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Unit Weight Light weight aggregate: The unit weight of aggregate is less than 1120 kg/m3.

The corresponding concrete has a bulk density less than 1800 kg/m3. (cinder, blastfurnace slag, volcanic pumice). Normal weight aggregate: The aggregate has unit weight of 1520-1680 kg/m3. The concrete made with this type of aggregate has a bulk density of 2300-2400 kg/m3.

Heavy weight aggregate: The unit weight is greater than 2100 kg/m3. The bulk density of the corresponding concrete is greater than 3200 kg/m3. A typical example is magnesite limonite, a heavy iron ore. Heavy weight concrete is used in special structures such as radiation shields. AGGREGATE VOIDS There are aggregate particle voids, and there are voids between aggregate particles. As solid as aggregate may be to the naked eye, most aggregate particles have voids, which are natural pores that are filled with air or water. These voids or pores influence the specific gravity and absorption of the aggregate materials.

Aggregate Specific Gravities.

The voids within an aggregate particle should not be confused with the void system which makes up the space between particles in an aggregate mass. The voids between the particles influence the design of hot mix asphalt or portland cement concrete. PARTICLE SHAPE The shape of the aggregate particles affects such things as: 1) The asphalt demands of hot mix asphalt 2) The workability and the strength of both portland cement concrete and asphalt pavements The best aggregates to use for strength are crushed stone or crushed gravel. Crushed aggregate have irregular, angular particles that tend to interlock when compacted or consolidated. The crushed stone or crushed gravel aggregate make the asphalt or concrete mix somewhat difficult to place. To improve the workability, many mixes contain both angular and round particles. The coarse aggregate particles are usually crushed stone or crushed gravel, and the fine aggregate particles are usually natural sand. The Standard Specifications detail the requirements for crushed materials for various uses.

SURFACE TEXTURE Surface texture is the pattern and the relative roughness or smoothness of the aggregate particle. Surface texture plays a big role in developing the bond between an aggregate particle and a cementing material. A rough surface texture gives the cementing material something to grip, producing a stronger bond, and thus creating a stronger hot mix asphalt or portland cement concrete. Surface texture also affects the workability of hot mix asphalt, the asphalt requirements of hot mix asphalt, and the water requirements of portland cement concrete. Some aggregates may initially have good surface texture, but may polish smooth later under traffic. These aggregates are unacceptable for final wearing surfaces. Limestone usually falls into this category. Dolomite does not, in general, when the magnesium content exceeds a minimum quantity of the material.

DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY Density is the weight per unit of volume of a substance. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water.

The coarse aggregate specific gravity test is used to calculate the specific gravity of a coarse aggregate sample by determining the ratio of the weight of a given volume of aggregate to the weight of an equal volume of water. It is similar in nature to the fine aggregate specific gravity test. The coarse aggregate specific gravity test measures coarse aggregate weight under three different sample conditions: Oven-dry (no water in sample). Saturated surface-dry (SSD, water fills the aggregate pores). Submerged in water (underwater). Using these three weights and their relationships, a samples apparent specific gravity, bulk specific gravity and bulk SSD specific gravity as well as absorption can be calculated. Aggregate specific gravity is needed to determine weight-to-volume relationships and to calculate various volume-related quantities such as voids in mineral aggregate (VMA), and voids filled by asphalt (VFA). Absorption can be used as an indicator of aggregate durability as well as the volume of asphalt binder it is likely to absorb. The standard coarse aggregate specific gravity and absorption test is: AASHTO T 85 and ASTM C 127: Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate Background Specific gravity is a measure of a materials density (mass per unit volume) as compared to the density of water at 73.4F (23C). Therefore, by definition, water at a temperature of 73.4F (23C) has a specific gravity of 1. Absorption, which is also determined by the same test procedure, is a measure of the amount of water that an aggregate can absorb into its pore structure. Pores that absorb water are also referred to as water permeable voids. Specific Gravity Use Aggregate specific gravity is used in a number of applications including Superpave mix design, deleterious particle indentification and separation, and material property change identification. Superpave Mix Design Superpave mix design is a volumetric process; it relies on mixing constituent materials on the basis of their volume. However, aggregate and asphalt binder volumes are diffucult to measure directly, therefore a materials weight is typically measured and then converted to a volume based on its specific gravity. Correct and accurate material specific gravity determinations are vital to proper mix design. An

incorrect specific gravity value will result in incorrect calculated volumes and ultimately result in an incorrect mix design. Material Contamination Indicator and Separator Specific gravity can also indicate possible material contamination. For instance, deleterious particles (Figure 2) are often lighter than aggregate particles and therefore, a large amount of deleterious material in an aggregate sample may result in an abnormally low specific gravity.

Deleterious Material Differences in specific gravity can also be used to separate deleterious, or bad, particles from aggregate particles using a heavy media liquid. Water absorption can also be an indicator of asphalt absorption. Material Change Indicator Finally, specific gravity differences can be used to indicate a possible material change. A change in aggregate mineral or physical properties can result in a change in specific gravity. For instance, if a quarry operation constantly monitors the specific gravity of its output aggregate, a change in specific gravity beyond that normally expected could indicate the quarrying has moved into a new rock formation with significantly different mineral or physical properties. Aggergate Absorption Use Aggregate absorption is the increase in mass due to water in the pores of the material. Aggregate absorption is a useful quality because: High values can indicate non-durable aggregate. Absorption can indicate the amount of asphalt binder the aggregate will absorb. It is generally desirable to avoid highly absorptive aggregate in HMA. This is because asphalt binder that is absorbed by the aggregate is not available to coat the aggregate particle surface and is therefore not available for bonding. Therefore, highly absorptive aggregates (often specified as over 5 percent absorption) require more asphalt binder to develop the same film thickness as less absorptive aggregates making the resulting HMA more expensive.

Aggregate Specific Gravity Types Several different types of specific gravity are commonly used depending upon how the volume of water permeable voids (or pores) within the aggregate are addressed (Figure 3):

Aggregate Specific Gravity Apparent Specific Gravity, G The volume measurement only includes the volume of the aggregate particle; it does not include the volume of any water permeable voids. The mass measurement only includes the aggregate particle. Apparent specific gravity is intended to only measure the specific gravity of the solid volume, therefore it will be the highest of the aggregate specific gravities. It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of the impermeable portion of aggregate (does not include the permeable pores in aggregate) to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature. Bulk Specific Gravity (Bulk Dry Specific Gravity), Gsb. The volume measurement includes the overall volume of the aggregate particle as well as the volume of the water permeable voids. The mass measurement only includes the aggregate particle. Since it includes the water permeable void volume, bulk specific gravity will be less than apparent specific gravity. It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of aggregate, including the water permeable voids, at a stated temperature to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature. Bulk Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) Specific Gravity.

Volume measurement includes the overall volume of the aggregate particle as well as the volume of the water permeable voids. The mass measurement includes the aggregate particle as well as the water within the water permeable voids. It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass of a unit volume of aggregate, including the weight of water within the voids filled to the extent achieved by submerging in water for approximately 15 hours, to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at the stated temperature. Effective Specific Gravity, G Volume measurement includes the volume of the aggregate particle plus the void volume that becomes filled with water during the test soak period minus the volume of the voids that absorb asphalt. Effective specific gravity lies between apparent and bulk specific gravity. It is formally defined as the ratio of the mass in air of a unit volume of a permeable material (excluding voids permeable to asphalt) at a stated temperature to the mass in air (of equal density) of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature. Effective specific gravity is determined by a different procedure and is not covered in this section.

Relationship with Other Specific Gravities abbreviations.

The difference between Gsa and Gsb is the volume of aggregate used in the calculations. The difference between these volumes is the volume of absorbed water in the aggregates permeable voids. Both use the aggregates oven dry weight. The difference between Gsb and bulk (SSD) specific gravity is the weight of aggregate used in the calculations. The difference between these weights is the weight of absorbed water in the aggregates permeable voids. Both use the same aggregate volume. The difference between Gsa, Gse and Gsb is the volume of aggregate used in the calculations. All three use the aggregates oven dry weight. The following relationships are always true:

Gsa Gse Gsb Bulk (SSD) specific gravity Gsb Aggregate specific gravities (Gsb, Gsa,Gse and bulk SSD specific gravity ) are all Gmm(because Gmm includes the asphalt binder, which has a lower specific gravity than the aggregate)

The following chart illustrates these relationships for some common substances. Typical Values Substance Specific Gravity Density (lb/ft3) Water 1.0 (73.4 F) 62.4 lb/ft3 (73.4 F) Limestone 2.6 165 to 170 lb/ft3 Lead 11.0 680 to 690 lb/ft3 The density and the specific gravity of an aggregate particle is dependent upon the density and specific gravity of the minerals making up the particle and upon the porosity of the particle. These may be defined as follows: 1) All of the pore space (bulk density or specific gravity) 2) Some of the pore space (effective density or specific gravity) 3) None of the pore space (apparent density or specific gravity) Determining the porosity of aggregate is often necessary; however, measuring the volume of pore space is difficult. Correlations may be made between porosity and the bulk, apparent and effective specific gravities of the aggregate. As an example, specific gravity information about a particular aggregate helps in determining the amount of asphalt needed in the hot mix asphalt. If an aggregate is highly absorptive, the aggregate continues to absorb asphalt, after initial mixing at the plant, until the mix cools down completely. This process leaves less asphalt for bonding purposes; therefore, a more porous aggregate requires more asphalt than a less porous aggregate. The porosity of the aggregate may be taken into consideration in determining the amount of asphalt required by applying the three types of specific gravity measurements. In the example in Figure 3-1, the bulk specific gravity includes all the pores, the apparent specific gravity does not include any of the pores that would fill with water during a soaking, and the effective specific gravity excludes only

those pores that would absorb asphalt. Correlation charts and tables provide guidance to asphalt quantities or acceptability of the aggregate.

Moisture conditions The moisture condition of aggregates refers to the presence of water in the pores and on the surface of aggregates. There are four different moisture conditions: a) Oven Dry (OD): This condition is obtained by keeping aggregates at temperature of 1100C for a period of time long enough to reach a constant weight. b) Air Dry (AD): This condition is obtained by keeping aggregates under room temperature and humidity. Pores inside the aggregate are partly filled with water. c) Saturated Surface Dry (SSD): In this situation the pores of the aggregate are fully filled with water and the surface is dry. This condition can be obtained by immersion in water for 24 hours following by drying of the surface with wet cloth. d) Wet (W): The pores of the aggregate are fully filled with water and the surface of aggregate is covered with a film of water.

To make concrete, aggregates are mixed with water and cement. Since concrete properties at both the fresh and hardened states are strongly affected by the water content, it is very important to ensure that the right amount of water is added to the mix. In designing concrete mix, the moisture content under SSD condition is used as reference because that is an equilibrium condition at which the aggregates will neither absorb water nor give up water to the paste. Thus, if MCSSD value for a batch of aggregates is positive, there is surface moisture on the aggregates. If it is negative, it means that the pores in aggregates are only partly filled with water. Since the aggregates may give out or absorb water, the amount of water added to the mix need to be adjusted according to the MCSSD value. This is particularly important for concrete with low water content as the amount of adjusted water can be a significant portion of the total amount.

Freeze-Thaw Resistance
When water freezes, it expands about 9%. As the water in moist concrete freezes, it produces pressure in the pores of the concrete. If the pressure developed exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete, the cavity will dilate and rupture. The accumulative effect of successive freeze-thaw cycles and disruption of paste and aggregate can eventually cause expansion and cracking, scaling, and crumbling of the concrete.

Deicing chemicals
for pavements include sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, and potassium chloride. These chemicals reduce the freezing point of the precipitation as it falls on pavements. A recent trend has seen a wide variety of blends of these materials to improve performance while reducing costs, and best practice indicates that a liberal dosage greater than 4% in solution tends to decrease the potential for scaling of pavement surfaces. The high concentration of deicers reduces the number of freezing and thawing cycle exposures to the pavement by significantly lowering the freezing point. Deicers for special applications such as airport pavements require non-chloride materials to prevent damage to aircraft. The list of deicers used for these applications includes urea, potassium acetate, propylene glycol, and ethylene glycols. Since scaling damage to pavements of all types is caused by physical salt attack, the use of high strength (28 MPa [4000 psi] or more), low permeability, air entrained concrete is crucial to good durability in these applications. D-Cracking. Cracking of concrete pavements caused by the freezethaw deterioration of the aggregate within concrete is called Dcracking. D-cracks are closely spaced crack formations parallel to transverse and longitudinal joints that later multiply outward from the joints toward the center of the pavement panel. D-cracking is a function of the pore properties of certain types of aggregate particles and the environment in which the pavement is placed. Due to the natural accumulation of water under pavements in the base and subbase layers, the aggregate may eventually become saturated. Then with freezing and thawing cycles, cracking of the concrete starts in the saturated aggregate at the bottom of the slab and progresses upward until it reaches the wearing surface. This problem can be reduced either by selecting aggregates that perform better in freeze-thaw cycles or, where marginal aggregates must be used, by reducing the maximum particle size. Also, installation of effective drainage systems for carrying free water out from under the pavement may be helpful. Air entrainment. The severity of freeze-thaw exposure varies with different areas of the United States. Local weather records can help determine the severity of exposure. The resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing in a moist condition is significantly improved by the use of intentionally entrained air. The tiny entrained air voids act as empty chambers in the paste for the freezing and migrating water to enter, thus relieving the pressure in the pores and preventing damage to the concrete. Concrete with a low permeability (that is, Cross section of air-entrained (right) and non-aira low water-cement ratio and adequate curing) is entrained concrete. Large size air voids are better able to resist freeze-thaw cycles. In rare cases, air-void clustering can occur, leading to a loss entrapped air. Small pinpoint size bubbles (entrained air) uniformly distributed through the of compressive strength. paste are beneficial air voids. Note comparison with common pin.

Prevention of Concrete Scaling Scaling is defined as a general loss of surface mortar or mortar surrounding the coarse aggregate particles on a concrete surface. This problem is typically caused by the expansion of water due to freezing and thawing cycles and the use of deicing chemicals; however properly specified, produced, finished, and cured quality concrete need not suffer this type of deterioration. There is a distinct chain of responsibility for the production of scale resistant concrete. Typical example of scaled Freezing temperatures. Concrete concrete surface gains very little strength at low temperatures. Accordingly, freshly placed concrete must be protected against freezing until the degree of saturation of the concrete has been sufficiently reduced by cement hydration. The time at which this reduction is accomplished corresponds roughly to the time required for the concrete to attain a compressive strength of 3.5 MPa (500 psi). Concrete to be exposed to deicers should attain a strength of 28 MPa (4000 psi) prior to repeated cycles of freezing Closeup view of ice impressions in paste of frozen fresh concrete. and thawing. The ice crystal formations occur Optimizing the Use of Fly Ash in ConcreteCold as unharden concrete freezes. weather and winter conditions can be challenging when concrete contains fly ash. Especially when used at higher levels, fly ash concrete typically has extended setting times and slow strength gain, leading to low early-age strengths and delays in rate of construction. In addition, concretes containing fly ash are often reported to be more susceptible to surface scaling when exposed to deicing chemicals than portland cement concrete. It is therefore important to know how to adjust the amount of fly ash to minimize the drawbacks, while maximizing the benefits. The architect for the Bayview high-rise apartment optimized the amount of fly ash on the basis of the requirements of the concrete specification, the construction schedule and the temperature. He limited the amount of fly ash in slabs on grade placed during winter months to 20%. If adequate curing cannot be provided or if the concrete is exposed to freezing and thawing in the presence of deicer salts, the amount of fly ash should always be less than 25%.

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