A decision involves a choice between two or more alternative actions [or behaviors].

1 Decisions always require choices between different behaviors. In sum, even though marketers often refer to choices between objects (products, brands, stores), consumers actually choose between alternative behaviors concerning those objects (What should I do ?). Marketers are particularly interested in consumers purchase behaviors, especially their choices of which brands to buy. Given the marketing orientation of this text, we emphasize consumers purchase choices (Should I buy Levis or Wrangler jeans?). It must be recognized, however, that consumers also make many decisions about nonpurchase behaviors. Sometimes these nonpurchase choices can influence consumers purchase decisions (deciding to go for a walk or watch TV may expose consumers to marketing information about products). As shown in our model of consumer decision making in Exhibit 7.1 , all aspects of affect and cognition are involved in consumer decision making, including knowledge, meanings, and beliefs activated from memory and attention and comprehension processesinvolved in interpreting new information in the environment. 2 The key process in consumer decision making , however, is the integration process by which knowledge is combined to evaluate two or more alternative behaviors and select one. 3 The outcome of this integration process is a choice , represented cognitively as a behavioral intention (BI). We assume all voluntary behaviors are based on the intentions produced when consumers consciously choose from among alternative actions. Thus, decision-making processes occur even for the impulsive purchases that seem to underlie fads (see Consumer Insight 7.1). This does not mean, however, that a conscious decisionmaking process necessarily occurs each time a purchase behavior is performed. 4 Some voluntary behaviors become habitual. They are based on intentions stored in memory that were formed by a past decision-making process. When activated, these previously formed intentions or decision plans automatically and unconsciously direct behavior; additional decision-making processes may not be necessary. Finally, some behaviors are not voluntary and are affected largely by environmental factors. For instance, product displays and aisle placements dictate how consumers move through stores. Decision making is not relevant in such cases.

Problem Representation
The basic consequences, needs, or values that consumers want to achieve or satisfy are called end goals . They provide the focus for the entire problem-solving process. Some end goals represent more concrete, tangible consequences; other end goals are more abstract. For instance, a purchase decision to replace a bulb for a flashlight probably involves the simple end goal of obtaining a bulb that lights upa simple functional consequence. Other product choices involve more abstract end goals such as desired psychosocial consequences of a product (a consumer wants to serve a wine that conveys her good taste to her guest). Finally, end goals such as instrumental and terminal values are even more abstract and general (a consumer chooses a car that makes him feel powerful or enhances his self-esteem). End goals also vary in evaluation. Some consumer decisions are oriented toward positive, desirable end goals, while others are focused on negative end goalsaversive consequences the consumer wishes to avoid. Some end goals (e.g., being happy) are so general that consumers cannot act on them directly. For instance, most consumers cannot specify the decision plan of specific actions that will yield the best restaurant or avoid a lemon of a car. When consumers try to solve problems involving abstract end goals, they break down the general goal into several more specific subgoals.

The end goal and its subgoals form a goal hierarchy . Forming a goal hierarchy is analogous to decomposing a complex problem into a series of simpler subproblems, each of which is dealt with separately. For most people, buying a new car requires at least one trip to a showroom, which generates the subproblems of which dealer(s) to visit and when to go shopping. Usually the consumer can generate absolution to the overall problem by solving the simpler subproblems in order. =Consumers relevant knowledge in memory about the choice domain is an important element in problem solving. 9 Some knowledge may be acquired by interpreting information encountered in the environment during the problem-solving process. For instance, in the opening example, Megan learned a lot about cars, car dealers, and price ranges for cars. Other relevant knowledge may be activated from memory for use in integration processes. 10 The relevance of knowledge is determined by its meansend linkages to the currently active end goal. Parts of the activated knowledge may be combined in the integration processes by which consumers evaluate alternative behaviors (form A act ) and choose among them (form BI ). Two types of knowledge are particularly important in problem solving: choice alternatives and choice criteria.

Choice Alternatives. Choice alternatives are the alternative behaviors that consumers consider in the problem-solving process. For purchase decisions, the choice alternatives are the different product classes, product forms, brands, or models the consumer considers buying. For other types of decisions, the choice alternatives may be different stores to visit, times of the day or week to go shopping, or methods of payment (cash, check, or credit card). Given their limited time, energy, and cognitive capacity, consumers seldom consider every possible choice alternative. Usually only a subset of all possible alternatives, called the consideration set , is evaluated. Choice Criteria. As we described in Chapter 6, consumers evaluations of the choice alternatives in the consideration set are based on their beliefs about the consequences of buying those products or brands. The specific consequences used to evaluate and choose among choice alternatives are called choice criteria . Virtually any type of product-related consequence can become a choice criterion in a brand-choice decision, including salient beliefs about functional consequences (product performance), psychosocial consequences (admiration of friends), or value consequences (a sense of achievement or self-esteem). 16 For most decisions, consumers probably have beliefs stored in memory about some of the relevant consequences of at least some choice alternatives in their consideration sets. If additional knowledge is desired, consumers may form a subgoal of obtaining information about those choice alternatives. Achieving this subgoal may require intentional search behaviors such as visiting stores, reading Consumer Reports, or talking with knowledgeable friends. Information search may be motivated by consumers uncertainty about appropriate choice criteria and/or choice alternatives. 17 In the opening case, Megan engaged in a substantial amount of intentional search to identify possible choice alternatives and form beliefs about appropriate choice criteria.

Integration Processes

The integration processes involved in problem solving perform two essential tasks: The choice alternatives must be evaluated in terms of the choice criteria, and then one of the alternatives must be selected. 25 Two types of integration procedures can account for these evaluation and choice processes: formal integration strategies and simpler procedures called heuristics. Compensatory integration processes combine all the salient beliefs about the consequences of the choice alternatives to form an overall evaluation or attitude ( A act ) toward each behavioral alternative. The multiattribute attitude model ( A act = _ b i e i ) is a compensatory model, so called because a negative consequence (expensive) can

be compensated for or balanced by a positive consequence (high status). It is important to recognize that consumers do not necessarily integrate large numbers of beliefs in their evaluation processes. noncompensatory integration processes They are noncompensatory because the salient beliefs about the positive and negative consequences of the choice alternatives do not balance or compensate for each other. Research suggests consumers do not seem to follow any single rule or strategy in evaluating and choosing from among alternatives. 26 For one thing, they probably do not have sufficient cognitive capacity to simultaneously integrate several beliefs about many alternatives. Compensatory integration processes are especially likely to exceed cognitive capacity limits. 27 Moreover, many problem-solving tasks do not involve a single choice to which a single integration rule could be applied. Instead, consumers make multiple choices in most purchase situations (choices of information sources to examine, stores to visit, product forms or brands to buy, methods of payment). Each choice is a distinct subproblem that requires separate integration processes. Rather than a single integration strategy, consumers are likely to use a combination of processes in many problem-solving situations. 28 A noncompensatory strategy might be used to quickly reduce the choice alternatives to a manageable number by rejecting those that lack one or two key criteria (a conjunctive strategy).

Decision Plans
The process of identifying, evaluating, and choosing among alternatives during problem solving produces a decision plan made up of one or more behavioral intentions. Decision plans vary in their specificity and complexity. 31 Specific decision plans concern intentions to perform particular behaviors in highly defined situation. Some decision plans contain a simple intention to perform a single behavior: Andy intends to buy a large tube of Aim toothpaste. In contrast, more complex decision plans involve a set of intentions to perform a series of behaviors.