the needle will rotate and show the pressure. After proper calibration, a barometer can also be used as an altimeter, to measure altitude. Below a certain altitude, atmospheric pressure decreases 1 millibar for each 8 m of ascent. To read more about the aneroid barometer http://www.bom.gov.au/info/aneroid/aneroid.shtml
www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com

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Bourdon Gage
Measures the gage pressure. Patented at 1849. A bent elliptical tube is open and fixed at one end, and closed but free to move at the other end. When pressure is applied to this tube it deflects and the pointer connected to its free end shows the gage pressure (pressure with respect to the atmospheric pressure outside of the tube). When the tube is disconnected the pointer shows zero. It can be used for the measurement of liquid and gas pressures upto 100s of MPa.

Front

Back
www.discoverarmfield.co.uk 2-14

Manometer
Manometers are used to measure pressure differences using liquid columns in tubes. Working principles are any two points at the same elevation in a continuous liquid have the same pressure. pressure increases as as one goes down in a liquid column.
+ 1 1 = = = + 3 3 + 2 2

= +

h A A h B C h1

A 1

3 B
h3 h2 C D 2 A h

+ =

= =

+ =
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Hydrostatic Forces Acting on Submerged Surfaces

Pressure always acts perpendicular to a surface.
Exercise : Show the variation of pressure force acting on the walls of the following containers.

The task is to find the resultant pressure force acting on a submerged surface and point of application of the resultant pressure force. Different techniques can be used such as Direct Integration Method Pressure Prism Method Force Component Method
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Formula Method

Direct Integration Method

This general technique can be used to calculate the resultant pressure force on planar or curved surfaces.
We simply integrate the pressure variation on a surface to get the resultant force .

0
Planar plate is on the plane. Differential force acts on the differential area . = = (0 + ) Integrate over the plate area to get the resultant force =

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Direct Integration Method (contd)

acts through a point called center of pressure (CP).
Coordinates of CP are calculated by equating the moment created by the distributed pressure along an axis to the moment created by along the same axis. 0 =

CP CP

= =

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Direct Integration Method (contd)

Exercise : Rectangular gate of size 6 m 3 m is hinged along B and held by horizontal force applied at A. The liquid on the left of the gate is water. Calculate the force required for equilibrium.

8m A 3m B

Side view of gate

6m Exercise : Solve the previous problem by considering a triangular gate as shown below. A B 6m 3m B 6m
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Exercise : Solve the previous problem by considering a semicircular gate as shown below. A 3m

Formula Method
Exercise : Show that for a submerged planar surface resultant pressure force is equal to the pressure at the geometric center of the surface multiplied by the surface area.
0

= Note that in general points G and CP are not the same. Exercise : Think about a case for which points G and CP are the same?

CP

G CP

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Examples for Submerged Planar Surfaces

Exercise : A 2 m wide planar gate of uniform thickness holds back a depth of water as shown. It is hinged along its top side. Find the minimum gate weight needed to keep the gate closed. You can use either direct integration or formula method. 3m Water 30o

Exercise : As water rises on the left side of the rectangular gate, the gate will open automatically. At what depth above the hinge will this occur ? How will the result change if the mass of the gate is considered ? You can use either direct integration or formula method.

Gate
1.5 m

Water

Hinge

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Examples for Submerged Planar Surfaces (contd)

Exercise : Gates in the Poe Lock at Michigan, USA close a channel, which is 34 m wide and 10 m deep. The geometry of one pair of gates is shown below. Each gate is hinged at the channel wall. When closed the gate edges are forced together by the water pressure. Evaluate the force exerted by water on gate A. Determine the contact force between two gates. Determine the reaction forces on the hinge.

Hinge

Water

Gate A
15o

34 m

Top View

http://www.enerpac.com/infrastructure/fixing-pair-of-loose-hinges

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Pressure Prism Method

This is an alternative (and easy) technique to calculate hydrostatic forces acting on submerged planar surfaces. Consider an imaginary prism with the surface of interest being its base and the amount of pressure acting on the surface being its height. 0 CP 0 +

= =
=

= = volume of the pressure prism

(, ) corresponds to the coordinates of the centroid of the pressure prism.
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0 +

Forces Acting on Submerged Curved Surfaces (Force Component Method)

Exercise : Consider the following curved surface, which is nicely aligned with the axis. Show that and components of the net pressure force can be calculated as follows

can be calculated to be the force acting on the planar surface, which is the projection of the curved surface on the plane.

is the weight of the liquid that will fill the volume between the curved surface and the free surface.
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Force Component Method (contd)

Exercise : Calculate the net pressure force acting on the curved surface of the shown quarter cylinder. Also determine the center of pressure. Perform calculations using both direct integration method and force component method.

Exercise : One puzzling detail about the force component method arises when the volume between the curved surface and the free surface is NOT completely filled with liquid. Determine the force components acting on the curved surface of the shown solid block.

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Force Component Method (contd)

Exercise : A Trainer gate used to control water flow from a dam to a river is shown. The gate width is 35 m. Determine the magnitude and line of action of the force from the water acting on the gate.

20 m

10 m

http://www.discover-net.net/ ~dchs/history/gate_ani.gif

http://www.ciltug.com
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Buoyancy Force
Consider a body that is fully submerged (could be floating also) in a static fluid. A distributed pressure force acts all around the body.

3D body
Left and right parts have the same vertical projetion.

Using the Force Component Method we can show that the net horizontal pressure force acting on the body is zero.

Net vertical pressure force is however is not zero. It is called the buoyancy force.
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Buoyancy Force (contd)

Net vertical force on is 1

1 2

= 2 1

= 2 1 = 2 1 = 2 1 =

Overall vertical force is obtained by integrating the above expression, which gives = = Buoyancy force acting on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by submerging the body into the fluid, which is known as the Archimedes principle.
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Hydrometer
A hydrometer uses the principle of buoyancy to measure the density of a liquid.

First it is calibrated by dipping it into a liquid of known density, such as water.

Marked for water
Stem

Water mark Another liquid

Water
Volume inside water (known)

Cross sectional area of stem

= 1

= 2 = (1 )
Movie : Hydrometer

1 = 1 Stem may be marked so that you can directly read the unknown on its scale.

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Capillarity
When a glass tube is immersed into a liquid, which wets the surface, such as water, adhesive forces between the glass and water exceed cohesive forces in water, and water rises (capillary rise) in the glass tube. This vertical rise continues until the surface tension forces are balanced with the weight of the water column in the tube.

For a non-wetting fluid, such as mercury, the force balance results in a different configuration known as capillary drop.
Glass tube

water

mercury
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Capillarity (contd)
Due to surface tension the meniscus (free surface inside the tube) will be curved and there will be a pressure difference between the two sides of it > D
q

pi q po

This pressure difference is balanced with surface tension forces. Writing a vertical force balance for the meniscus 2 cos() = ( ) 4
Writing the manometer equation for the liquid between the meniscus and the free surface = + Combining these two equations 4 cos() =

pi

pi

po
Movie : Capilary Rise

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Fluids in Rigid Body Motion

Consider a body of fluid that is in rigid body motion, i.e. fluid moves as if it is a solid body and fluid partciles have no relative motion with respect to each other. In such a case fluid is free of shear stress. Two examples of this are fluids moving with constant linear acceleration and fluids rotating around an axis of rotation with constant angular velocity.

Liquid

Linear acceleration causes a tilted planar free surface.

Liquid
Stationary liquid with a horizontal free surface Liquid

Rotation (centripetal acceleration) causes a curved (parabolic) free surface.

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Fluids in Rigid Body Motion (contd)

Consider a differential fluid element which is in rigid body motion.

It is under pressure and body forces, similar to a static fluid.

But the difference is, now we have nonzero acceleration. Newtons second law of motion gives

=
+ = + = Solution of this equation will provide the pressure distribution inside the fluid, which will be different than the hydrostatic pressure distribution without accleration.

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Fluids in Rigid Body Motion (contd)

Exercise : We want to use the following U-tube filled with a liquid as an accelerometer in our car. As the car accelerates we should observe a difference between the levels of the two liquid columns. Determine the relation between acceleration and the parameters of our device.

How does the result change if we include capillary affects ? D

h
a

L
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Fluids in Rigid Body Motion (contd)

Exercise : An cylindrical tank, with its top open to atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa has a diameter of 1 m and a height of 2 m. It is completely filled with water and rotated about its axis at an angular velocity of 5 rad/s. Determine a) the volume of the spilled water.

b) the pressures at the center of the bottom of the tank and at a point at the bottom that is 0.2 m from the center.
c) the pressure distribution on the side wall of the tank. Hint : You need the components of in cylindrical coordinate system, which can be found in fluid mechanics books. Also note that the only non-zero acceleration component is = 2

d) the force exerted by the water on the bottom of the tank.

Water

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