"Motivation: The psychological feature that arouses an organism to action towards a desired goal, the reason for that

action." Substitute "organism" with "a human being" and you begin to get it. An implication of the definition is that we need to have a reason behind our actions to achieve out goals.

Definition: Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge. There are 3 components of motivation: 1) Needs: They are created when there is a physiological and psychological deprivation.

2) Drive: also called a 'Motive', this is created by a deficiency with direction.

3) Incentives or Goal: Anything that elivates a need and reduces a drive is termed as incentive. COMPONENTSOFMOTI ON VATI Directionrelates to what an individual chooses to dowhen presented with a number of alternatives.Intensityrefers to the strength of response once thealternative is chosenPersistencerefers to the staying power of behavior or how long a person will continue to devote effort.

Types of Motivation
1) Achievement Motivation It is the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with achievement motivation wishes to achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of success. Here, accomplishment is important for its own shake and not for the rewards that accompany it. It is similar to Kaizen approach of Japanese Management. (2) Affiliation Motivation

It is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Persons with affiliation motivation perform work better when they are complimented for their favorable attitudes and co-operation. (3) Competence Motivation It is the drive to be good at something, allowing the individual to perform high quality work. Competence motivated people seek job mastery, take pride in developing and using their problem-solving skills and strive to be creative when confronted with obstacles. They learn from their experience. (4) Power Motivation It is the drive to influence people and change situations. Power motivated people wish to create an impact on their organization and are willing to take risks to do so. (5) Attitude Motivation Attitude motivation is how people think and feel. It is their self confidence, their belief in themselves, their attitude to life. It is how they feel about the future and how they react to the past. (6) Incentive Motivation It is where a person or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It is You do this and you get that, attitude. It is the types of awards and prizes that drive people to work a little harder. (7) Fear Motivation Fear motivation coercions a person to act against will. It is instantaneous and gets the job done quickly. It is helpful in the short run.

Theories of Motivation
1) Contribution of Robert Owen : Though Owen is considered to be paternalistic in his view, his contribution is of a considerable significance in the theories of Motivation. During the early years of the nineteenth century, Owens textile mill at New Lanark in Scotland was the scene of some novel ways of treating people. His view was that people were similar to machines. A machine that is looked after properly, cared for and maintained well, performs efficiently, reliably and lastingly, similarly people are likely to be more efficient if they are taken care of. Robert Owen practiced what he preached and introduced such things as employee housing and company shop. His ideas on this and other matters were considered to be too revolutionary for that time. 2) Jeremy Benthams The Carrot and the Stick Approach :

Possibly the essence of the traditional view of people at work can be best appreciated by a brief look at the work of this English philosopher, whose ideas were also developed in the early years of the Industrial Revolution, around 1800. Benthams view was that all people are self-interested and are motivated by the desire to avoid pain and find pleasure. Any worker will work only if the reward is big enough, or the punishment sufficiently unpleasant. This view - the carrot and stick approach - was built into the philosophies of the age and is still to be found, especially in the older, more traditional sectors of industry. The various leading theories of motivation and motivators seldom make reference to the carrot and the stick. This metaphor relates, of course, to the use of rewards and penalties in order to induce desired behavior. It comes from the old story that to make a donkey move, one must put a carrot in front of him or dab him with a stick from behind. Despite all the research on the theories of motivation, reward and punishment are still considered strong motivators. For centuries, however, they were too often thought of as the only forces that could motivate people. At the same time, in all theories of motivation, the inducements of some kind of carrot are recognized. Often this is money in the form of pay or bonuses. Even though money is not the only motivating force, it has been and will continue to be an important one. The trouble with the money carrot approach is that too often everyone gets a carrot, regardless of performance through such practices as salary increase and promotion by seniority, automatic merit increases, and executive bonuses not based on individual manager performance. It is as simple as this : If a person put a donkey in a pen full of carrots and then stood outside with a carrot, would the donkey be encouraged to come out of the pen ? The stick, in the form of fearfear of loss of job, loss of income, reduction of bonus, demotion, or some other penaltyhas been and continues to be a strong motivator. Yet it is admittedly not the best kind. It often gives rise to defensive or retaliatory behavior, such as union organization, poor-quality work, executive indifference, failure of a manager to take any risks in decision making or even dishonesty. But fear of penalty cannot be overlooked. Whether managers are first-level supervisors or chief executives, the power of their position to give or with hold rewards or impose penalties of various kinds gives them an ability to control, to a very great extent, the economic and social well-being of their subordinates. 3) Abraham Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory : One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory put forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator. As per his theory this needs are : (i) Physiological needs : These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the primary list of need

satisfaction. Maslow was of an opinion that until these needs were satisfied to a degree to maintain life, no other motivating factors can work. (iii) Social needs : Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. People try to satisfy their need for affection, acceptance and friendship. (iv) Esteem needs : According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfaction as power, prestige status and self-confidence. It includes both internal esteem factors like selfrespect, autonomy and achievements and external esteem factors such as states, recognition and attention. (v) Need for self-actualization : Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, it includes growth, achieving ones potential and self-fulfillment. It is to maximize ones potential and to accomplish something.

As each of these needs are substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. From the standpoint of motivation, the theory would say that although no need is ever fully gratified, a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. So if you want to motivate someone, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is on and focus on satisfying those needs or needs above that level. Maslows need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theorys intuitive logic and ease of understanding. However, research does not validate these theory. Maslow provided no empirical evidence and other several studies that sought to validate the theory found no support for it.

TOP 4) Theory X and Theory Y of Douglas McGregor : McGregor, in his book The Human side of Enterprise states that people inside the organization can be managed in two ways. The first is basically negative, which falls under the category X and the other is basically positive, which falls under the category Y. After viewing the way in which the manager dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a managers view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior towards subordinates according to these assumptions. Under the assumptions of theory X :

Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are issued. Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display little ambition.

In contrast under the assumptions of theory Y :

Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play. People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed to those goals. Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving the problems of the organization. That the way the things are organized, the average human beings brainpower is only partly used.

On analysis of the assumptions it can be detected that theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. An organization that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature, the word authoritarian suggests such ideas as the power to enforce obedience and the right to command. In contrast Theory Y organizations can be described as participative, where the aims of the organization and of the individuals in it are integrated; individuals can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the organization. However, this theory has been criticized widely for generalization of work and human behavior. 5) Contribution of Rensis Likert : Likert developed a refined classification, breaking down organizations into four management systems.

1st System Primitive authoritarian 2nd System Benevolent authoritarian 3rd System Consultative 4th System Participative As per the opinion of Likert, the 4th system is the best, not only for profit organizations, but also for non-profit firms. 6) Frederick Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory : Frederick has tried to modify Maslows need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also known as twofactor theory or Hygiene theory. He stated that there are certain satisfiers and dissatisfiers for employees at work. In- trinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. He devised his theory on the question : What do people want from their jobs ? He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he received, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However, their nonpresence leads to demotivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.

Examples of Hygiene factors are : Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work conditions, relationship with supervisor and company policy and administration. Examples of Motivational factors are : Growth prospectus job advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition and achievements. TOP 7) Contributions of Elton Mayo : The work of Elton Mayo is famously known as Hawthorne Experiments. He conducted behavioral experiments at the Hawthorne Works of the American Western Electric Company in Chicago. He made some illumination experiments, introduced breaks in between the work performance and also introduced refreshments during the pauses. On the basis of this he drew the conclusions that motivation was a very complex subject. It was not only about pay, work condition and morale but also included psychological and social factors. Although this research has been criticized from many angles, the central conclusions drawn were :

People are motivated by more than pay and conditions. The need for recognition and a sense of belonging are very important. Attitudes towards work are strongly influenced by the group.

8) Vrooms Valence x Expectancy theory : The most widely accepted explanations of motivation has been propounded by Victor Vroom. His theory is commonly known as expectancy theory. The theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a specific way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual to make this simple, expectancy theory says that an employee can be motivated to perform better when their is a belief that the better performance will lead to good performance appraisal and that this shall result into realization of personal goal in form of some reward. Therefore an employee is : Motivation = Valence x Expectancy. The theory focuses on three things :

Efforts and performance relationship Performance and reward relationship Rewards and personal goal relationship

This leads us to a conclusion that :

9) The Porter and Lawler Model : Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a more complete version of motivation depending upon expectancy theory.

Actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent. But it is also affected by the persons ability to do the job and also by individuals perception of what the required task is. So performance is the responsible factor that leads to intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards. These rewards, along with the equity of individual leads to satisfaction. Hence, satisfaction of the individual depends upon the fairness of the reward. 10) Clayton Alderfers ERG Theory : Alderfer has tried to rebuild the hierarchy of needs of Maslow into another model named ERG i.e. Existence Relatedness Growth. According to him there are 3 groups of core needs as mentioned above. The existence group is concerned mainly with providing basic material

existence. The second group is the individuals need to maintain interpersonal relationship with other members in the group. The final group is the intrinsic desire to grow and develop personally. The major conclusions of this theory are : 1. In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time. 2. If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to satisfy a lower need intensifies. 3. It also contains the frustration-regression dimension. 11) McClellands Theory of Needs : David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating needs : 1. Need for Power 2. Need for Affiliation 3. Need for Achievement Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and control. They like to be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in manners and ambitious in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key positions or power positions. In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate themselves with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They like to build a friendly environment around themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others provides them motivation. People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks. They are analytical in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when they see atleast some chances of success. McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power and achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people who were at the top, later ceased to be motivated by this drives. 12 ) Equity Theory : As per the equity theory of J. Stacey Adams, people are motivated by their beliefs about the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to the inputs. People have a tendency to use subjective judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in the relationship for comparisons between different individuals. Accordingly :

Brief notes on Psychological Motives

The psychological motives are also known as personal motives. These motives are personal in the sense that they are very specific to the person psychological make up of the individual. Curiosity Curiosity is a motivational tendency to act, which does not have sped and identifiable goals. It is simply gaining pleasure by obtaining informatics experiencing, or doing, it is the tendency to seek for the novel. Curios describe behaviours whose primary motives appear to remain in the activities themselves rather than on objectives. Dember (1956), Fowler (1958), and other researchers demonstrated by using "T" and "Y" mazes that rats preferred novelty, change, and complexity. Animals who were allowed to become thoroughly familiar with a maze, when put in a structurally changed maze, spent more time exploring the altered maze. In a number of studies, Harlow (1953) presented monkeys with mechanical puzzles. They were never rewarded nor punished for playing with these. Yet, they found, the monkeys spent several hours trying to dismantle them and finally succeeded. Berlyne (1960) while experimenting on motivational behaviour investigated some of the variables that are associated with curiosity and exploratory behaviour. Berlyne identified a number of curiosity variables, termed as "collative" variables that are involved in curiositymotivated behaviour. These are novelty, complexity, intensity, and change. He also mentioned about curiosity that is directed towards acquisition of knowledge. Curiosity leads us to explore. Thus curiosity is not manifested simply in perceptual exploration, but in cognitive explorations as well. Curiosity motives and the needs for sensory stimulation are also conducive for the motive of exploration. It is true that we are driven to explore the environment by our curiosity and our need for sensory stimulation. Very often we ask a simple question- "What will happen if?" This stimulates intellectuals to find answers. This motive is otherwise known as "curiosity behaviour." It is not an exclusively human trait. Animal experiments proved that curiosity behaviour is also found in many animals (Buttler, 1954). Evidences indicated that the curiosity motive can be unlearned. It is true that interest in a novel object tends to diminish with time, but the motivation does not diminish. It appears early in human infants as well as in naive animals. The need for changing sensory stimulation is closely related to curiosity. It is the basic motive, and exploration and curiosity are just two expressions of it. Besides all these motives, competence motivation also plays an important and persistent role in human behaviour.

Sometimes we are motivated to master challenges in the environment. This is called competence motivation. Exploration Always people want to explore the environment. On many occasions we want to visit new places and "points of interest" by spending time and money. Further, we watch television, cinema and sports, and read newspapers ant magazines to know about the world. The motive behind all the activities is to find out "What's new?" by exploring the world around us. Small children always try to explore something. A baby's life is dominated by this motive. They also seem to receive satisfaction from being allowed the explore. Very often, they smile and babble excitedly when exploring their world. When the motive to explore has been frustrated, children become distressed the same way as adults are bothered by frustration. Achievement Motivation The need to meet some inner standard of excellence is called achievement or competence motivation. Achievement motivation is a personality variable which appears to differ from one individual to another. Some individuals an highly achievement-oriented and competenceoriented and others are not. As we know, what is most striking about man is his achievement. It arises out of a tendency to define one's goals according to some standards c excellence in product or performance attained. This motive has bee investigated most extensively by cognitive psychologists like David McClellan and John Atkinson. For the first time, they used the projective methods to measure achievement motivation. Generally people with a need for achievement seek to accomplish things and to improve their performance. Many studies have been done to find out the relationship between the achievement motivation and performance. The results indicate that people who are high in achievement motivation general do better on tasks than those who are low. Further studies indicate that people high in need for achievement are motivated to succeed. Therefore, they d not choose to work on very difficult tasks in which the probability of success is very low. Obviously they prefer to work at tasks where the possibility of success is great. In general, people with high achievement motivation preferred tasks that are moderately difficult and that promise success. In some studies, child psychologists viewed that parents can teach their children to approach challenging tasks with the idea of mastering them, children who are successful at little tasks gain confidence and seek other challenges. Further success enhances the tendency to try to do one's best to accomplish things and to improve performance. Consequently, this approach to lifes problems becomes persistent and very much a part of the child's personality. Extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation are closely related to the achievement motivation. Extrinsic motivation programmes are extensively applied in education, industrial and clinical settings. A person's need for feeling Detent and self-determined in dealing with his environment

is termed as intrinsic motivation". It is called intrinsic because the goals are internal feelings achievement and competence. Extrinsic motivation is directed towards goals external to the person such as money or grades. But intrinsic motivation has practical aspects because they are powerful motivators of human behaviour. The intrinsically motivated activities are those activities for which there are no rent rewards except the activity itself. The activities are ends in themselves rather than means to ends.

ifferent Physiological Drives or Motives

There are different physiological drives or motives that are inborn and present at birth. These drives are hunger, thirst, oxygen need, sleep and rest, avoidance of pain, elimination drive, sex drive and warmth and cold drive. There are different physiological drives or motives that are inborn and present at birth. These drives are hunger, thirst, oxygen need, sleep and rest, avoidance of pain, elimination drive, sex drive and warmth and cold drive. Hunger is a powerful physiological motive. This happen when the blood level of glucose or sugar falls below a certain point. The body need to restore it making the stomach hungry for food. Thirst happens when the level of water inside the body decreases. The mouth and the throat tissues become dry and the nerve endings in the tissues are stimulated. 1. Oxygen need is more powerful than hunger and thirst drive for no one can ever live
without an oxygen. Deprivation from oxygen for an amount of time may cause severe brain damage. It can impair memory, make the sense to function poorly as will as it lead to paralysis. sleep and Rest is another drive, the need for sleep and rest varies individually. Deprivation from sleep and rest will cause physiological as well as psychological disturbances such as having a short attention span and poor motor coordination. Further deprivation from sleep and rest may result to loss of emotional control, sensory disorientation or hallucinations. However, these symptoms will disappear when normal sleep and rest is taken. Avoidance of Pain is another physiological drive that an individual does whenever he/she feels pain. The pain is considered as a warning by the nervous system that there is something biologically damaging occur in a particular part of the body. Elimination Drive is the drive or motives through which the body eliminates its waste from the inside. The organs in the body; the bowels and the bladder in particular tends to stimulate the drive to excrete the waste. Maternal Drive is the intense motivation to care for the children. It is exercise mostly by mothers which includes spending vast amount of time to their children, caring them and providing them with anything they need. Sex drive is another physiological drive which is similar to maternal drive considering that they are essential to individual survival. With out sexual drive there will be no

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reproduction that will take place in any species. However a specie can live without sexual activity even throughout the entire life without having negative physiological effect. 7. Warmth and Cold drive means the need to be comfortable with the temperature in the environment. This drive varies from individual to individual considering that different bodies feels good in different desirable temperature.

Achievement Motivation

David McClelland- Ways parents can help children 1) Encouraging their children to attempt difficult but realistic tasks 2) Rewarding and praising the child when success is achieved 3) Not complaining or punishing when the child fails, but encouraging the child to try again or try another method 4) Encouraging the child to advance Sex & racial differences in achievement motivation? Some females have the "fear of success" Why?

Classification of Emotions

Descartes - late 1600s Six primary emotions 1) wonder 2) love 3) hate 4) desire 5) joy 6) sadness

Classification of Emotions

Plutchik - 1980 Four pairs of opposites are the eight primary emotions 1) Joy - sadness 2) Fear - anger 3) Surprise - anticipation 4) Acceptance - disgust All other emotions are combinations - for example, awe is fear and surprise disappointment is sadness and surprise

Classification of Emotions

Panksepp - 1982 Four basis emotions 1) Expectancy 2) Rage 3) Panic 4) Fear All other emotions are combinations