Overview It is well known by educators that children learn in various ways and have their own individual styles

and strategies. Some may enjoy group work others individual work. Some may prefer teacher instruction with worksheets and firm directions, rather than self generated research projects. There are numerous ways children learn, but how does the surrounding environment, affect a child's learning ability and influence the learning strategies they employ?

This website aims to explore these issues, in addition to introducing a number of different types of learning environments, then specifically focussing on classroom layouts and how this impacts on learning. This is followed by discussion about what factors influence classroom design and hints to help teachers best set up their classroom.

Learning Environments It has been found that children learn in a variety of ways. For example, memorisation, hands on, peer or individual learning, problem, inquiry or worksheet based, child or teacher-centred. We suggest that the different ways in which a child learns is partially related to the type of learning environment available. These learning environments may also affect the child's ability and motivation to learn. Below are a number of learning environments we believe contribute to a child's learning in unique ways:

School Classroom "Out of Classroom" Settings Home Schooling 21st Century Classrooms School Classrooms

This is a quote from John Dewey about the classroom environment. The only way in which adults consciously control the kind of education which the immature get, is by controlling the environment in which they act, and hence think and feel. We never educate directly, but indirectly by means of the environment. Whether we permit chance environments to do the work, or whether we design environments for the purpose makes a great deal of difference. And any environment is a chance environment so far as its educative influence is concerned unless it has been deliberately regulated with reference to its educative effect. (Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York: The Free Press, 1944,pp. 18-19)

This is a photo of a kindergarten classroom. Notice how there are specific areas for working and reading. This is one way you might consider to set up your kindergarten classroom.

This is a photo of a year one classroom. Notice it is a little bit more formal than the kindergarten room. The desks are still set up in a cluster arrangement.

This is a year four classroom. Children are still sitting in groups. Take note of the computer areas. See how they are set aside from the main learning area. This is a good way to minimise distractions.

This is a photo of an upper primary room. Although it is still arranged in the group format notice how sophisticated the arrangement is.

"Out of Classroom" Settings School Classrooms are not the only settings for effective learning. More and more educators are using "Out of Classroom" settings as learning environments, where children become educated through experience rather theory. Experiential education is about placing the learner and their learning in a real environment that is relevant to their prior knowledge and the knowledge they will acquire. In the following pages we explore a number of "Out of Classroom" learning environments and reflect on how these contribute to a child's learning and development. Excursions Community Natural Learning Environments Home Schooling

In South Australia the Education Act (1972) specifies that children of compulsory school age must be enrolled in a Government or non-Government school. The age of school attendance is from 6 to 15 years old. The Minister for Education and Childrens Services has delegated the authority to approve school exemptions from attendance at school for Home Education to the Executive Director of Schools. Exemption from a school is usually for a period of 12 months.

Home Education is a choice exercised with the full knowledge of responsibilities in relation to the requirements of a suitable curriculum, resources and facilities to support the program.

The Department of Education and Childrens Services is under no obligations to provide any support or resources. That the child/children are enrolled at a nearby school. That the program is reviewed annually. The Process Physical Learning Environment Frequently Asked Questions Answers General Information School of the Air 21st Century Classroom

Schools all over the world have implemented computers and computer learning in the dailying teaching curriculum, even as early as kindergartens.

Benefits for the Teachers Benefits for the Students Physical Learning Environment Learning Outcomes Benefits for Teachers

The internet allows the teacher to exchange lesson plans and ideas. Computers for the classroom is more efficient and less time is spend in the library searching for books. The internet allows the teacher to find information for a variety of stimulus. Benefits for Students

As students are exposed to computers they become more confident in the area of Information Technology (IT). Students develop skills to access information quickly and more efficiently and become seekers of information and evaluators. Fifty years ago students were taught to recite informtaion, and today, they are taught to fin information and analyse it.

The Disadvantages of Computers in Schools

A wide consensus among parents and educators believe that students need to be competent computer users so they are prepared for life and the workforce, questions have been raised about the expanding role of computers in schooling and students lives. Excessive use of computer by students lacks the verbal and non verbal cues necessary for the development of social and emotional skills.

Physical Learning Environment

Nearly all schools have at least 1 computer in the classroom. Students of the School of the Air have a computer each ratio 1:1. All schools within South Australia have a computer room. The rooms are set up either in a horse shoe style with the desks flush against the walls or in rows. There are Information Technology posters and resources displayed around the room so that students are surrounded by stimulus that relates to the context of the learning.

Future Predictions It is hard to suggest how far technology in classrooms will advance. Maybe classrooms will have web cams in them allowing parents to actually watch their child/children in the classroom from either the home or workforce.

Learning Outcomes

Students will learn to use computers to:

Solve problems Communicate

Creative Expression Locate, retrieve, store, organise, manipulate, interpre and evaluate information.

The skills that students will develop are:

Keyboard skills Use a range of software Apply basic functions of the system Set up and control a printer Understand and use appropriate technical skills Appropriate language Retrieve and store information and develop trouble shooting strategies Word processing Editing Text Formating Text Telecommunication (internet, email) Classroom Layout In the following pages you will find information about the design and layout of classrooms in the past and the different types of classroom layout you can use. It is important to consider the way you design your classroom. Your learning environment must match your teaching style otherwise the apropriate learning outcomes will not be achieved. After looking at these pages you will have a better idea about which classroom layout would best suit the needs of your classroom. Historical/past classroom settings Rows Groups Alternative Historical/Past Classroom settings Before schools became institutionalized government run facilities that they are today they used to be run in and by the communities and often at home. When school did become institutionalized a lot of factors changed. The physical environment was probably one of the biggest factors in this change. Children went from working in the comfort of their own community with people that they knew very well to attending a more formal setting that was in some cases far away from their community. When they got there classes were quite big so they would not have known everyone in the class the way they would have in the neighbourhood classroom. Classrooms were now a formal place of study. Therefore the design and layout of the classroom were important factors to consider. The layout and design of these classrooms reflected the teaching style and curriculum of that period of time. Students typically sat in rows facing the teacher. Learning was specifically teacher to student and the classroom layout reflected this. Teachers expected students to listen and respond only to them. Student to student learning was not included therefore the standard classroom design for this period of time was adequate.

Rows

Rows are the typical environment for a teacher-centered classroom and/or individual learning. Students are aligned in such a way as they all face the 'front' of the class. The teacher conducts the instruction from this 'front' position. This type of physical set-up can be an effective method of behaviour management .

Groups

Groups are typical of student-centered learning. They provide an effective environment for collaborative, cooperative, individualistic and competitive learning. The classroom dynamics are considerably more complex in this environment as the teacher uses facilitating techniques to ensure that students are engaged with the learning process. Students in groups should be situated in close proximity to the other members of the group so they can

share knowledge, eye-contact and materials without having to disrupt the other groups in the class. With this in mind , the most appropriate setting for a group is in circles. This negotiates the problem of clumping rectangular desks together where the space may be too great to share these factors (Johnson&Johnson 1991). Grouping to maximise learning requires the consideration of many factors. These factors include appropriate integration of advanced and disruptive students, ensuring racial and cultural diversity, gender balancing and social skill development. What is of major importance here is that groups provide a medium in which diversity within the classroom can enrich individuals, and support the growth of others. (Dumas 2002) Excursions

Excursions are field trips taken by a class to enhance their learning of a topic. By venturing outside school grounds, students are able to take advantage of unique learning environments not normally encountered within the school classroom. They have the opportunity to extend and transfer their knowledge beyond the classroom and learn in a fun, engaging and more stimulating context. These type of learning environments makes use of alternative learning strategies and is beneficial for student learning, particularly in providing: Hands-on, real world experiences Postive motivation towards subjects Improved student/student interaction Alternative teaching strategy

Hands-on Experiences Using excursions as a learning environment encourages students to relate their abstract and conceptual knowledge to specific "places" which makes recall and understanding of this knowledge more meaningful.

Excursions for children are also an opportunity for them to get first hand real experience with subject matter, which will assist them in connecting their new knowledge with what is taught in the class. As such they are gaining deep understanding to enable them to transfer their theoretical knowledge to situations in the world outside the classroom (Umphrey, 2002). Typical excursions could include:

Museums Zoos Fire and police stations (i.e. work places) Marine aquariums Ecotourist trails Botanical Gardens Science Centres or Planetariums Senior citizen homes

Libraries All excursions should be designed to fit into curriculum areas and cover key learning areas and skills.

Student Attitudes & Motivation Excursions can excite, arouse, interest and inform students. They can open up new worlds, give them insights and new perspectives into subjects and in some cases they just may be the best way to learn (Michie, 1998). Use of excursions as a pedagogical practice can improve students attitudes and motivation towards the subject area (Michie, 1998). It is hoped that this enthusiasm will be transfered to the classroom in other subject areas but also be built on, by encouraging students to undertake further research. Excursions are novel and different and are the perfect vehicles for children to apply their classroom knowledge in a "real environment". This will help them become responsible for their own learning, become empowered learners and help them foster a love for learning.

Student/Student Interaction Socialisation between students is a very important factor influencing a child's dvelopment and learning. If a child does not interact well with other students (for whatever reason) they tend to become isolated both in the social setting and within the classroom (Prac observations). This leads to limited sharing of ideas or cooperation amongst peers. Although these children may learn well individually this lack of group work and inability to mix with others prevents them from developing both social and academic skills important now and in the future. Excursions enable students to work in small groups, which help them learn and develop skills such as effective oral communication between peers (Michie, 1998), co-operation, working together, taking responsibility and reporting skills. Small group work can also encourage student driven learning rather than teacher centred learning. Alternative Teaching Strategy Excursions provide not only alternative learning strategies for students but also provide teachers with alternative teaching methods. Research states that excursions are effective and novel pedagogy and teachers report wanting to use them more frequently. However, for optimal learning benefit the outcomes of the excursion need to be integrated into the set teaching program (Michie, 1998). Excursions require teachers to use teaching methods that are not the "norm" or regularly practised. It is an opportunity for teachers to go out of their comfort zone, learn and become confident in new and different teaching strategies (Michie, 1998). It may then encourage them to use alternative novel approaches for other subject areas in the future. This in turn can only improve classroom lessons and make learning more interesting and engaging for their students. Therefore, excursions add variety that is beneficial to both student and teachers. Consideration Factors for Classroom Design

If a classroom is designed attractively, effectively and for maximum logistical use, the classroom itself can become an effective teaching and learning tool. The right classroom will encourage particular teaching theories, promote a variety of learning styles and help to manage behavioural problems. Moreover, a mentally stimulating and challenging room can motivate a child's learning, encourage achievement and effort and provide an inviting environment where they can foster a love for learning. There are a number of important factors to consider when setting up and mantaining a classroom. To explore our suggestions just click on one of the options below.

Behaviour Management Mental Stimulation Teaching Theory Student Learning Style Behaviour Management

Behaviour management issues are always a concern for teachers, especially new teachers or student teachers. While there are many things you can do in your classroom to reduce the amount of behavioural problems, the physical environment can also be a major behavioural management tool. By looking at the following pages you will gain some insight as to what you can do to encourage good behaviour in the classroom. Classroom design must be considered if you are having behaviour management problems in your clasroom.

Arrangement

Behavioural management layout tips

Arrangement The arrangement of furniture in the classroom can both benefit and inhibit a students learning. Before you decide to arrange your furniture in the classroom, you need to think about what outcomes you want your students to have. If you are a teacher who likes quiet, uninterrupted work that is mainly teacher directed, then designing your classroom by clusters, or an open plan (like in the pictures below) may distract the students from achieving the desired outcome.

Children feel frustrated when their learning environment does not match their learning style. If this happens then children will become disruptive and inattentive because they are confused about what it is they are supposed to be doing. The arrangement of classroom furniture affects the intellectual, social and emotional learning of a student. This is why classroom design is a fundamental aspect of education. The teacher is often the one who arranges the furniture therefore the teacher is influencing the learning environment before they even start teaching. Setting up your classroom into specific learning areas is a good way to reduce behavioural management problems.

Classroom design best suited for behaviour management problems

Learning centres

Pictures of classrooms with behavioural management in mind Behaviour Management Layout Tips

1. Move the tables further apart 2. Use tape lines to designate activity specific areas 3. Use visual barriers where they are needed. Suggested items: file cabinets, rolling chalkboards and book shelves 4. Put unneccessary items out of sight and out of reach

5. Organize materials for easy use 6. Adjust temperature 7. Adjust height of visual aids 8. Adjust furniture to appropriate height levels Mental Stimulation Neurological research has revealed that to promote and encourage maximum learning capacity within our brains it is vital to stimulate the synapses and neurons (responsible for carrying valuable knowledge) during school age years (Tracy, 2000). The age at which stimulation is most valuable is debatable, however some experts suggest the key years for learning are 0-10years. Therefore, as educators we need to be able to stimulate, encourage and hook our students into learning, and learning about many different subjects and topics (Tracy, 2000) One way to do this is to create a classroom that is physically appealing, mentally stimulating and engaging. The pages below highlight ways in which this is possible and hopefully will lead to an atmosphere that encourages and promotes positive and effective student learning.

Seating Arrangement Temperature Room aesthetics Lighting Music Traditional Teaching

Traditional teaching is concerned with the teacher being the controller of the learning environment. Power and responsibility are held by the teacher and they play the role of instructor (in the form of lectures) and decision maker (in regards to cirriculum content and specific outcomes). They regard students as having

'knowledge holes' that need to be filled with information. In short, the traditional teacher views that it is the teacher that causes learning to occur (Novak, 1998)

Learning is cheifly associated within the classroom and is often competitive. The lesson's content and delivery are considered to be most important and students master knowledge through drill and practice (such as rote learning). Content need not be learned in context. (Theroux 2002, Johnson &Johnson 1991) The most common seating arrangement used by the traditionalists is rows.

Student-centered teaching

Competitive Learning

Competitive learning exists when one student goal is achieved, all other students fail to reach that goal. (Johnson & Johnson,1991) Competitive learning can be interpersonal (between individuals), where rows are most important or intergroup (between groups), where a group setting is appropriate. There have been many critisisms of this type of learning. These critisisms include - Because there is only one winner, all other students must fail - May be linked to high anxiety levels, self-doubt, selfishness and aggression - May promote cheating - Interferes with the capacity to problem solve (Johnson & Johnson, 1991) In light of these critisisms teachers must identify what knids of competetive activities would have destructive

or constructive outcomes. Groups can be arranged to host interpersonal competitions seperately from one another. This is one strategy to maximise the number of winners the class. Competitive learning is most appropriate when students need to review learned material. This bypasses the need to problem solve in regards to any new material. Intergroup competition can be seen as an appropriate competitive strategy as it maximises the number of winners. It is also important to ensure homogeneous grouping to maximise the chance of winning for all groups. Homogeneous grouping allows the groups to be as evenly matched as possible to provide a challenging environment for competition. One particular grouping strategy is called bumping (Johnson & Johnson1991). This invovles ranking groups from highest to lowest in acheivement through cooperative learning. Then through interpersonal competition in clusters students are ranked in thier clusters. The highest acheiving member is then moved up to the higher ranked group, and the lowest ranked member is moved down to a lower ranked group. Competitive learning can also be a cooperative activity when the students formulate thier own term and rules of the contest, giving them ownership of the activity (Johnson & Johnson,1991).

Individualistic learning

Cooperative learning

Collaborative learning

Competitive learning

".Personal and environmental factors do not function as independent determinants, rather they determine each other." -Bandura

Individualistic Learning

This type of learning exists when the learning or achievement of one student is independent and seperate from the achievements of the other students in the class (Johnson&Johnson,1991). Individual learning implies that knowledge and cognitive skill are assets that teacher can tranfer to the learner (Saloman & Perkins, 1998). This learning can be described as teacher-centered; that is, the teacher provides the major source of information, assistance, critisism and feedback. Students work alone and are not expected to be interrupted by other students. In this regard, students may be seated as far from each other as space permits. Learning resources and materials need to be organised so that each student has immediate access to the appropriate materials. This type of learning aims to be individually beneficial and assessment is commonly judged against a set criteria.

"In some cases, what is transmitted by instruction is well assimilated by the child because it represents in fact an extension of some spontaneous constructions of his own. In such cases, his development is accelerated."- Piaget

Co-operative Learning

Co-operative learning occurs when students work collaboritively towards a common goal (Panitz,1996) Acheivements are positively correlated with the other cooperating students. Students work together in small clusters or groups. Effective co-operative learning promotes- positive interdependence - a feeling of connection with other members of the group as they accomplish a

common goal - individual accountability - every member of the group is held accountable for the group's achievements - face to face interaction - group members engage at close range and are influenced by each other's verbal communication - social skills - students become aware of the human interaction skills involved in effective group cooperation - group processing - groups may reflect and discuss how well they are functioning as a unit and how effective thier working relationships are. (PLSB,1999) Effective cooperative learning relies on group management techniques, social skills training and studentcentered teaching methods.

Individualistic learning

Collaborative learning

Competitive learning

"...without interchange of thought and co-operation with others the individual would never come to group his operations into a coherent whole..."- Piaget

Teacher Hints Here are some useful hints that we have gathered about the learning environment and how it effects student's learning outcomes. You may find it useful when you plan your classroom layout.

1. Keep in mind your teaching style and the learning outcomes you wish to acheive when you are setting up your classroom. 2. Keep your classroom design cluster free. Only have the resources you are using ready to access. 3. Carefully consider your needs as a teacher and the needs of the students, particularly ensure that every child can see and hear from every part of the room and that there is plenty of space to move around and help students. 4. Maximise classroom space and this helps with cleanliness. 5. Design your classroom to optimise natural light and temperature. 6. Consider the particular year level you are teaching (the layout for a reception class will be vastly different to a year 7 class). 7. Always ensure you can make eye contact with all students in the class. 8. Be aware of health and safety issues. 8. Make materials and supplies easily accessible to prevent delays, disruptions and confusion. Perhaps store frequently used materials in a number of different places around the room. 9. Learning can be more effective if children have the opportunity to move around and interact with others and obtain information from different parts of the room. Consider this when arranging seating, special corners, equipment and resources. 10. When using posters and decorating walls try to remember the cultural diversity represented within the classroom. 11. Make particular effort to display each childs work, rotating when necessary. 12. It is useful to test out your newly design classroom to decide whether it is logistically appropriate and that it creates the atmosphere and learning environment you hoped for. 13. Create a strong child-centred environment with little stress that enables productive learners to work to the brains natural learning ability. 14. Providing an environment that is conducive to optimal learning and that stimulates positive brain learning is the sole responsibility of the teacher facilitating the students in his/her classroom. Enriching the environment is a step towards producing a more productive classroom.

Social Skilling

Group Management

Group Management

Group management is important for maintaining on-task activities and dealing with students that may be gifted, socially challenged, disruptive or lazy. Additional management techniques may be employed or utilised with social skilling. Some examples of effective group management strategies include the following - Ensure that the target student is grouped with members that are proven to be constructive - Groups may be pre-trained in techniques that will assist them in ensuring that the target student will be readily accepted and encouraged to perticipate appropriately - Training the target student with appropriate collaborative and social skills - Assigning different roles for the individuals in each group - Assigning one student to an observation role. This student can report back to the teacher on where they think the group might be struggling and what strategies they believe would assist the group. (Johnson&Johnson, 1991)

Social Skilling

Teacher Hints

Social Skilling

Social skilling is an imperative strategy when students are engaged in collaborative learning activities. This is important to ensure that the groups are working efficiently and effectively. Social skilling intervention is important especially when students are failing to communticate and collaborate effectively with each other.

Interpersonal and small group skills are the driving force of cooperative and collaborative learning groups. These skills are also linked to career and life success. Not only do they facilitate the building and maintainence of positive, personal relationships and psychological health, they are skills that are typically valued by employers (Johnson & Johnson 1991)

Group Management

Teacher Hints

Co-operative Learning

Co-operative learning occurs when students work collaboritively towards a common goal (Panitz,1996) Acheivements are positively correlated with the other cooperating students. Students work together in small clusters or groups. Effective co-operative learning promotes- positive interdependence - a feeling of connection with other members of the group as they accomplish a common goal - individual accountability - every member of the group is held accountable for the group's achievements - face to face interaction - group members engage at close range and are influenced by each other's verbal communication - social skills - students become aware of the human interaction skills involved in effective group cooperation - group processing - groups may reflect and discuss how well they are functioning as a unit and how effective

thier working relationships are. (PLSB,1999) Effective cooperative learning relies on group management techniques, social skills training and studentcentered teaching methods.

Individualistic learning

Collaborative learning

Competitive learning

"...without interchange of thought and co-operation with others the individual would never come to group his operations into a coherent whole..."- Piaget

Should Schools Adopt a Constructivist Approach to Education? Summary of Literary Review There are two opposing viewpoints on how to properly instruct children in the classroom. There is the teachercentered approach where the role of the teacher is to dispense facts and the role of the student is to listen and memorize said facts. In the child-centered, or constructivist, approach the children are more in control of their education. They do hands on activities to promote a higher order of thinking (analysis, critical thinking), and projects are usually branched off from the main topic of discussion. Critics of the child-centered approach say that children waste too much time with such activities and would be better served learning mathematics facts

and physics. Advocates of the child-centered approach say that allowing children to make discoveries of their own is vital to obtaining a higher order of thinking which better serves children throughout their lives. Supporters also assert that in most classrooms there is simply only the occasional child-centered activity but that classrooms have largely remained teacher-centered (Abbeduto, 2006). Summary of Yes Position Teachers needs to rethink their role as teachers. Is a teacher simply the dispenser of information or is a teacher the facilitator of learning? Windschitl states that current teachers simply copy the teachers they had had as children which hinders the goal of going beyond the teacher-centered method of rote memorization to learning. He says that therein lies the problem of creating a truly constructivist classroom. Educators are married to the current norms of curriculum and standardization. A part of the issue may lie in the greater depth of knowledge teachers will need to have in the topics that they teach. Windschitl uses the concept of density as an example. In a constructivist classroom there would be different groups of students tackling the issue of density using a variety of methods. One group may take a purely mathematical approach while another may use the story of the Titanic. The teacher would need to have an understanding of the mathematical concepts with density as well as the complexity of the issue as illustrated in the sinking of the Titanic. Once a teacher reconciles this issue the hands on, child-centered, approach will lead children to be more engaged in the topic being studied and allows them to learn how to think critically and analytically, as well as learning problem solving skills. Windschitl believes that the constructivist approach can be reconciled with state standards. He also states that teachers needs to have a firm understanding of why they are using the constructivist approach instead of the widely accepted teacher-centered approach, since it is inevitable that someone would ask them why they run their classroom the way they do. Assessments will need to be made of each childs progress using journals, reports, and other projects that demonstrate the students understanding of the topic being studied which will aid in determining whether or not the class is meeting the standards of education. To aid teachers in giving children the best education possible school administrators need to be supportive in the less is more concept, encourage teacher collaboration, and school wide changes such as block scheduling. (Windschitl, 1999). Summary of No Position Hirsch sets out to debunk the constructivist approach through research comparing ineffective American classrooms and effective Asian classrooms. He states that classrooms that are filled with projects where children are responsible for their own learning did not perform as well as children in teacher-centered approached classrooms, where there was more focus and time allotted to learn a subject. Hirsch asserts that there is importance in drill and practice which helps children retain the information being learned, following the adage of use it or lose it, and that the constructivist approach does not offer enough in the way of drill and practice thereby cheating the students out of retaining information. He also argues that breadth is more important than depth. Students need to learn as much as they can about various subjects because by the time a child is in college the focus of study narrows. Hirsch also asserts that the policy of best practices by organizations such as the National Association for the Education of Young Children, is not founded upon research but upon pedagogical romanticism. Children learn best by the teacher introducing new material in small increments and by having the teacher make connections to previously learned topics that relate to the new material. Whole class instruction should dominate in the classroom, and students should be given challenging work to keep their interest. Hirsch states that children in classrooms with whole class instruction and a focused schedule are more motivated and interested in the subjects being taught than children in classrooms that are filled with workshops and projects. Teachers that exude warmth as well as a businesslike air have more successful classrooms than teachers that exude warmth but are more concerned about a childs self esteem. Over concern about a childs self esteem causes them to give praises without giving instruction on how to improve their work. Hirsch addresses the idea of higher order thinking, and states that higher order thinking is the difference between a novice and an expert and is domain specific. Thus the idea that constructivist approach fosters higher order thinking in the various academic subjects is unfounded. The class period should be formed into a little drama with a beginning, middle, and end, well directed but not rigidly scripted by the teacher (Hirsch, 1996).

My Position Windschitl and Hirsch are both shortsighted. A blend of the two methods is best. Windschitl makes his argument by discussing how to solve some of the challenges of the child-centered approach, completely ignoring the fact that it is impossible to have students responsible for their own learning all the time. Hirsch claims that traditional methods of teaching are best as is indicated in current research. What the research he used actually says is that time, focus, and knowing what to expect for the day, or class period, are essential for academic success, as well as having teachers with high warmth, giving constructive feedback, and are businesslike in manner; which, in my experience, can also be interpreted as firm but fair. All of those qualities are necessary in a teacher whether it be in a child-centered classroom or in a teacher-centered classroom. Hirschs attack on the less-more admonitions of various national education organizations that promote best practices is foolish. Less does not mean eliminate. More does not mean replace. Best practices promotes that which is developmentally appropriate, and takes into account the diversity in the classroom. As Dr. Clifford Hansen, a music teacher at San Jose City College, once said, if I have 30 students in a classroom then I need to have 30 different ways to explain the concept I am teaching (Glasgow, 1969, paraphrased). Dr. Hansen understood that while for some learning the circle of fifths in the lecture is sufficient, other students will need to see a diagram, to hear it, to see it played, to play it themselves, or see it demonstrated in a real piece of music, or any combination of these. Does providing sufficient time and attention to the individual needs of his students in understanding the concept of the circle of fifths take away precious time from instruction? I think not. On the other hand there are times when the teacher does act primarily as the dispenser of knowledge. In Kindergarten there is much in the way of teacher directed activities because the children are too young to take charge of their own academic learning. A child is not going to discover phonics without a teacher telling them about the relationship between sounds and letters and words. This does not mean that there can not be some activities that give children creative freedom, such as painting a holiday themed picture. When the opportunity occurs you can give them the time they need to create a good piece of work, the tools they need to do so, and the techniques on how to use the tools effectively and how to create a particular effect a child might be looking for (Knight, 2007). Time, tools and techniques also apply to other subject areas, such as math. Students need time to master a new mathematical concept, they need the tools to work with the new math problem, and they need the techniques to effectively use their time and tools. The concept is true in every classroom. An artist can not be rushed when creating a piece of art without compromising the intended finished work. A child learning how to read can not be rushed without compromising their ability to become fluent readers. A child learning number sense can not be rushed into learning addition and subtraction without compromising their future understanding of multiplication and division. Breadth is important. People need to be well rounded. In fact, breadth is so important that there are general education requirements in college. However, depth is also needed, otherwise the information will have no lasting value to the student and will not be retained. The old adage of, practice makes perfect, is true and correct. We know that the more you read the better you get at it. The more you work at playing the piano the easier it gets to sight read and to play more complex pieces. Practice is important. No one with their head on straight will say otherwise, and I dare say that most advocates for a child-centered approach have their heads on straight. Practice, however, does not denote understanding. If a six year old can read at a 5th grade level that does not mean they understand what they are reading. If a preschool aged child knows their ABCs it does not mean that they connect it to reading. This is where we need reflective inquiry and innovative classroom activities to gauge the actual understanding of students, and help facilitate understanding. Reflective inquiry is often out of the picture in a teacher-centered classroom where the teacher does most of the thinking (Brown, 2003). The teacher-centered approach does work, but it does not mean that we can not do better. Mimeographs and type writers have been replaced with the more efficient computer. Should we still widely use those today? Granted, the teacher-centered approach is not nearly so outdated, and still has its place, but the argument that its worked for all these years, as is (Hirsch, 1996), is a bit fallacious and closed minded. Modern thought and technology have simply made old ideas better.

Both the teacher-centered approach and the child-centered approach have value. When this is understood by teachers they pedagogically improve. Over generalizations of the two approaches lead to a dichotomy that should not exist and can be harmful (Schuh, 2004). Either approach is not appropriate in all situations and cannot cover all of the complexities and idiosyncrasies of subjects and teaching situations (Ahara, 1995). Polarizing the issue can cause an unbalanced approach to teaching, which would be a great disservice to students. References Abbeduto, L. (2006). Should Schools Adopt a Constructivist Approach to Education? Taking Sides: Clashing Views in Educational Psychology, 4th Ed., 148(2). McGraw-Hill Ahara, K. (1995). Teacher-centered and child-centered pedagogical approaches in teaching childrens literature. Education, 115(3), 332. Brown, K. L. (2003). From teacher-centered to learner-centered curriculum: Improving learning in diverse classrooms. Education, 124(1), 49-54. Hirsch, Jr., E. D. (1996). Realitys Revenge: Research and Ideology. American Educator. Glasgow, J. (1969). Personal Journal. Knight, R. (2007). The Three Ts. Creative Arts Lecture. Yuba College. Schuh, K. L. (2004). Learner-centered principles in teacher-centered practices? Teaching & Teacher Education, 20(8), 833-846. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2004.09.008 Windschitl, M. (1999). The Challenges of Sustaining a Constructivist