INTEGRAL CALCULUS

FOR BEGINNERS

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
FOR BEGINNERS

WITH AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

BY

JOSEPH EDWAEDS,

M.A.

FORMERLY FELLOW OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

MACMILLAN AND
AND NEW YORK
1896
All rights reserved

CO.

First Edition, 1890.

Reprinted 1891, 1892, 1893.

With additions and corrections, 1894

reprinted 1896.

GLASGOW

PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE

AND

CO.

PREFACE.
THE
present volume

is

intended to form a sound

the Integral
Calculus,

introduction to a study of

suitable for a student beginning the subject.

Like

its

it

companion, the 'Differential! Calculus for Beginners, does not therefore aim at completeness, but rather
at the omission of all portions of the subject

which

are usually regarded as best left for a later reading.

It will

be found, however, that the ordinary proalso

cesses of integration are fully treated, as

the

principal methods of Rectification and Quadrature, and the calculation of the volumes and surfaces
of
solids

of

revolution.

Some

indication

is

also

afforded to the student of other useful applications

of the Integral Calculus, such as the general
to

method
of

be

employed

in

obtaining

the

position
of Inertia.

Centroid, or the value of a

Moment

seems undesirable that the path of a student in Applied Mathematics should be blocked by a
it

As

want

of acquaintance with the

methods of solving

M298720

vi

PREFACE.

elementary Differential Equations, and at the same time that his course should be stopped for a systematic

study of the subject in some complete and exhaustive treatise, a brief account has been

added of the ordinary methods of solution of the more elementary forms occurring, leading up to and
including
all

such kinds as the student

reading
of

is

likely to
Statics,

meet with in his

Analytical

Dynamics

of a Particle,

and the elementary parts of

Rigid Dynamics. Up to the solution of the general Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients, the subject

has been treated as fully as

is

consistent with the scope of the present work.

The examples scattered throughout the text have been carefully made or selected to illustrate the articles which they immediately follow. A considerable

number

of these

examples should be worked

by the student so that the several methods explained " " in the book-work may be firmly fixed in the

mind before attacking the somewhat harder

the ends of the chapters.

sets at

These are generally of a more miscellaneous character, and call for greater

originality

and ingenuity, though few present any

considerable difficulty.

large proportion of these

examples have been actually set in examinations, and the sources to which I am indebted for them are
usually indicated.

PREFACE.

vii

My

the works of
subjects

acknowledgments are due in some degree to many of the modern writers on the
treated
of,

but

more

especially

to

the

and Todhunter, and to ProTreatises fessor Greenhill's interesting Chapter on the Integral
of Bertrand

Calculus,

which the more advanced student

may

consult with great advantage.

My

thanks are due to several friends

who have

valuable suggestions with regard to the desirable scope and plan of the work.

kindly sent

me

JOSEPH EDWARDS.
October, 1894.

CONTENTS.
INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
CHAPTER
Determination of an Area, Integration from the Definition,
I.

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

......
II.

PAGES 1 3

4
10

Volume

of Revolution,

13

CHAPTER
GENERAL METHOD.
Fundamental Theorem, Nomenclature and Notation,
, ,

....... ......
.

STANDARD FORMS.

14

19 21

20

General Laws obeyed by the Integrating Symbol, n l Integration of x x~

22

Table of Results,

2326 2628

CHAPTER
METHOD
Method of Changing the Variable, The Hyperbolic Functions,
Additional Standard Results,

III.

OF SUBSTITUTION.

......

29
33

32 36

3741

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

IV.

INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
Integration

"by Parts"

of a Product,

....
V.

PAGES

Geometrical Proof, Extension of the Rule,

4347 4849 5052

CHAPTER
Standard Cases, General Fraction with
nominator,

........
Rational

PARTIAL FRACTIONS.

55

57

Numerator and De-

5861

CHAPTER

VI.

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

Integration of
J \/K Powers and Products of Sines and Cosines, Powers of Secants or Cosecants, Powers of Tangents or Cotangents,

f^L

...
,

6568
.

..... .....
.

6974
75
77

76

78

a + cos /rfv x
o

etc.,

7983

CHAPTER
m Integration of x
-l

VII.

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
XP, where
/

X = a + bxn
dx,

Reduction Formulae for Reduction Formulae for

7T

x m ~ l Xp

....
.

8789
90
94

93
95

sin^a; cos^a:
IT

dx,

Evaluation of

j"z
/

r
sii\

-i

xdx,

ain^x cos^x dx,

96

102

CONTENTS.

xi

CHAPTER
x
/ ^).f J X. i\f
.

VIII.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS.
Integration of

.......
.

PAGES

109117
118
120

Integration of some Special Fractional Forms,

119
124 127

General Propositions and Geometrical Illustrations,

Some Elementary

Definite Integrals,

Differentiation under an Integral Sign,

.... ....
.

125 128

129

CHAPTER
Rules for Curve-Tracing,

IX.

Formulae for Rectification and Illustrative Examples,

Modification for a Closed Curve,

Arc

of

an Evolute,

Intrinsic Equation, Arc of Pedal Curve,

....... ..... ........ ........ ........

.

RECTIFICATION.

135137
13S 139

140 143
144 149 150

CHAPTER
Cartesian Formula, Sectorial Areas. Polars,

X.

Area of a Closed Curve, Other Expressions, Area between a Curve, two Radii
Evolute,

Areas of Pedals,

Corresponding Areas,

........ ....... ....... ..... ......... ........ .......

'.''-.
.

QUADRATURE.

153

157

158160 161163 164165

166167 168175
176
177

of

Curvature and the

CHAPTER
Volumes
of Revolution, Surfaces of Revolution,

XI.

SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION.

....... .......

183184 185187

xii

CONTENTS.

of Pappus, Revolution of a Sectorial Area,

Theorems

....... ......
XII.

188

PAGES 191

192

CHAPTER

SECOND-ORDER ELEMENTS OF AREA.

APPLICATIONS.
Surface Integrals, Cartesian Element, Centroids ; Moments of Inertia, Surface Integrals, Polar Element, Centroids, etc., Polar Formulae,

MISCELLANEOUS

..... .....
.

195 199

198
201

202203
204
207

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
CHAPTER
Genesis of a Differential Equation, Variables Separable,
XIII.

EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER.

.....
XIV.

211214
215

Linear Equations,

216

219

CHAPTER
Homogeneous Equations, One Letter Absent,
Clairaut's

EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER (Continued}.

221

226

Form,

227229 230233

CHAPTER XV.
EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND ORDER. EQUATIONS.
Linear Equations, One Letter Absent, General Linear Equation.

EXACT DIFFERENTIAL

235

236

237238
Removal
.

of a
.

Term,
.

239

240

Exact Differential Equations,

241242

CONTENTS.

xiii

CHAPTER

XVI.

LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH CONSTANT

COEFFICIENTS.
PAGES

General

Form

of Solution,

The Complementary Function, The Particular Integral,

.....
XVII.

243244
245
251

252263

An

Equation Reducible to Linear Form with Constant

Coefficients,

264265

CHAPTER
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES.

MISCELLANEOUS EQUATIONS.

Orthogonal Trajectories, Some Important Dynamical Equations, Further Illustrative Examples,

....

266269
270
271

272277

Answers,

278308

ABBREVIATION.
To
indicate the sources from

which many

of the

examples are

derived, in cases where a group of colleges have held an examination in common, the references are abbreviated as follows
:

(a)

= St.

Peter's,

Pembroke, Corpus

Christi, Queen's,

and

St.

Catharine's.
(j8)

= Clare, = Jesus, (7) (d) = Jesus, = Clare, (e)

Caius, Trinity Hall,

Christ's,

and King's. Magdalen, Emanuel, and Sidney Sussex. Christ's, Emanuel, and Sidney Sussex. Caius, and King's.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
CHAPTER
I.

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

1.

Use and Aim of the Integral Calculus.

The Integral Calculus is the outcome of an endeavour to obtain some general method of finding the area of the plane space bounded by given curved
lines.

In the problem of the determination of such an it is necessary to suppose this space divided up into a very large number of very small elements. We then have to form some method of obtaining the limit of the sum of all these elements when each is ultimately infinitesimally small and their
area

number

once such a method of discovered, it may be applied to other problems such as the finding of the length of a curved line, the areas of surfaces of given shape and the volumes bounded by them, the determination of moments of inertia, the positions of Centroids, etc.

infinitely increased. It will be found that when

is

summation

E.

i.

c.

<E

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Throughout the book
all

coordinate axes will be

angles will be supposed measured in circular measure, and all logarithms supposed Napierian, except when otherwise stated.

supposed rectangular,

all

2. Determination of an Area. be Summed. Notation.

Form

of Series to

Suppose it is required to find the area of the portion bounded by a given curve AB, defined by of its Cartesian equation, the ordinates AL and A and B, and the cc-axis.
of space

BM

0,0,0,0,
Fig. 1.

Let

LM

be divided into
>

equal small parts,

LQ V

eacn f length A, and let a and 6 be QiQz, Q^Qv and Then b a = ?i/L Also if the abscissae of y (f)(x) be the equation of the curve, the ordinates

LA, QiPp

$2^2* e ^ c -' through the several points L, are of lengths <j>(a), ^(a+K), ^(a+2A), etc. Let their extremities be respectively A, etc., 1? 2 and complete the rectangles V PjQg, 2 Q3 etc. Now the sum of these n rectangles falls short of the area sought by the sum of the n small figures, Let each of these be supposed J2 2 2 etc. 1 1

Q v Q2

etc.,

P P
,

AQ

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

.4

MB is supposed finite.

to slide parallel to the o>axis into a corresponding n _^Qn _iMB. position upon the longest strip, say Their sum is then less than the area of this strip, i.e. in the limit less than an infinitesimal of the first order, for the breadth Q n .iM is h and is ultimately an infinitesimal of the first order, and the length

Hence the area required is the limit when h is zero (and therefore n infinite) of the sum of the series of n terms

The sum may be denoted by

a+rh = b-h

a+rh=b-h

S
indicated.

<>(a

+ rJi.h

or
limits

where S or 2 denotes the sum between the

Regarding increment h

a variable x, the infinitesimal It is written as to or dx. customary also upon taking the limit to replace the

a+rh as may be

symbol S by the more convenient sign

limit of the above

and the

summation when h
f
I

is

diminished

indefinitely is then written

6

<f)(x)dx,

and read as "the integral of <j)(x) with regard to x = a and x = b" [or of (f>(x)dx] between the limits x " or more shortly from a to b." " " " b is called the upper or superior limit." " " " a is called the lower or inferior limit," The sum of the n + l terms,
differs

from the above

series

merely in the addition of

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
the term h(f>(a+nh) or A0(6) which vanishes when the limit is taken. Hence the limit of this series may also be written
f
I

<t>(x)dx.

Integration from the Definition. This summation may sometimes be effected by elementary means, as we now proceed to illustrate
3.
:

Cb

Ex.

1.

Calculate

e*dx.

Here we have
where
This

to evaluate

Lth==Qh[e a + e a+h + e a+

+ b = a + nh.

. . .

=Lth ^h^p\ea =Lth ^(eb - ea)-^-=e* - e\

&
1

&

[By

Diff.

Calc. for Beginners, Art. 15.]

r=n-l

/bxdx we have to find

Now
2(a + rh)h =

Lt

r=

(+rA)A, where

and

in the limit

becomes
2
6

22'
is

/ $x we a
indefinitely diminished of

have to obtain the limit when h

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

>
a
b+h

a-h

&'

and when h diminishes without a

limit, each of these

becomes

II
b'

Thus

f*JL /&==*.* 2 .r a b

Ex.

4.

Prove ab

initio that

sin

# ofo? = cos a - cos

6.

/&

We now are
[sin

to find the limit of

. . .

a + sin(a + k) + sin(a + 2A) +

to

terms]A,

sinf \

a+n
sin

l- Jsin n2, 2/

*
This
expression =
cosf

cos <

a + (2n -

1)-

j-

2JJ sin2

smwhich when A
is

indefinitely small ultimately takes the

form

cos

cos

b.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.
Prove by summation that

2.

/ /

sir sinh

xdx

cosh b

cosh

a.

3.

/b
4.

cos

OdO = sin 6

sin a.

m Integration of x As a further example

the limit of the h[a

we next

propose to consider

sum

of the series

m+

(a

+ h} m + (a + 2h)m +.
h=
7

where

a 6 -n
I\m+l

and n

is

made

indefinitely large,
of
fy v>/
I

2 is m + 1 when A is m Ay indefinitely diminished, whatever y may be, provided it be of finite magnitude. For the expression may be written

[Lemma.

The Limit

m+1

not being zero.

_ yin + 1

-1
y
and
less

since

is

to

be ultimately zero we
^\7?l 1 -J-J

may

consider - to be

than unity, and /

to

we may +l
,

therefore apply the Binomial

Theorem

expand

whatever be the value of m+l.

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

(See Dif. Gale, for Beginners, Art. 13.) "becomes

Thus the expression

m+I
In the result

-x(a convergent series) y when A is indefinitely diminished.]

put

i/

success! vely
l

= a, a+h,
l

a+2h,etc....a + (n

l)h,

and we get

-a ~ m+

_ r,

- (a + n^
m

h(a+n-Ui)

or adding numerators for a new numerator and denominators for a new denominator,

fe[a

w+

(a

/t)

w+

(a

+ 2h)m +

+ (a + n^l

or

Lt h=Q h[am + (a + A) m + (a

m+1
may
'

'

In accordance with the notation of Art. be written

6

2,

this

xmdx=
7

m+1

8
The
letters

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
a and

ever, provided

xm does not become

may

represent any finite quantities whatinfinite

between

x=a

and

When
is

a is taken as exceedingly small and ultimately zero, it necessary in the proof to suppose h an infinitesimal of higher
it has been assumed that in the limit V the values given to y. is

order, for
all

zero for

When
comes

=1

and a = 0, ultimately the theorem be7

xm dx=
o

if

m+1

be positive,

or

= oo
may

if

m + 1 be negative.

This theorem

be written also
r

according as

m+1

is

positive or negative.

The

limit

or,

which

is

the same thing,

n= oo

-Lst

M4-'

differs

from the former by

1

i.e.

by

in the limit,

and

is

therefore also

-?, or

oo

according as

m+1

is

positive or negative. be discussed later.

The

case

when

m + l=0

will

Ex. 1. Find the area of the portion of the parabola 7/ 2 =4a# bounded by the curve, the #-axis, and the ordinate xc.

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

NM

Let us divide the length c into n equal portions of which th is the (r+l) and erect ordinates NP, MQ. Then if
,

PR
i.e.

be drawn parallel to
is infinite

NM,
or

when n

of the

sum

the area required

is

of such rectangles as

PM (Art.

the limit
2),

Lt^PN.NM

where nh = c.

Now

[By Art.

4.]

Area =f
of the rectangle of which the of the area are adjacent sides.

=f

extreme ordinate

arid abscissa

with

2. Find the mass of a rod whose density varies as the power of the distance from one end. Let a be the length of the rod, o> its sectional area supposed

Ex.

uniform.

Divide the rod into n elementary portions each of

length
of
1

-.

The volume
is

of the

(r+l)th element from the end

(
|

zero densitv

(7+la\ m \

Its

w-, and its density varies from n * *" mass is therefore intermediate between
coa** 1 -

to

and

**

10
Thus the mass

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
of the

whole rod

lies

between

and
and in the
limit,

when n

increases indefinitely, becomes

ra+1
5.

Determination of a Volume of Revolution.

Let it be required to find the volume formed by the revolution of a given curve AB about an axis in its own plane which it does not cut.

Taking the axis of revolution

figure

may

as the cc-axis, the The be described exactly as in Art. 2.

Fig. 3.

V P-fy^ 2 Qz> etc., trace in their revolution circular discs of equal thickness, and The several of volumes <jrA L 2 LQ19 etc. annular portions formed by the revolution of the portions P^R^P^ 2 3 3 etc., may be conelementary rectangles
.

AQ

AR^^

nrP^ Q&, PEP

.
,

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

11

sidered made to slide parallel to the #-axis into a corresponding position upon the disc of greatest radius, say that formed by the revolution of the figure Pn-iQn-iNB. Their sum is therefore less than this disc, i.e. in the limit less than an infinitesimal of the first order, for the breadth Qn -\N is h, and is ultimately an infinitesimal of the first order, and the

length

NB is supposed finite.
n

Hence the volume required

zero (and therefore

is

infinite), of

the limit, when h is the sum of the series

or as

it

may
7r\

be written
Cb

Cb

or

2 y dx.

Ex.
line

1. The portion of the parabola y 2 = 4a,r bounded by the # = c revolves about the axis. Find the volume generated.

Let the portion required be that formed by the revolution of the area APN^ bounded by the parabola and an ordinate PN.

12 Then dividing
have

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
as before into elementary circular laminae,
re

we

/cy^dx
=J
[Or
if

4a:r
2

xdx

[Art. 4.]

AN
PA and height AN.
7
'

cylinder of radius

expressed as a series
[c
I

Volume = 4a?r

x dx

r
.

= 2a?rc 2.]

[Art. 4.]

Ex.

2.

Find the volume of the prolate spheroid formed by the

revolution of the ellipse

~+^- = l 2 *

about the

#-axis.

Fig. 5.

Dividing as before into elementary circular laminae axes coincide with the #-axis, the volume is twice
/

whose

Try^dx.

Now
which, according to Article
4, is

-a a

- x*)dx

equal to
or

5[a*.(-0)-^]
and the whole volume
is

NOTATION, SUMMATION, APPLICATIONS.

[or
if

13

desirable

we may

obtain the same result without using

the sign of integration, as

EXAMPLES.
Find the area bounded by the curve the ordinates #=a, #=&.
1.

^^ the #-axis, and

2. If the area in Question 1 revolve round the ,#-axis find the volume of the solid formed. 3. Find by the method of Art. 2, the area of the triangle formed by the line y=x tan 0, the #-axis and the line x = a. Find also the volume of the cone formed when this triangle revolves about the #-axis. 4. Find the volume of the reel-shaped solid formed by the

revolution about the y-axis of that part of the parabola cut off by the latus-rectum.
5. Find the volume of the sphere formed the circle x2 +y 2 = a 2 about the .r-axis.

y^^ax
of

by the revolution

6. Find the areas of the figures bounded by each of the also the following curves, the #-axis, and the ordinate x = h volume formed by the revolution of each area about the #-axis
; :

(a)

7/3

= a *a

(8)
7.

aty

which the density at each point varies as the distance from the centre. 8. Find the mass of the prolate spheroid formed by the revolution of the ellipse ^ 2 /a 2 -f^/ 2 /6 2 = l about the #-axis, supposing the density at each point to be //x,
of a circular disc of

Find the mass

CHAPTEE

II

GENEEAL METHOD. STANDAED FOEMS.

6. Before proceeding further with applications of the Integral Calculus, we shall establish a general theorem which will in many cases enable us to infer the result of the operation indicated by

n
I

<p(x)dx

without having recourse to the usually tedious, and often difficult, process of Algebraic or Trigonometrical

Summation.
PROP. Let </)(x) be any function of x which is and continuous between given finite values a and b of the variable x let a be < 6, and suppose the difference b a to be divided into n portions each equal h, so that b a = nh. It is required to find the limit of ike sum of the series
7.

finite

ft[0O) + <p(a + h) + 4>(a + 2h)+... + 0(6 h) + 0(6)], when h is diminished indefinitely, and therefore increased without limit.
[It may at once be seen that this limit be the greatest term the sum is
is finite,

for

if

<$>(a+rh)

- a)<t>(a + rh) + h<$>(a +

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

which is finite, since by hypothesis x intermediate between b and a.]
<(#)
is finite four all

15

values of

Let \fs(x) be another function of x such its differential coefficient, i.e. such that

that

<j)(x)

is

We shall then prove that Lth ^[<fa)+^a+h)+^

By
definition

^a)*
a

and therefore

=
is

where a :

is a quantity whose limit diminishes indefinitely thus

;

zero

when h
lt

h(j)(a)

=\/s(a+

7i)

t/r(a)

+ha

Similarly
h<f>(a

etc.,

= Ih) \[s(a + nil)

,
,

where the quantities a 2 a 3 ..., a n are all, like a v quantities whose limits are zero when h diminishes
indefinitely.

By

addition,

h[<f>(a)

+ 0(a + h) + <f>(a
, . . .

Let a be the greatest of the quantities a v a 2 then

an

Afoi+ag+^.+On]

is

<nha,
limit.

i.e.

<(&

a)a,

and therefore vanishes in the

Thus

16

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
The term
fc</>(6)

desire, it may be this result, and it

is in the limit zero; hence if we added to the left-hand member of may then be stated that

.e.

</)(x)dx

= \ls(b)
is

\ls(a).

This result
notation

\[s(b)
.

\fs(a)

frequently denoted

by the

p\/r(a3)

this result it appears that when the form of the function ^fs(x) (of which </>(x) is the differential coefficient) is obtained, the process of algebraic or

From

rb

trigonometric summation to obtain avoided.

<j)(x)dx

may

be

The

letters b

to denote finite quantities.

and a are supposed in the above work We shall now extend our
let
I

notation so as to
b

<f>(x)dx

express the limit

^js(a), i.e.

when

becomes

infinitely large of
I

^(6)
I

(j)(x)dx

= Lt b=x
we
or

<j)(x)dx.

(j)(x)dx

shall be understood
fb
\

to

fb
-\I,(a)]

Lta=00

<f>(x)dx.

Ex.

1.

The

differential

coefficient of

is

m plainly x

Hence

if

m <$>(x)=x we have

df(x):L^ '

m+l

and

m+1 m + \

m+l

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

Ex.
2.

17
a?

known

to be sin x.

The quantity whose Hence

6

differential coefficient is cos

is

cos

x dx = sin

sin a.

Ex.

3.

itself e

x
.

The quantity whose Hence

differential coefficient

is

e* is

Ex.

4.

EXAMPLES.
Write down the values of
rl
,-2

1.

/b a

X CiX) /Vdr,
it

2i, 2.

X Cf/JCm /Vcfo?,
I

o. 3.

d/X^ cfo,

4.

1
ir

rA

r4

cos

/2

x dx,

6.

sec 2^; dx^

7.

ia

8.

Geometrical Illustration of Proof.

:

of the above theorem may be interpreted geometrically thus Let be a portion of a curve of which the ordinate is finite and continuous at all points between A and B, as also the tangent of the angle which the tangent to the curve makes with the a?-axis. Let the abscissae of A and be a and b respectively. Draw ordinates A N, BM. Let the portion be divided into n equal portions each of length h. Erect ordinates at each of these points of division cutting the curve in P, Q, R, ..., etc. Draw the successive tangents AP^ PQi, QRi, etc., and the lines

The proof

AB

NM

AP ,PQ QR ,...,
2
2J

y = ^r(x\ and
then

parallel

to

the
let

<f>(a\ <$>(a

+ h\

V^') = <M> <$>(a + Zh\ etc., are respectively tanP.JPj, taii^Pft, etc.,
B

,r-axis,

and

let

the equation of the curve be

E.

I.

C.

18
and

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
-h), ...,

are respectively the lengths

Now
2

it is

clear that the algebraic

2
,

sum

of
i.e.

P P,
Hence

R R,
2

...,

is

MB-NA,

s,

u
Fig.

L
6.

Now

the portion within square brackets may be shewn to For if for instance be the diminish indefinitely with h. etc., the sum greatest of the several quantities PjP,

R^ Q^
i.e.

[P1 P+Q 1 Q+...]

is

<nR R,
1

<(b-a)-}~.

But

if

the abscissa of

be called

#,

then

and
[Diff.

(x)

+ -^"(x + Qh\

Calc. for Beginners, Art. 185.]

so that

R^R =
(6

= "(x 4- <9A)

(x

+ Oh),

and
which
is

a)
first order.

an infinitesimal in general of the

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

Thus
Lth=0
or

19

Z
Z^=
A^(6)

Also since

= 0, we

have,

by

addition,

9.

Interrogative Character of the Integral Cal-

culus.

In the differential calculus the student has learnt to differentiate a function of any assigned character with regard to the independent variable conIn other words, having given y = \f^(x) tained. methods have been there explained of obtaining the form of the function \[s'(x) in the equation

how

The proposition of Art. 7 shews that if we can reverse this operation and obtain the form of ^(x) when \l/(x)
is

given

we

shall
fb
I

be able to perform the operation

t

fb
I

cf)(x)dx

i.e.

\l/(x)dx,
b

by merely taking the function

;

\fr(x\ substituting

and a alternately for x and subtracting the result from the former thus obtaining

latter

We shall therefore confine our attention for the next few chapters to the problem of reversing the
operations of the differential calculus. Further, the quantity b has been assumed to have any value whatever provided it be finite; we may therefore replace it by x and write the result of the
proposition of Art 7 as
fx
I

<j)(x)dx

= \ls(x)

20

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

10. When the lower limit a is not specified and we are merely enquiring the form of the (at present) unknown function \fr(x), whose differential coefficient is the known function $(#), the notation used is

the limits being omitted.

11.

Nomenclature.
of these expressions
is

The nomenclature
b

as follows

r (p(x)dx
is

or

a and

called the "definite" integral of b ;

fx
I

<f>(x)

between limits

<j)(x)dx

or

\{s(x)

\[s(a)

where the upper limit is a "corrected" integral;

<f>(x)dx

left

undetermined

is

called

or

-^(x)

without any specified limits and regarded merely as the reversal of an operation of the differential " " calculus is called an "indefinite" or unconnected
integral.
12.

Addition of a Constant.

It will be obvious that if <p(x) is the differential coefficient of ^]s(x\ it is also the differential coefficient of \lr(x) C where C is any constant whatever for the differential coefficient of any constant is zero.

Accordingly

we might

write

This constant

is

however not usually written clown,

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

but will be understood to exist in all "cases of definite integration though not expressed.
13. Different

21
in-

will

processes of indefinite integration for frequently give results of different form

;

instance
is

I-

dx

is

sin' ^ or

}*/I-x 2
pressions.

cos~%, for

Vl

the differential coefficient of either of these exYet it is not to be inferred that

sin" 1

^^
is

cos' 1 ^.

differ

But what is really true by a constant, for

that sin" 1^ and

cos" 1 ^

so that

Vl-a
,

dx =
2

sin

or

J/s/l-a;

dx=

cos-^

the arbitrary constants being different.

14.

Inverse Notation.

Agreeably with the accepted notation for the inverse Trigonometrical and inverse Hyperbolic functions, we might express the equation

or

j5^)
it is

= ^);

and

occasionally useful to employ this notation,

22

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

which very well expresses the interrogative character of the operation we are conducting.
15.

General Laws satisfied by the Integrating

\dx.
will

Symbol
(1) It

be

plain

from the meaning of the

symbols that
s

but that
(2)

is <j>(x) l-y- (fi(x)dx

+ any arbitrary constant.

is

for if u, v,

The operation of integration w be any functions of x,

-T-j

distributive;

|u^+l^^+l^^r
JurZ#+

and therefore (omitting constants)

|i;cfe-f

\wdx =

(3)

The operation
(I'll

of integration is

commutative

with regard to constants.

For

if
-j

= v,

and a be any constant, we have

d
so that (omitting

du

any constant of integration)

au =
or

\av dx 9

a\vdx=\avdx,
establishes the theorem.

which

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

23

now proceed to a detailed consideration of 16. several elementary special forms of functions.
17.

We

Integration of

xn

By

differentiation of -

1 n +^

we

obtain

d x _ n+ dx
Hence
Art.
7,

_
n+l

nrfll

(as has been already seen in Art. 4 and in Ex. 1)

Thus the rule for the integration of any constant power of x is, Increase the index by unity and divide
by
the

index

so increased.

For example,

/nA
TTn'^e

X X = ~''

X
}

x=

11
;

if

x
}

x~^ =

T4

"4^4-

EXAMPLES.
down the
integrals of
1.

#"

^7

999

#1000

^"J

-^"Jf

a O.

24
18.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
The Case of x~\
remembered that x~ l or x coefficient of log x. Thus
\-dx = logx. Jx
fl
is

It will be
ential

the differ-

This therefore forms an apparent exception to the general rule f ^n+l n dx = \x

19. The result, however, may be deduced as a limiting Supplying the arbitrary constant, we have
case.

/x dx
where

=
n+l

+ C= ~
.

-I-

n+l

A = C+

n+ l

and is still an arbitrary constant. Taking the limit when n + l=0,

takes the form log x,

[Diff. Calc.

for Beginners, Art. 15.]

and

as

tively

arbitrary we may suppose that it contains a negainfinite portion together with another arbitrary
is

7i

~\~ J.

portion A.

Thus
20.

Lt n== -i {xndx = log x + A.

In the same

way
1

as in the integration of x n

we have

= (n + V)a(ax + b)n

and

^-log(a% + 6) = &v

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

IA n 7 (oo5 and therefore f/ \(ax+o) dx =

25

+ &)n+1
'
,

(n+l)a

and

Jax + b

'r

= -\og(ax + b\ 6V
a
often
as
find
,-

fFor convenience
printed as

we
,

shall

jdx Jax + b
o,

Jax + b'

-r,

Jja +x*
2

dx

J*Ja* + x*

etc.]

EXAMPLES.
Write down the integrals of of a+x, a 1. ax, a x_ a+x 1
1

x,

ax?

a?

x
a

'

a-\-x
2>

3.

a+x

bx

(a-#)

n*

(a

x)

a+x a-x* x+a x d

21.
coefficients of

(a+x)

(a

xY

We may next remark n+l

[<f>(x)]

that since the differential

and of log $(x) are respectively

and

we have
and

n
{[<t>(x)] <t>'(x)dx

The second
use.

of these results especially

:

is

of great

be put into words thus any fraction of which the numerator coefficient of the denominator is
It

may

the integral of is the differential

log (denominator).

For example,

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
=
/co\,xdx
.#
*"

Sill

x dx X
-a?^

=
=

log sin #,
log cos x = log sec x-

dx

/tan

cosx

EXAMPLES.
Write down the integrals
n x e ,
~\~ Ct

of

~-,

(a

22. It will now be perceived that the operations of the Integral Calculus are of a tentative nature, and that success in integration depends upon a knowledge of the results of differentiating the simple functions. It is therefore necessary to learn the table It is of standard forms which is now appended. practically the same list as that already learnt for differentiation, and the proofs of these results lie in differentiating the right hand members of the several results. The list will be gradually extended and a

supplementary

list

given

later.

PRELIMINARY TABLE OF RESULTS TO BE COMMITTED TO MEMORY.

GENERAL METHOD. STANDARD FORMS.

r,X

27

tUj

U/^

(e

dx
x dx

cos

28
them.
as

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
x

The reason is obvious. Each of these functions decreases increases through the first quadrant ; their differential coefficients are therefore negative. Also it is a further help to observe the dimensions of each side.
instance,

For

x and a being supposed

linear,
i

is

of zero

va

X"

dimensions.
tegral.

There could therefore be no - prefixed to the ina C dx is of dimensions -1. Hence the result of 2 Again / 2
J
d~" -\-

integration

must be
a

of dimensions -1.
is

Thus the

integral could

not be tan" 1 - (which

of zero dimensions).

The student should

therefore have no difficulty in remembering in which cases the

factor is

to be prefixed.

EXAMPLES.
Write down the
tions
:

indefinite integrals of the following func-

'

2.
*

3.

cos -, 2
cot

cos s# sin #,
.

4.

x + tan x,

cos^f

\sin^7

-+-^- V snr^/

#e + e*

'

log sin x

^sec- 1^. \/^-i*

CHAPTER

III.

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
Change of the Independent Variable. The independent variable may be changed from x to z by the change x = F(z), by the formula
25.

V being any
Or
if

function of

x.

we

write

V=f(x),

the formula will be

To prove

this, it is

only necessary to write

u = \Vdx\
then

=F.
du = du dx --_-= r dx dz dz dx dz V-j~r
9

But

whence

u=

-j-. dz

30
Thus

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
to integrate
/

1 -dx, let tan~ #=;s.

Then

dx

and the

integral becomes

*
dz

26.

In using the formula

it

after choosing the form of the transformation x = F(z\ is usual to make use of differentials, writing the

equation

j^=F'(z)

as

dx = F'(z)dz]

the formula will then be reproduced by replacing dx of the left hand side by F'(z)dz, and x by F(z). Thus
in the preceding example, after putting tan~ 1^t =0,
i

we

may

write
-

I+x*
27.
is

*=d*

and
l+.r

We next consider the case when the integration a definite one between specified limits. The result obtained above, when x = F(z) is
Let

then

and

if

the limits for

a;

be a and

b,

we have

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.

31

Now when
and when
Also

x = a, x = b,

z = F~ \a) z = F~ \b}.

f{F(z)}=-j^,{F(z)},

and

whence

so that the result of integrating f{F(z)}F'(z) with regard to z between limits F~\a) and F~\b) is identical with that of integrating f(x) with regard to x between the limits a and 6. Ex.1.
Evaluate

J N /a?

cos \Txdx.

Let xz^^ and therefore dx=Zzdz

^x
2.
3

cosfjxdx

-cos2. 2-2(^2=2

cos z dz

= 2 smz

J z

Ex.

Evaluate
=2;,

.Aos x^dx.
;

Let ^

and therefore 3xPdx=dz

/

/.

cos x*dx

= llcoszdz = ^smz=^ sin x\

Put ^?=tan

e,

then dx=sec 2 0d6 when # = 0, we have

;

= 0,
4
;

when # = 1, we have 0=. T

32

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
ir
ir

:.

\J\+*

f-T^=- dx =

P *?| sec
{

dB =

sec#

fsec B tan
{

dB

= fsec
Ex.4.
Evaluate
e
x

= sec - - sec = V2 - 1.
[i.e.

f ex
'

dx
_x

\ Tsech^^].
j
o

Let 6^ = ^, then 3=e. Hence

dx = dz.

When #=0,
>

0=1, and when #

= rtan-'/V= ten- - tan-1 = t

L
Ji
is

The

indefinite integral

tan~V.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate

cose

(Put

^=4
4
(Put a*=z). v

- cos(log x) x
2.

(Pat log x =

Evaluate \-=-,dx (Put x*=z\ " 4

J

1+^

I*
J
e
x

l-f#6

reintegrate

acos# + l

-,

a^sin

+ b tanh x.

Evaluate f
Q

^
dx
a*

(Put

^+1=4

5.

Evaluate

/"

(Put

6.

Evaluate

(Put x-\=z).
da?

7.

Evaluate

/*

(Put

^=0 2).

J
8.

2V^(1+^)
-

Evaluate [

dx.

9.

Evaluate

2W# - 1

dx.

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
NOTE ON THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.
28.

33

Definitions.

For purposes of integration it is desirable that the student shall be familiar with the definitions and fundamental properties of the direct and inverse
hyperbolic functions.

By

analogy with the exponential values of the

sine, cosine, tangent, etc.,

_ _ __
&
e

the exponential functions

ex

-*
~

ex

+e~ x
2

-e~ x

PTP

e?+e-*'

are respectively written

cosh
29.

x,

tanh#,

etc.

Elementary Properties.
clearly

We

have

tanh x
coth x

-,

= =

C/ -

CJLJ.iJ.l

e~ x

sinho?

t&rihx

-=cosh
2 sinh x cosh x = 2

AM
^
.

-^

^
^

= sinh2#,
common

with many other results analogous to the formulae of Trigonometry.

E.
i.

c.

34
30.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Inverse Forms.

Let us search for the meaning of the inverse

function sinh" 1^.

Put
then

x = smh y =

and

&=x
y = log(x
shall take this expression
2

Thus
and we
viz., log (& + >v/l + #

with a positive

sign,

as sinh" 1 ^.

31. Similarly, putting cosh~ 1 x

= y, we
JL

have

cosh y ==

ty+e-y

and
and

e*y

ey

= x*Jx*-l,
(x

whence
and we
viz.,

y = log
shall take this expression

*Jx l

1),

with a positive

sign,

/# 2
32.

as

l Again, putting i&nh- x

y,
-

we have

x = tanh y =

and therefore

e2

y=1

x
-

whence

tanh

-l

x = 4- log ^ " S 1

05

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
Similarly
33.
.

35

coth

~ l

x = J log ---r-. X
JL

We
,

shall thus consider

.,,
,

sinh"

,x 1
-

synonymous with

log

cosh" 1 - synonymous with

"
l

log"
Ct"^~X

tanh

X -

synonymous with J log

and
coth" 1- synonymous with ^ log
C ""
Cfc

34.

The Gudermannian.
is

mannian
If

Again, the function cos^sechu of u and written

called the

Guder-

^=c
sech 2 u = tanh

sin

\/l
seen
"
-,

it,

a and

tan x =

tanh u

= sinh u.
.

Hence

gd u = cos

sech

sin

Hanh u = tan ~ x sinh u.

\Qf
2t/

35. Further, if

u = log tan( -r + ^ ),
l

we have

+ tan|
;

36

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
x c u -l tan- =

whence

2 tan

x
2

-l

and

tan a; =

=2

^TTT

.e: !

0_ e ~2~
u = gd u.

~4^~
1

Hence

^ = tan

sinh

Thus

logtan(j+|)=gd-^
x.

the inverse Gudermannian of

EXAMPLES.
Establish the following results
1.
:

/cosh#cfo?=sinh#.
sinh

4.

/cosech 2.rc^= -coth#.

2.

xdx = cosh x.

sm
5.
/
,

.^ o?.r

sech x.

J
2 (sech A'dr=taiihtf.

cosh%

3.

6.

J
7.

Writing sg x for sin gd x,

:

etc.,

establish the following

results

(a)

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
,*

37

36.

Integrals of

and
X -4f
-

The

differential

coefficient

of log e

is

= log
,

.,

F
..

dx
2

bimilarly
37.

Jx/^

-^

= logx + \/x
a

-a
2
I
,

= smh .

1l

a?

^ =cosh -1 -. a
,

In the inverse hyperbolic forms these results

resemble that for the integral

Va -*
2

^, viz.,
2

sin' 1 -*

and the analogy

38.

is

an aid to the memory.

:

might have established the results thus f dx =. put oj = a sinh it, then To find t
I

We

)*Jx*+a^ dx = a cosh u du and

\/x 2 + az = a cosh u.
1

Hence

W^ +
2

tt

= leZu = t6 = sinh"
J

-.

Similarly
f
!

putting a? = a cosh u, we

dx
/

Jx/x 2

=
a2

Fa sinh
I-

u du = f 11^ laK =u = cosh~ 1 -. ri a sinh u J

7

-tf 2
;

have

Integrals of
39.

To integrate
a?

*A

Let
then

= a sin dx = a cos

d$,

38

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
{+/tf-^dx =

and

ia sin 6 a cos
.

0+
-

-^

or

sin-

40.

To integrate

Let
then
,

then since

= a sinh z, cf^ = acosh0 2 2 1 + sinh = cosh z,

cc

we have

J^^dx = a

2
\

cosh 2 z dz

= |a sinh
.....

a cosh "z + -^.

Va

2-smhx

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
41.

39

To integrate
x a cosh z,
;

Let
then

dx = a sinh z dz
cosh%
2 1 = sinh 0,

then since

2 2 Jsif^cPdx = a sinh dz
J
j

= Ja sinh z

a cosh

C62?

^-,

or

a2

-log42. If

we put tan# =

and therefore

we have

__
[by Art. 40.] tan x sec 05
^
,

.,

h J log(tan a?

+ sec ^),

or

_snce + _ &1 2 cos 2 # J log^

n
-,

40
43.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Integrals of cosec

x and

sec x.

Let tan ^ = z 2t
1

taking the logarithmic differential

9

2tan

x
2

x7 dz ^dx = ^
2 z

or

dx
-;

dz
.

smx

Thus

cosec

xdx\
let
2*

= log z = log tan

^.

In this example

x = -= + y.

Then
and
sec

dx = dy,

ydy = log tan (T + 9)xdx = log tan ( r+s)

or

Hence

sec

&

~*

44.

We
f

have now the

ADDITIONAL STANDARD FORMS,

dx
1

. ,

Jx/^+o
f

g
=1

x+\/x*+a?
a
,x

dx

JTP^l
\\/a
2

x 2 dx =

+/x

4 a 2 die =
f

l+Jx

a2 dx =

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION.
I

cosec

x dx = log

tan^.

Isecsccfo

=log tanf ^-

EXAMPLES.
Write down the integrals of

3.

4.

5.

7.

8.

cosec 2#, cosec(a#+&),

-sin2^'

tanV 3sin^-

^'

a sin ^7+ 6 cos x

10.

Deduce

/
/

cosec#cfo?=logtan - by expressing cosec x as ^j

11.

Find \SQexdx by putting sin x=z.

42
12.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Show
that
/ /

sec x dx

= cosh

13.

Integrate
1

tflogtf'

when

represents log log log

... ^7,

the log being repeated

r times.
15.

Prove
[ST.

PETER'S COLL.,

etc., 1882.]

CHAPTER

IV.

INTEGEATION BY PARTS.
45,

"

Integration
,

Since

d - (uv}

by Parts of a Product = dv du

"

u - +v-,
t

it

follows that
t

uv = u^- dx +
I

v-j- dx,
7

or

lu-j-dx = wu J dx
7

dv

f
\

du
dx

v-j~ dx.
/

If

u = <f>(x) and

the so that ^- =\{s(x), ^=jT/r(#)cfe,

above rule

may

be written

\<}>(x)\ls(x)dx=

$(x)\ \\ls(x)dx\
^(35)
I

0'(oO| J^H[aj)da5Jcte;

or interchanging

and Vr( a; )>

'

J^(oj)^(a?)dte=^(aj)

<f>(x)dx

j^'(^)

\dx.
:

J0(a?)efcB

Thus in integrating the product of two functions, if the integral be not at once obtainable, it is possible when the integral of either one is known, say ^(x), to connect the integral
\<t>(x)\ls(x)dx

44

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
0'(#)
lx/r(#)cfo
\

with a new integral

dx

which

may be more
The

easily integrable than the original

product.
rule may be put into words thus of the product <j>(x)\{s(x) Integral 1st function x Integral of 2nd
46.
:

-the
Ex.
1.

Integral of

[Diff.

Co. of 1st

x Int.

of 2nd].

Integrate
it is

x cos nx.
if

Here

important to connect

possible

xcosnxdx with
j

another integral in which the factor x has been removed. This may be done if x be chosen as the function $(x\ since in the second integral <$(x\ i.e. unity, occurs in place of x. Then

Thus by the
J
'

rule

(x vxnxd**,*!*?- /"l.5

x
'

sin 9^7

- n
J

If

cosn&N

"~~~~\

n\

sin

nx

cos nx

47. Unity may be taken as one of the factors to aid an integration.

Thus

log

xdx

log x dx
/

= x log x

-(log x)dx

=x log x

\dx

INTEGRA TION B T PARTS.

48. The operation of integrating repeated several times.
mt.

45

Thus
and

f
/

? 2 #9cos nx dx

# 2 sin nx n n

by parts may be
nx 7 dx. n

f
/

2#

sin

finally,

Hence

x^ nx dx =**** n
_

COS -*\ _^ n nL

#2 sin nx ~
I

Zx cos nx
T9

2 sin nx
7^
*

49. If one of the subsidiary integrals returns into the original form this fact may be utilized to infer the result of the integration.

Ex.

1.

ax

sin bx dx

sin

bx-~\
bx+-l

e^cos bx dx,
e^sin bx dx

and
therefore,
if

ax

cos bx dx

cos

P and
/

Q stand

respectively for
/

ax

$m bx dx and

ax

cos bx dx,

we have
and
whence

aP +bQ = eaxsin bx,

-bP+aQ=eftxco8bx
n ax P=enr ct
>

sin bx
=

b cos

bx
/

r? a 2 +o 2

and
(a
2

w+v
+6
2

)~ e

ax

cos ( bx \

tan" 1 -

aJ

).

46

INTEGRAL CALCUL US.

these results are the same that I in the formulae

The student will observe that we should obtain by putting n=

ss < i

^)>& t^<^(^+^)'
[Diff. Gale,

for Beginners, Art. 61, Ex. 4.]

rx

And this is otherwise sm /j^,\ g fag game as to / pnsi^

j

obvious.
>

For
>

if

to

differentiate

multiply by a factor r

Va2 + 6 2 and
is

to

increase the angle

inverse operation,

a must divide out again the

1

1 by tan" -, the integration, which

the

factor

Va2 +6 2

and diminish the angle by tan"

Ex.
2.
2 Integrate \/a

-.

A/o2^2

_ ^=
_

x l by the

rule of integration

by

parts.

[Note this step.]

% a2 sin~ l - i

c
I

CL

v a2

whence, transposing and dividing by

2,

which agrees with the result of Art.

Ex. 3
Integrate
e
3x

39.

e*

sm x cos ^.
2 3

Here

sin% cos 3# =
cos -x -

(1

cos 4#)cos x

-=

_(2e

3a:

INTEGRA TION B Y PAR TS.

Hence, by Ex.
I

47
^

1,

e^siiA cos 3# dx

-j

= cos

tan~ r

- J_ cos(3^-^--^cosf5^-tan- 1 |)l V 3/J 4/ ^34 V 3\/2

,:

[Compare Ex. 16, n= l in the result.]

p.

55, Diff.

Gale, for Beginners, putting

EXAMPLES.
Integrate by parts x z 1. xe , x^e*, x e?) x cosh #,
:

2.

3.

4.
5. 6.

2 ^?COS^7, ^ COS07, ^?COS2 x sin x cos #, ^ sin x sin 2# sin 3^. #2logtf, ^nlog^7, ^n (log^) 2 e^sin^costf, e*sin x cos ^ cos 2#.
.

ax

sin^ sin qx sin r^?.

7.

Calculate

|^sin^^,

*x sin 2^p c?^

8.

Show

that

9.

Integrate

Isin" 1 ^^,

/^sin" 1 ^^,

50.

Geometrical Illustration.

PQ be any arc of a curve referred to rectangular axes Ox, Oy, and let the coordinates of be (XQ y Q ), and of Q (x v y^). Let PN, be the ordinates and the V 1 abscissae of the points P, Q. Then plainly
Let

QM

PN QM

area

PNMQ = rect. OQ - rect. OP - area

area

But

PNMQ = f

48

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
area PN^M^Q =
I

and

x dy.
cv\

Thus
ri

y
M,

N,

INTEGRA TION B Y PARTS.

so that the equation above

49
'*

may

be written

and thus the rule of integration by parts

geometrically.
51.

is

established

Integrals of the
I

Form
I

a^sin nx dx,

#mcos nx dx.

Reduction formulae for such integrals as the above be found. Denote them respectively by Then, integrating by parts, we have at once

may readily Sm and Cm

.

cos nx

m~

and(7m =
Thus

and Om =

=
and Cm =

cosnx ____

+m^
,

,sin7i#

_---

771(971

v___
1)

- ,cosnx l

m(m -----

Thus when the four integrals = l are found, viz., and

for the cases

m=

n
>S n
I

sin

nxdx=
D

cos

me
,

J
E.
I.

C.

50

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
GT
xv

f
I

cos

7 nx dx =

sinrac
,

o\

at. =
Ice

sin

7 nx dx =

eosnx

sinnx

\x cos
\

T^CC

^ ax =

all others can be deduced the above formulae.

by

successive applications of

52.

Extension of the Rule for Integration by

Parts.
If

u and

v be functions of x and dashes denote

differentiations and suffixes integrations with respect to x we may prove the following extension of the

rule for integration

\

by

parts,

uvdx = uvl

u'v

where

u^ n

~ 1^

is

written for

u with

TI

dashes; for

\uvdx
Vufv^dx
\vtf'v

=uvl
=u'v 2

\u\dx,
\u v^dx,
Vuf'Vzdx,
rf

dx =u"vz

u'"v Bdx = ufv^

etc.

u^'v^dx,

= etc.

u(n -

l)

Vn _ 1 dx = u(

n ~ Vv

- I vf^Vndx.

INTEGRA TION B Y PARTS.

Hence adding and subtracting alternately
1

51
*

u v dx = uvl

u'v 2

+ u"vs

u'"v4 +...

Ex.
obtain

1.

If

we apply

this rule to

\x m e axdx, we immediately

(xmea*dx=xm
J

-mxm-

a2

Ex.

2.

It will be at once seen that the integrals

/

#msin nx dx

and

m cos nx dx

of the last article

may be

treated in this way.

EXAMPLES.
"Write
1.

down

the integrals of

x*e*,

^coshtf, ^sinh^.

2. .r2 sin a, ^?3 sin #, 3.

^3 sin 2^;, ^4 sin x cos x.

/

Evaluate

^sin^o?^,

x^co^xdx^

*0

53.

The determination

of the integrals
Ja3

l# n e aa; sin bx dx,

n e aa; cos bx dx,

may

be at once

effected.

For remembering n
r=

where

va + 6
2

and

tand>=-,
ct/

52

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

we have
I

xne axsm bx dx =

e ax sin

(bx

d>)

r2

e axsin (bx

r3
n\

^^~

or

e ax {P sin

bx

Q cos

where

X
xn
sin

3- COS

30

...

Q=

xn ~ l
^-

sin

20 + n(n

1)

xn ~^ ^- sin 30

...

Similarly

L^a*cos i x dx = eP*{P cos bx+Q sin bx}.

Ex.
1.

Integrate

ix^smxdx.
S^e^sinf
3
a;

Since

\e*smxdx
a:

.r

-^J,
2

we have f^3 e

sm^^=^ 2'^e sm('.r - ^ - 3^ 2~Vsin^ .

2" Vsinf .77

\

- ? V4
/

2~VsinCr- TT)

=etc.

Ex.

2.

Prove
^|

/r=n ^Vto^ito-^-iy^j^^
EXAMPLES.
1.

-r jQ

^s

Integrate (a)
(5)

~ femai lxdx.

(d)
(e)

/"

(sfaitr^xdx.

(c)

Ixv&Pxdx.

'(/) /"cos-

^.

INTEGRA TION B Y PARTS.

2.

53
'

Integrate (a) [

x sm " 1

fdx.

(c)

/sin- 1

(&)

/^5^&'.
~
tan - l x

(d)

r pin tan - l x

-dx.

/ptn

(c)

dx.
J
*-*

dx.

4.

Integrate (a)

../*..
I

e(suix + cosx)ax.

...

..

(a) \x

(b)

xefsm^x dx.

(e)

^ 2 2*sin
cos
-j

2.

dx.

(c)

cosh ax sin bx dx,

(/)

b log

\dx.

5.

Integrate

log

- sin' 1 ^ dx. x

6.

Integrate

7.

Integrate

8.

Integrate

/cos

201og(l+tan

0)dO.

9.

Integrate (d)

J*4|^.
1-cos^
/"

^^
v

TKJPOS) 1892<]

(&)

[a, 1892.]

i /\

10.

T-

Prove that

c?

v
2

dx=u

c?v

du

+ v-dx.
/

d^u

11.

Integrate

(a

sin% + 26

sin x cos

x + c cos 2^)e*^
[a,

1883.]

54
12.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Show
that
if

u be a

rational integral function of x,

where the
13. If

series

within the brackets

cos bxdx, v
ax

is

necessarily finite.
[TRIN. COLL., 1881.]

ax

sm bx dx, prove

that

and that
14.

(a

+ &2 )0*2 + v2 = era

)

*.

Prove that

m+1
Also that

m+L
2

(m+1) (-ir-^! ?

^"-

where
15.

stands for log x.

Prove that
(i.)

{e^w
J

+^""j)&2Jleax^ a?+ri
2

n -'2

b'

bxdx.
[BERTEAND.]

16.

Evaluate

x* log(l

- x^dx, and deduce

that

iT5

+ 277 + 3T9 + - == 9""3 10ge2

'

[a,

1889.]

CHAPTER

V.

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS, PARTIAL FRACTIONS.

ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS.
54.

Integration of

or

a?

and

9 2

(x<a\

Either of these forms should be Thus Fractions.

thrown into Partial

x2

a2

2aj\x

___ a
a^

x+a

1, = s- log &
2a
f

a # 4- a
;

^
a;

F= L

coth" 1

.1

i^"l

aJ

Ja 2

!f(-J-+_J_Yfo a x/
2aJ\a4-a)

= ^1

2a

losr to

a+oj a a;

=-tanh" La aj
1

l,i

T^l
.

56

INTEGRAL CALCULUS,
of the results in square brackets
1

Compare the forms

.

with the result before tabulated for -=

viz.,

dx C 1 x\ 1 !~n o = - tan' a/ a Jcr+or

55.

Integration of

dx

Let

f-H a
J

f
6

=1
c

dx
f.

aJ
\

a^a

2J ^2a/

AV_"

4a 2

or

dx
2

we take the former or the latter arrangement ac2 cording as b is > or < 4ac.
Thus
if 6 2

>

4ac,

or
If b 2

coth" 1

<

4>ae,

I=

tan

"

l
-.-

or

--

cot

These expressions differ at most by constants, but in any given case a real form should be chosen.

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS. 57

56. Integrals of expressions of the

form

px + q
can be obtained at once by the following transformation

pb

px + q

~~

_p
first

(2ax+b)
part being
2

2a

the integral of the

^ log (ax Za
article.

+bx+ c),
last

and that of the second part being obtained by the

[The beginner should notice
obtained.

how

the above form

is

It is essential that the numerator of the Jirst fraction shall be the differential coefficient of the denominator, and that all the #'s of the numerator

are thereby exhausted.]

T?
'

= J log(^2 + 4*7 + 5) - 2 tan57.

^+

2).

into the

Although the expression px + q form

may

be thrown

by inspection, we might proceed thus Let pa?+gsX(2oaj+6)+/i, where X and /x are constants to be determined.
:

Then

by comparing

coefficients,

giving

X=

and

pb --

58

INTEGRAL CALCULUS. EXAMPLES.

Integrate
1.

f
2

xdx
.

4.

fo+ 1 )^
f/v

^ a^

/7/y.
.

/"

I \2

//y> 2x+l x* +
3.
/

5.

Jfl-LZ-^p. x2 +?

^t

c^

6.

58.

General Fraction with Rational Numerator

and Denominator.
Expressions of the form A~4, where f(x) and

9w

</>(#)

are rational integral algebraic functions of x, can be integrated by resolution into Partial Fractions. The method of putting such an expression into Partial Fractions has been discussed in the Differential Calculus for Beginners, Art. 66. When the numerator is of lower degree than the denominator the result consists of the sum of several such terms as

Ax+B

and

Ax+B

the numerator is of as high or higher than the denominator we may divide out until degree the numerator of the remaining fraction is of lower The terms of the quotient can in that case degree. be integrated at once and the remaining fraction may be put into Partial Fractions as indicated above.
A

And when

Now any partial fraction of the form

at once into

A log (x - a).
1

integrates

A
-.
i

Any

fraction of the

form

^~*

a)

integrates into

rl

A
(xa) r
~v

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS.

fraction of the cussed in Art. 56.

59

Any

form

g4 ax*+bx+e

-- has been

dis-

And when any 2 2 r

[(x

+ a) +b ]

repeated quadratic factor such as occurs in <j>(x) giving rise to partial

fractions such as

a fraction by the substitution x + a = b tan Art. 67 or Art. 83.

YT~+
[_(#

#) ~rfr

\2

7>2ir

we may integrate such

6,

by

aid of

x+a

But it is frequently better to factorize (x+a)2 +b 2 into its imaginary conjugate factors x a-\-ib and tb, and obtain conjugate pairs of partial frac/~\ S~\

T)
-

tions of the

form

T)
;

(x+a+ib)
by
Gale, for Beginners.
59.

r^r^.+7 r

--^r\i which may r

then be integrated and the result reduced to real form aid of De Moivre's Theorem, as in Art. 63, Diff.
*2+

Ex.1.

Integrate

We have

[ J (x-a)(x-b}(x-c)

..

^+?

dx.

a2 +pa+q

_
1
.

(x-a)(x-b)(x-c)~(a-b)(a-c)x-a
c*+pc + q
a' +
]g

(b-c)(b-a)~^b
7
'

_ y a?+pa + q 1 ^(c-a^c-b^x-c-^a-b^a-c^x-a:
and the integral
Ex.
2. is

(a-b)(a-c)
Integrate

Let

J(^-l

-^^+

ggg

log(^7

- a).

,dx.

Then Thus

A(x* + 4) +

<?)(#

- 1) = x.

whence
and

_-^=1 J__l^li=i_L_i__?^. ~2

^1=1

J5=-^,

(7=f,

i_

60
and the
integral

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
is

Ex.

3.

Integrate

^
x
\

-dx.

Put

?/.

Hence the

fraction becomes
is

= Aj/

3 Dividing out until y

a factor of the remainder,

+ 2y

Hence the

fraction

1311111
and therefore

^2
and the integral
is

Ex.4.
Let
a?

Integrate
;

= 1 +y

then

"We now divide out

by

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS.

until y 4
t

61

is a factor of the remainder. use detached coefficients

:

To shorten the work we

2+3+3+

1+2+1 l + f+f+

i-i-i
j+t+
f

-f-f-i

f++f
f

+tf +if +

A
ll-5y-

551
11
2

tt-A-A

-5j/-5y and by Rule 2, p. 61,

Now

= ll- 5(^-1) -5(^-l)2

of the Diff. Gale, for Beginners,

5#2

\(x)

and

x+1

3(^

Thus
ijj

^.2

(a?

- 1)4 (^3 + 1)

~
2(^7

I!
i

l+#

- 1)4 ^ 4(tf - I)3

5
1

-L

8(^7

- 1) 2
(2a?-l)-3

1
A7

^-1)
and the integral
is

48

+1

^2-

plainly

62

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.

1.

Integrate with regard to x the following expressions

v11 *'

w'

T~\*

V11 V

~f~

\7

?T7

\'

(iii.)

^+

a)-

^ + b)~\

"a
(viii.)

*--&)

(iv) -/

>

"^

2.

Evaluate

3.

Integrate

W
(i)
4.

f J (^2 +a

^
.

dx

2+62 y

(iii) '

f
J

Integrate
v ; (i.)

J^+^ + l
2

xd*
v (iii.) ['

J^+l
a?2

1
"t
cto.

do?.

(iv.)

f 4 J^A -^2 +l

(v.)

(vi.)

/"(^-

RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONAL FORMS. 63

5.

Integrate
/.
v

xdx

dx
dx

(vii.)

(iiL >

(^&T4)-

^
()
( V

W ^<**>
6.

x */ A\

~(~&

(x*+ lX-^-4)'

i\/

Integrate
~3,J~*

J~.
(VI.)

-7

\
~

d^t?

/T

\o/i

f
j

~t

o\'

V*-'"^*^

(viii.)

''

(#-l)
7.

(#2

+ iy

^2 + 1)3

Evaluate

/Vtan~^(9 and P\/c

8.

Obtain the value

c
o

9.

cos x dx

Investigate

10.

Show

that

r. fa _f^
o

64
11.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Prove that
[+*
J
(x*

dx

2?r _2?r ~~

a+b
ab(d>

ax+ 2X^2
sum

bx + b'2 )

V3

[COLLEGES
12.

7, 1891,]

Show

that the

of the infinite series

can be expressed in the form

and hence prove that

[OXFORD, 1887.]

CHAPTER

VI.

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS,

f doc

60,

i.

Integration of
I.

-y=

where

R = ax

+2bx+c.

Case

a
is

Positive.
positive

When a

we may

write this integral as

If

dx
a a

which we
I

may
._.

arrange as
i

If ______.^= dx =_..___^_^==
aJ 7/

+,

&\

-ac

Qp

If _
__
I

dx
.

x/J

2 according as 6 is greater or less than ac, and the real form of the integral is therefore (Art. 36)

+ = cosh ~ * 2 ^ Vo ac
,
.,

ax
*

or

Va

7^

smh ~ 1
.

ax + b
,

x/ac

62

2 according as &
E.
T.

is

>

or

<

C.

66

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

In either case the integral logarithmic form

may

be written in the

~T= log (ax + b + *Ja*Jax 2 + 2bx+c),

^

the constant

T= log *J a

v6
~

_
2
l

~ ac being omitted,
~l

Also since

cosh
sinh

~l

z = sinh z = cosh

\/z \/z
,

1,

and
1

1,

= cosh ~ l
, ,
.

ax + b
.

1
=.

sinh

"

\/aR

and

-7=. V^

sinh

"

,
-

ax + b
\/ac
7-b2

= 1 cosh 7^
,

T 1 -

x/aJi
7

\/a

\/ac

b2

which forms therefore may be taken when a is positive and b 2 is greater or less than ac respectively,
61.

Case

II.

a Negative.
f
/

dx
' .

If in the integral

)*Jax
write

+2bx+c

a be negative
be written

a=

A.

Then our
1
r

integral

may

dx

ZJ

or

or

7=:

sin

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

or omitting a constant
-, 1

67

ax ----+ b
cos
~
l

n,
z

for
1

-^
2J'
x/l
2
,

Also since

= sin ~

we have

cos~

\/b*
It thus appears that s
!

V& when R = ax + ^R
ac
2

7?

negative,

ac.

positive.

/ac^P'
and the
Ex.
1.

real

form

is

to be chosen in each case.

^
Integrate
write this
cfo?
I
,

-7-

We may

= - smh- i#._,
.

v/2

\/23
'

p=. v/UJSIl

\/2

\/23

i.e.

the integral = -i= log(4# + 3 + 2 V2 V2^ 2 + 3# + 4)

V2

ing the constant

log

).

68
Ex.
2.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
dx
Integrate (
J

This integral

may

be written
I

dx

and therefore
which may

is

= sin" -^^
1

\/2

\/41

also be expressed as

V2

-^cos

-F=>
*/41

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate

{ JV^ + 2a? + 3

--^

dx
{
J

dx
2.

dx
-, A/2- 3.* -2#2

Integrate

J
3.

/"

Integrate Integrate

>Ja + Zbx+cx*dx

(c

positive).

4.

/\/a + 2&#

cyPdx

(c positive).

62.

Functions of the
first

Form

-===== may x/a^

-.
2

+26^+c

be integrated by

putting

Ax+B into the iorm

which,

may

or

by equating

be done as in Art. 57, either by inspection coefficients we obtain

;

Ax+B
ex/

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

The
integral of the first fraction
is

69

A
and that of the second has been discussed in Articles
60, 61.

EXAMPLES.
Integrate

2.37

+3

x+b

POWERS AND PRODUCTS OF SINES AND COSINES.

63.

Sine or Cosine with Positive

Odd

Integral

Index.

Any odd positive power of a sine or cosine can be integrated immediately thus
:

To

integrate

sin 2n+1# dx, let cos

.'.

x = c,

smxdx=
2 )

dc,

Hence
fsin^+^cfo

=-

((I-c

dc

__

70

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

= Similarly, putting since s,

we have
I

and therefore cosxdx=ds,

cos* n+l x

dx =
nn

(1
L_

s 2 ) n ds

>

'

\7l.

or q odd. form Similarly, any product admits of immediate integration by the same method whenever either p or q is a positive odd integer, what64.

Product of form sin^ cos?#,

of

the

ever the other be.

For .example, to integrate
therefore
- sin
/ /

sin 5# cos 4# dx,

put cos#=c, and

xdx= dc.
/

Hence

cos% sin 5^? dx

c4 (l
5 ^7

c )

2 2

dc
cos 9^?

cos

9 J

cos 7^;

~5~'

^f~

"T"'
:

/^
sin
5

^ cos 3# dx we proceed thus

I

2 sin^(l sin x)d (sin x)

p+q=

is a negative even integer, the 65. When expression sin*to cos% admits of immediate integration in terms of tan x or cot x. For put tan x = t, and therefore sec2^ dx = dt and let

p+^

2n,

being integral.
|

Thus
)

=
^
8

n ~ l dt

a5

4- n ~*-(j
,

Irf
2

tan^ +6 a5

p+i

__

I-

4--

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

Similarly,
if

71

we put

cot

x = c, then

cosec 2 ^

dx

dc,

and

\&DPxco&xdx= -

a result the same as the former arranged in the opposite order.

Ex.
1.

Integrate f?^<fo?.
J

sura

This

may

be written

and the
result
is

therefore

It

may

also be integrated in terms of tan

,

x thus
tan~ 5# -

CcosPx sPx
6 J sin ^?

-r-^-dx =

f
I

1
^

/T

o 2

6 J taii

\,, an

x=-

the result being the same as before,

Ex.

2.

/sec" (9 cosec"

d<9

ftan~*0rftan0

-f tan~%=

- f cot*0.

66.

Use of Multiple Angles.

positive integral power of a sine or cosine, or positive integral powers of sines and cosines, can be expressed by trigonometrical means in a series of sines or cosines of multiples of the angle, and then each term may be integrated at once; for

Any

any product of

f
\

cos

7 nx dx =

siunx

and

cosnx if- nx dx= --sin

7

72
r

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
i
/

J} x 1 . x.

/^^2^^r^,_ cos x c/Lx =:

/-t-UU^^

Sin

2.27

Ex.

2,

Ex.

3.

cos% dx=

/
/

j=
/

<**

(|

+ J cos 2# + J cos 4dc)dx

1 %x + J sin 2# + g ^ sin Ax.

has already been shown that when the index odd no such transformation is necessary, thus in the second example sm x 3 - sin 2 = sin = sin x
67. It
is
/

cos

# dx

(1

.2?)a?

which presents the result in different form. The method we are now discussing will therefore be of more especial value for the case of sin^cos ?#, where neither p nor q are odd.
Ex.
4.

Integrate

I8m9xdx.
;

Let cos x + c sin x =y

2 cos x

then
w

= =y
-,

2t sin x

2i sin

nx

Thus

= 2 cos 8^- 16 cos 6# + 56 cos4o?- 112 cos 2^+70.

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

Thus
j f

73

sin 8.??

= l(cos 8x - 8 cos 6# + 28 cos 4# - 56 cos 2# + 35),

2

and \$n$xdx= 2i
J

irsiii8# L_

O OQ -8 sin6^ + 28
.

sin4# 4

Kc -56

sin2^?
2^

Q* +35#"1
.

_J

Ex.

5.

Integrate

sin 6a7 cos 2^ o?^.

;

Put

cos .#+t sin ,#=y

then

= 2 cos 8#
and
sin 6^cos 2

8 cos

6^+8

cos

4#+ 8 cos 2^;

4 cos kx

10,

^=

cos'8#
7

+ 4 cos 6^

4 cos 2^7 +5

V,

whence

68. NOTE. It is convenient for such examples to remember that the several sets of Binomial Coefficients may be quickly reproduced in the following scheme
:

121
1
1

1331 14641
5

10
15

10

6
7

20

15

1
1

21

35
56

35

21

28

70

56

28

etc.,

number being formed at once as the sum of the one immediately above it and the preceding one. Thus in forming the 7th row we have
each

0+1 = 1,

+ 5=6,

5 + 10

= 15,

10 + 10=20,

etc.;

74

INTEGRAL CALGUL US.

/

and in multiplying out such a product as (y

1\ 6 /
)

(;*/

+2

occurring above we only need the coefficients of (1 t) (l + t) all the work appearing will be are 1 - 6 + 15 - 20+ 15 - 6 + 1, coefficients of (1 - t) Q
G

and

coefficients of

(1-/)

(1

are are

coefficients of (1

- t) G(l + 1)*

1-5+ 9- 5- 5 + 9-5 + 1, 1-4+ 4+ 4-10 + 4+4-4 + 1,

each row of figures being formed according to the same law as The student will discover the reason of this by per2 3 forming the actual multiplication of a+fo + cZ +cfa +... by l + in which the several coefficients are a, a + 6, 6 + c, c+c?, etc. 4 2 Similarly if the coefficients in (1 +0 (1 O were required, the work appearing would be
before.
,

1+4 + 6 + 4 + 1, 1+3 + 2-2-3-1,

1+2-1-4-1 + 2 + 1,
and the last row are the coefficients required. The coefficients here are formed thus
:

1-0=1,

4-1=3,

6-4 = 2,

4-6=-2,

etc.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Integrate

doing those with odd indices in two ways.

2.

Integrate

3.

Integrate
ir
ir

4.

Evaluate

ft
/

sin^ctr,

cos 5^?c?^,

*0

^0

5.

2 Integrate sin 2.# cos .r,

si

6.

Show
/

that

sin x sin 2.# sin

3# dx=-\ cos 2# - $ cos 4# + ^\ cos 6#.

7.

Show
/
N

that
f
I

(i.)

7 sm wia? cos w^ a^7 =

.

cos(m+?iV v
!

cos(m

),

72-V y
.

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

... x
/*
/
.

75

(11.) '

sin

mx sin nx dx = sin(m
.

-)

2(m-n)
cos mx cos
ft.2?

- --n)x
%).

sin(
)

2(

/...

[
J
/

(in.)

7 dx = sin(w -)

--

2m-7i)

Deduce from

(ii.)

and

(iii.)

Isirfimxdx and Ico^mxdx^ and

integration.

verify the results

by independent

INTEGRAL POWERS OF A SECANT OR COSECANT.

69. Even positive integral powers of a secant or cosecant come under the head discussed in Art. 65.

Thus

sec 2#

dx

= tan x,
=1(1+ ta,n x)d tan x
2

sec 4#

dx

f
I

SQCQX

dx

4 =1(1 + 2 tan%c + tan #) d tan x

= tan x+2
and generally

etc.,

where

Similarly
cosec 2^

dx

=
=

cot x,

cosec 4^ (i^

(1

+ cot x)d cot x

2

cot

=, eta

76

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

and generally
2w+2aj

dx

where

= -cc = cot x.

^3

-W

C- ~
s>5
.
.

/>2n-fl

70. Odd positive integral powers of a secant or cosecant can be integrated thus
:

By

differentiation

we have

at once

d
and
(n + l)cosec
n+2&

n cosec

7l

o?

-7-(cot
doc

x cosecna

whence
w+2 ^j dx (n + 1 ) sec

tan x sec n#

+^

se

and
(ti

+1

cose.c n+2
f

xdx =~coix cosecnx + n

x dx

cosec n# dx
\

Thus
and

as

sec

= log

tanf^ + ^
tan^
,

cosec # c?x = log

we may
by

sec 3#, sec 5#, sec7 cc,

infer at once the integrals of cosec 3aj, cosec 5#, ;

.

. .

etc.,

successively putting formulae.

n = I,

3, 5, etc.,

in the above

Thus

sec 3# dx

= J tan x sec x + ^ log tan

# sec 3^+ 1
/

-+

sec 5^? da7= J tan

sec 3^

= J tan x sec3#+f tan ^7 sec x + f log tanf -+etc.

),

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

Such formulae as formulae, and the student
71.

77
"

are called REDUCTION will meet with many others in Chapter VII. postpone till that chapter the consideration of the integration of such an expression as sin^cos^ except for such cases as have been already considered.

"

We

72. Since a positive power of a secant or cosecant a negative power of a cosine or sine, and a positive power of a cosine or sine is a negative power of a secant or cosecant it will appear that we are now able to integrate any integral positive or negative power of a sine, cosine) secant, or cosecant.
is

INTEGRAL POWER OF TANGENT OR COTANGENT.

73.

Any

integral

power

of a tangent or cotangent

may

be readily integrated.
tannx dx = tan n
~2

For

x(sec?x

l)dx
ltan w
,

= Itann - 2a3c?tan#
idM.n
~l

f,

n -^ 1

tan ?l

-2

#cfe.

And
and

since

tan #

cfc == log sec #,

tan%c

dx =
3

(sec
4

l)dx = tan x
5

x,

we may

integrate tan #, tan ^, tan #,

/

etc.

Thus we have

tan 3#cfo?=

tan x(sec 2x- l)dx

78
[

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
f
2

By

continuing this process

we

shall evidently obtain

_
2?i-l

2^-3
1

+ (-l)w ~
and

tan # + (-l) nff,

t

tan-+^=^^

_ tan^^

Similarly
I

coi nx

dx

cot n

~2

=
whilst

-- ^ ~ 711
cot 71
-1

r-

f J

n-2 #CfcE, |COt

icot^^aj
cot 2 ^

= log sin x.
2
I

and

^=
3

(cosec

1 )dx

cot

and therefore we may thus integrate cot 5 ^, cot 3# cot 4#, etc.

Hence any integral power of a tangent or cotangent admits of immediate integration.

f

74.

Integration of

dx

a+bcosx
as

etc.

We may write a + b cos x

- sin

|j,

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

(a

79

or

Thus

(fa

-AgU-j
6

or

(1)

CASE

I,

If

>

b this

becomes
tan

a- 6

/a+6

or

tan ?|
,

2J-

Since

we may

write this as
1
=5-

COS

1-

b,

g+ b

80
or

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
1

COS"

*-

+ bcosx

CASE

II.

If

<

b,

writing the integral in the form

(K

dian.~
(2)

in place of the

form

(1)

we have
J.

in this case

by

Art. 54

UjiAj

ft _1_ i

A f*na sv* bcosx

A b

n a

Ib

IT.

Vf^
,
>

+a
1

17

Ib

V6^~ tan 2
'

+a

v6 + a + \/b
lo g
.
.

a tan

=
rjr>

\J~b

+a vb

a tan ^

By

Art. 33 this

may
2

be written
:

/6 2

-a

tanh~

or, since

2 tanh
still

~l

z = cosh

~1

2'

we may

further exhibit the result as

b
1

-L-^

:cosh~

b
1

+a

a. nX tan 2 ^
2

^b+a

or

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

81

We

therefore have
b,

i.e.

dx bcosx a+

er

< b.

or

cosh-

Jl?-

a+bcosx

These forms are all equivalent, but one of the real forms is to be chosen when the formula is used.

75.

The

integral of

-r a+ b cos x + c sin x may

2

be im-

mediately deduced, for

b cosas-fc

smx = \/b 2 -{-c

cos(x
\

tan~V

b/

),

and therefore the proper form

once be written
less

down

of the integral can at in each of the cases a greater or

than ^/5*+c*.
dx
13
4=

Ex.

f [

dx

--

in 3 cos x H- 4 sin

x
1

(where tana = ^)
:-a)

/13 2 - 5 2
_

13 + 5 coe(# - a)

12 or
$.
I.

-i/2

.'T

a\

C.

82

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
The
f

76.

integral

Ja + 6sm#
,

dx -7
.

may

be easily deduced

by putting

then

dx
o sin a + j. x

f =B IJ

dv

o cos a + ^- y

and therefore its value the cases a^b.

may

be written

down

in both

Of course it may be investigated by first writing a + b sin x as

also independently

+ a(cos |
2

sin 2

|j

+ 26 sin | cos |,
^ J.

or

cos 2

^(

a + 26 tan - + a tan2

The

integral then becomes

2

and two cases

77,

arise as before.

The integral
dx

x
I

may
dx

be similarly

treated.
f

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS,

ifb> a
)

83

this =

lb

a,,x

which further reduces to

3
*~

,6

A___

+ a cosh # a + fccosha'
*

and

if b

<

a the integral
2

is
,
,

7-27-2 62 'a 2

tanh "

V 4. tanh z ^a+o
r,
/)

la

b,

^
9'

which further reduces to

7===- cosh

a + b cosh x

78. Similarly the integrals of

a + bsinhx

and of

a + bcoshx + csmhx

may

be easily obtained.

EXAMPLES.
,

( J
/

1.

Integrate

Vtan# ax. 7 sm#cos#

8ecxdx
.

2.

Integrate

(i.)

a + b tail x
-.

(ii.)

J (a sin

x + o cos xy9

r-

3.

Integrate

(i.)

84
4.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Prove
that,

with certain limitations on the values of the

constants involved

/"%=
J

=L= .-(3
/

J(a-x)(x-(3)

and integrate
5.

v (x

____
a)(/3

x)dx.

Integrate
,. v

dx

,
'

>}

SC &^%
.

r"
(1

}
(

3(l-s

(')
/
\

.r
Ou27

v -)
*

2^2 4- cos a? + sin

r
.77

U11 '-'

^^
2

J cos a + COS.T'
(vii.)

^'''^

siii

<9

+6

cos 2 ^'

cos a

+ cos x

and

(viii-)

prove
o

6.

Integrate

(i.)

f-

dk

(ii.)

/ ^

V a(^ - b) + V 6(^ - a)
<**

____

C?Jt'

(iii.)

f
J

7.

Integrate

f
7
I

8.

Integrate

fsm^

-+ ^

sm2^

9.

Integrate

cos +shl fcos201og COS0-S1TL0 ^ fa.

10.

Interate

1+cosx

SUNDRY STANDARD METHODS.

11.

85

Integrate

12.

Integrate

sm x _dx. VI + sin x
sec ^

13,

Integrate

J 1

+ cosec x

dx.

14.

Integrate

/- f^fl_f_. v a + b tan 2#

15.

Evaluate

fVr^ x ^' 1 + sin

log tan ^7

16.

Integrate

J
17.

[****"****&,.

Integrate

Vsin 2(9
18.

Integrate

fcot0-3cot30
J

19.

Integrate

~
Wo?

20.

Integrate

/" 7

J (x si
21.

Integrate

f-^
f A /_
f
*
(9(1

22. Integrate

~ CQS ^
6>)(2

'

V cos

+ cos
" .

+ cos 6>)
.

6y

23.

Integrate
1

sin ^?

sin

a?

24. Integrate

f(sin

mg-coeg
+ cos

25.

Integrate

f
J

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

26.
.

Integrate

sin" 1

'

l+x2

dx.

27.

Integrate

?
J
\

28.

sin

Integrate ( J

sin

^, 2#

J sin

-dx, [*-3^ J{^^dx, and prove that sin 4^7

sin&r

+
[THIN. COLL., 1892,]

CHAPTER

VII.

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
REDUCTION FORMULAE.
functions occur whose integrals are not reducible to one or other of the standard immediately forms, and whose integrals are not directly obtainable. In some cases, however, sucft integrals may be linearly connected by some algebraic formula with the integral of another expression, which itself may be either immediately integrable or at any rate easier to integrate than the original function.
79.

Many

For instance

it

will be

shown that

(a

+#

)^fe can

2 be expressed in terms of + # 2 )^fe, and this latter J(a

2

itself in

terms of

J(a

+ ar)^cfe,

which being a standard

form the integral of I(a 2 + # 2 )^cfc

may

be inferred.
are
called

Such connecting algebraical Reduction Formulae.

80.

relations

The student

will realise that several reduction

methods have already been used.

For instance the

88

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

of Integration by parts of Chapter IV., and It is proposed to consider the formulae of Art. 70. such formulae more fully in the present chapter, and to give a ready method for the reproduction of some of the more important,

method

the integration of x m lX* where for anything of the form a+bxn

81.

On

X stands

In several cases the integration can be performed

directly. I. If

be

a positive

integer, the binomial in

expands into a finite

series,

and each term

/v

is

integrable.

Next suppose p fractional = -, r

and
s positive.

and

being integers

II.

Consider the case

when

777/

is

a positive integer.
s
,

Let
.'.

X = a + bxn = z
bnx
n ~ l dx

= sz

dz
zs
~l

and

\x

rbn)

and when

is

a positive integer, this expression

is

directly integrable by expanding the integrating each term.

III.

binomial and

When

is

a negative integer, the expression

(z

-a)~

n+

'

REDUCTION FORMULAE.

89

may may

be put into partial fractions, and the integration then be proceeded with (Art. 58).
TD

r
H
is

IV. If

an integer positive or negative, we

:

may

proceed thus

rn _

and by cases

II.

and

III. this is

integrable

when

m-\--

rn

is either a positive or a negative integer by the substitution b ax~ n =-zs That is, the expression is

integrable

when

777

r
\-- is

integral, positive, or negative.

Three cases therefore admit of integration immediately or by simple substitution.

(1)
(2)
777

p a positive
an
[-p

integer.

integer.

(3)

an

integer.

Ex.

1.

Integrate (^(c

Here m=6, n = 3, and

Let
so that

=an

integer.

%x*dx= 2zdz.
integral becomes

Then the

90
Ex.
2.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Integrate
/

x*(a?

+ x^dx.
n +p
'

Here

m=

n = 3,
is
/

p=b

and

is

an

integerc

The
Let
then

integral

-3-.
XT

and the integral becomes

9 *

which might be put into

the process of putting the expression into partial fractions will be avoided and the final integration may be quickly
effected (Art. 70).

= sec 6,

partial fractions.

If,

however,

be put

82.

Reduction formulae for \xm ~\a

\x m
~
l

Leta + 6x H = ^C; then

X^dx can be connected

:

with any of the following six integrals

x m \X
\

P-

1^
m+n Xm+n
:

xm-n- IXPdx,
xm
-

n - lX? +l

dx,

~1

according to the following rule

Let

P=

X+1

JTya+1

indices of x

and

X respectively in the two expressions

to be connected.

where A and

JUL

are the smaller

whose integrals are

Find

dP

-p.

Re-

arrange this as a linear function of the expressions whose integrals are to be connected. Integrate, and
the connection
is

complete.

REDUCTION FORMULAE,
Ex.
1.

91

Connect

txm
.

-l

X\lx with

(x^

Let

P=xmXp
=
dx

Then

[Note the rearrangement "as a linear function,

etc., etc."]

Hence
or

P=(m +pn) ftf- lA'*dx - apn

J

x m -^Xp

~l

dx,

[^X'dx-****- + -22?- (ar-*X*-*dx. m+pn m+pnj

The advantage of this reduction is that the index of p is lowered and by the usually troublesome factor successive applications of the same formula we may ultimately reduce the integral to one which has been previously worked, or which can be easily obtained.

Ex.
nect
/

2.

Thus, for instance, to find

integral

l(& + cFydx we may

this

con-

this

with

(x

+ cfifdx, and

again with

(#

+ aPfdX)

and

this last is a standard form.

As

the reduction is

used

twice,

we

will connect
((

((a?+arfdx with
Let

P=x

[Note the preparatory step which might be performed mentally

= (n + I)(x + arf -na\x* + arf ~

2

[which

is

now "rearranged

as a linear function,

etc.,

etc."\

92
Integrating,

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
P=(n +
1)

I(x

+ a?fdx-na?

/"(

and
Putting
((
?i

n+I

=5

and

ft

= 3,

and

Then

3i 6.4

Ex.

3.

Calculate the value of

[^x^-^ax-x^dx,

being a

positive integer.

We shall

endeavour to connect
with
f

m
l%
i.e.

>JZax-x'*dx

x
(x

m~l

*J%ax-x*dx

(x

mJf

^(Za-x?dx
1r

with

m
~\2a-x*fdx.

Let

P=^m+1?(2a-^)

according to the rule, then

Hence
(m + 2) fx
m+
^(2a

- xfdx

- xm ^(2a -

^ + (2m +

l)a

m fx ~\2a - xfdx

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
a

93

xm *J?Ltix

xm*j%ax -

_
ra

+2

Jo

m+2
o

/la,

x*dX)

and

m be

a positive integer,

2ra-l

or
I

2m-l 2m -3 a3/ --

m+1

m
m

J.

m -z _ etc.
.

2m -1
'

2m-3
'

5
'

3
'

"mT2

m+ 1

"*4

Now
Then
an d

to find

IQ

fj^ax

x^dx, put
cos
(

x=a(\ dx = a sin
^l^ax
x^

0).

a sin

0.

Also

when #=0, we have $=0, when # = 2a, we have O = TT.

Hence

7=

fVsinW^- T(l - cos 20)rf0

Hence

-m-

1)...3

+2?

r_ (2m + l)!
m!(m + 2)!

(m+2)(m + l)...3

EXAMPLES,
Apply the rule stated in Art. 82 to obtain the following reduction formulae (when + bxn)

X=a

1.

J
2.

94
3.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
(,-^
J

4.

( J

(a*-*X*dx
J
/

= xm

^ ^P mm]{x+
/

6. .

Integrate out
7.

Obtain the integrals of

xm^(^Lax

x^dx

for the cases

limits

m = l, m=2, m = 3,
of integration are

and and

their numerical values

2a.

when the

83.

Reduction formulae for

sin^a?

co&x dx.

A similar rule may be given

for
I

for a reduction formula

siu p x cos qx dx,

This expression may be connected with any of the following six integrals
:

sin^

"2

# cos?# dx,
'

si

~ sinpx cos 9 ^x dx,

-2

si

sin^

x cosv +2x dx,

rule.

sin^+ 2 ^ cos^ *x dx,

by the following
Put

where X and ^ are the smaller indices of since and cos# respectively in the two expressions whose integrals are to be connected.
Find
-T-,

P = sinX+1 #cosAA+1 &

ax

and rearrange as a linear function of

the

expressions whose integrals are to be connected.

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
Integrate and the connection
Ex.
is effected.

95

Connect the integrals

/
Let

P=s
p ~ 2x cos g ^(l
2

=(p
[Note the

l)sm

sin #)
(

(q -f l)si

= (p
last

I )sin^~

# cos 9#

two

lines of

^)sin^ cosPx rearrangement as a linear function of

-h

sin^cos^ and
*
. .

sin^~ 2^7 cos%],

P=
/

p-I

siii^~

2 ^7

cos 9^ dx

-(

p+

q)

si

Hence

sin.^ cos%^ = -

8m *~^X cosq+l*

p+q

+ zi (* P + qJ

be remembered, however, that in the case p or q is an odd integer the complete integration can be effected immediately [Arts. 64, 67]. The present method is useful in the case where p and q are both even integers.
It will

where either

EXAMPLES.
Connect the integral fsin*4?cos?#ei? with
1.
/

sm p+2x cosq.v dx.

siii^ cos~ 23? dx.

2.

3.

sm px

4.

/*sin^-

5.

sin^ + 2# cos~ 2# dx.

96
6.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Prove that
J

fsin^^ _

cousin- *
1

-I
n

f^,.
J

Employ
7.

this formula to integrate sin%, sin 6#, sin 8^.

/

Establish a formula of reduction for

4 Integrate sin

cos w# dx,

8.

84.

To

calculate the integrals V

71

5^n

= f smn #? aa? and

.

2"

(7n

fl
I

Connect
Let

sin n^c
3

dx

with

sinn

~2

dx.

P = sinn ~
dP
dx

#cos;E according to the rule; then

su nx

= (n
f
.*.

lsin n
J

^a^=
since

--sm
n~
l

l )sin n

~2

xcosx

If

n -\sm J

r ~ z n xdx.

Hence

sin

-^ cos &
2,

integer not less than

vanishes when ?& is an when x = 0, and also when

x = J, we have

= 711 ^
71

--- --712
3 ^
71

5
*

a
>w-

7i

^ 4

if 71

be even this ultimately comes to

Ti-l Ti-3

"~'ii^V"g

3 4

Iff
J

2j

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
that
If

97

Ti-1 7i-3
is

3 1
'"

TT

n
be odd
.v
f-j

n -2
1

422'
A, TJ

we
il/

similarly get
-L
.

^^
71

ll/

Q ^^ O
<r

9 Z<
<S

/ I

2"
E*-1-11

Ufl

* * *

"P

dm w rl w w U**/j
.
-|

3J

and

since

sin

xdx =

cos

x r

=1

we have $n =

Ti-1 7i-3 1

2
3*

2'" 5*

In a similar

way

it

may

be seen that

"cos n xclx has

precisely the same value as the above integral in each This may be shown too from case, n odd, n even. other considerations. These formulae are useful to write down quickly any integral of the above form.

/.<,, ^|.

[The student should notice that these are written down most by beginning with the denominator. We then have the ordinary sequence of natural numbers written backwards. Thus the first of these examples is (10 under 9) x (8 under 7) x (6 under 5), etc.,
easily

stopping at (2 under
first

1),

and writing a factor

-.

But when the

it

denominator is odd, in forming such a sequence minates with (3 under 2) and no factor - is written.]
35

ter-

E.

I.

C.

98

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
85.

To investigate a formula

r2

for

si

Let this integral be denoted by f(p, q)

then since

tanP^^
J

p+q

p + qJ
p
be not

we
less

have,

if

and q be positive integers, and

than 2

GASP:

I.

If

>

6e ei>e7i

= 2m,

and # afeo even

= 2n,

(2m-l)(2m-3)

2r

v /(

=
v

3)...l

</v

j and

^/^ /(O,

2) =
\

/i

7/1

^i

1 2ft

1 TT

Thus

CASE

II.

If

6e 6^67^

/(2m,

2^-1)=

=2m, and q odd =277 ~1 2m = etc. - -/(2m-2, 2^-1)

'

1,

and

RED UCTION FORMULA E.

CASE
III.

99

If

we

be

odd

=2m

and q even

= 2n,

obtain similarly

1.3.5...(
This

may

also be

deduced at once from Case

II.

by putting

-J-*
for

( sin*<9 cos0

dO =

=
so that

r
/

si

f(p, q)=f(q> p).

CASE IV.

Ifpbeodd

=2m

l,and g odd

=2n

1,

(2m-2)(2m-4)

27i-2)(2m + 27i-4/

^
v

2 ^_i )

= e tc.
}

(2m-2)(2m-4)...2 ( A 2^-2)(2m + 2w-4)...(2^ + 2)

7T

and

/(I,

2w -

1)

Tsin
J

(9

cos

"-^ dO = f - 5^-f] . I-, L 2w Jo 2

Expression in a single rule. These four formulae may be expressed under one
86.

rule as follows

Let r(n + l) be a function defined by the relations

100

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

T(n + 1) where

These relations will be found to sufficiently define n-{- 1 is either an integer or of the form 2k + 1
2
'

k being a positive integer.

For
instance,

T(6)

5 4F(4) = 5 = 5.4.3.2.ir(l) = 5! V-) =F(f )= S PXiHf

=5F(5)=

4 3r(3) = 5 .4.3. 2F(2)

.

I-

f r(f )=

| f fr(
. .

This function
here.

is

called a

Gamma
its

do not propose to enter into

function, but we properties further

The products

1.3.5...

2n-I
2u
TT
I

2.4.6

...

which occur in the foregoing cases of

sin^0 cos?0

d9

may
^

be expressed at once in terms of this function.

^(2n+l\_2n-l 1
\~~2~)
2

2n-3 2n-5
'

2~

r /l\
V2/'

so that
/y 7T

and
sothat

Hence

in Case

I.

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
In Case
II.

101

In Case

III.

we

evidently have the same result.

In Case IV.

It will

be noticed therefore that in every case

result, viz.,

we

have the same

7T

f
and that the
the

+1

occurring in the denominator

is

sum

?9 of the 1

+l

and the

#4-1

in the numerator.

a very convenient formula for evaluating quickly integrals of the above form.
is
IT

This

Thus

f \in6 cos 8 s
.,

dO

= -*
__f f
'

j-

V^TT

j"

f f
*

i|

^/?T

_ 5?T

'

2.7 .6.5.4.3.2.f~~2 15

102

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

87. The student should, however, observe (as it has been pointed out previously), that when either p or q or both of them are odd integers, the expression sinP$cos?# is directly integrable without a reduction formula at all.

For
J

instance,
6

(sin

6>cosW6>

[sin^(l-sin

6'Xsm6'=^

-^^, 79
761

and

Similarly,
cos 2 6>(l
"i

-2

cos 2 <9+cos 4 6>)dcos

COS -

<9,

Q +2

COS 5 <9

COS 7 6n

Jr 4-"-*^*s

.jo,!

But when p and q are both even and the indefinite integral required, or if the limits of integration be
other than

and

^, tt

we must

either use the reduction

67.

formula of Art. 83 or proceed as in Art.

EXAMPLES.
Write down
1.

the values of

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
prove the formulae
(1}
I

103

sm 2m Ocos 2n 6d0

I?L_?.-_.

-Em+n

(2)

sin

J
4.

-Bm+n-l
indefinite integrals of

Write down the

cos

fsitfO

dO,
cos 2

fsitfO

cos3 <9 dO,

6

fsitfO cos 5
cos 4 ^ dO.

dO,

fsin 7

d0
rf

fsiu

Evaluate
rT

__

sin 5 ^cos 2

^^.

sin4 #<w,

sm 2 6

/3"
7T

7T

7T

/-^

6.

'

7.

Deduce the formulae

of Art. 84 for

sm
/
(

x dx from the

result

r(ii)r(zl) V 2 V y 7
7

of Art. 86.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Prove that
I
/

(a)

cos 2w <

= -1 tan
^^t

</>

cos-

n
c/>

+ M - ~\
\
2iii /

f J

cos 2

(b)

104
2.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Investigate a formula of reduction applicable to

when
3.

and n are
if

tegration

ra=5,

7i

= 7.

positive integers,
[ST.

and complete the inJOHN'S COLL., GAME., 1881.]

Investigate a formula of reduction for

and by means
271+2
2

of this integral

show that

27i

+ 4 2.4

271

+ 6 2.4.6
l'

._J_ 271 + 8

adinf

2. 4. 6. ..27i
~~3. 5.7...27i +

Sum
1

also the series

1
I

1
m
,

271+1
4.

2^ + 3

1.3 2.4

1
t
I

1.3.5
>

,
_1_

27i

+ 5 2.4.6

OjCll ITlrT

\f

271

+7

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1879.]

Prove that
2n+l

(rf

*-,
6.

prove

Find reduction formulae

(a)
J

for

x(a + bx)

*dx,

(y)

*^*+a)*r, /2p+l
and obtain the value
7.

( S)

of

/*(*
I

[COLLEGES>
e
ax

CAMR]
is

Find a reduction formula for

cos

x dx, where n

positive integer,

and evaluate
[OXFORD, 1889.]

RED UCTION FORMULAE,

8.

1 05

Find formulae of reduction for

/

#w sin x dx
latter a

and

ax

sin

x dx.

Deduce from the

formula of reduction for

a* 8in"*<fe.
Jcos
9.

[COL1KGES

189o.]

If

un

rT
/

Tt

si

prove that

^-lun = 2 n+1 In
-^^

and deduce

--sv + -+^--rC-f 1-/ --3), /b (^ l)(n-2) n(

rc1)

>

"\ f

(2ro-lX2ft-3)...3

TT
'

8'

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1878.]

10.

Show

that

'

wi

2/3

n2fifJ)

[TEIN. COLL., CAMB., 1889.]

11.

Prove that
7
1

2.4.6 ...2m _1.3.5 ...(2w-l) TT ~2.4.6...2m 4~3.5.7...(2m + l)

of reduction for

1
'

2*

12.

Find a formula

^ v'^

f-~=L 1

Show

that

3. 5. 7. ..(27i+l)l

where a1} a 2
13.

...

are the binomial coefficients.

[ST.

JOHN'S, 1886.]

Show
/

that

2 TO

cos

mx cosm# dx
4-

= r+where

sn^ mm ~~

~T72

sn^ ~"

m is

an integer.

[COLLEGES

a,

1885.]

106
14.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Show
that

m being a positive integer.

15.

[OXFORD, 1889.]

Prove that

if

= Im, n
(m + n)Im) n =

cos m# sin

nx da:,
?

m cos x cos nx + m/m _i

1

n _i ?

[if ^-l^(2 +i+i + - + ^J16.

92

93

9i\

[BERTRAM]

If
,1

/m? w =
r /m

cosw# cos nx dx,

prove that

m^ -^^
2
2

cos%^7 -

cos f-

cEr\oos9u;/

x\ m(ml) T - + v 2 m*-n ./^m-2,

)

n,

and show that

cos m^7 sin

7^^;

/I
prove that

dx\

^m

'

m+

-- m + n m
1

_i

M _I.

?i

Hence

find the value

(when

m is a positive
2mx dx.

integer) of

cos m# sin
/If
o

[7, 1887.]

18.

Prove that

2 r' cosnx

cos

nx dx=

IT

J
19.

2 n+1

[BKRTRAND.]

If

m + n be

even, prove that

co
i

m-n.
.
1

[COLLEGES, 1882.]

REDUCTION FORMULAE.
20.

107

Evaluate the integral

c
/

[COLLEGES, 1886.]

V
TT

TT

21. If

cos m# cos

nx dx be denoted by/(m,

71),

show that

[OXFORD, 1890.]
22.

Prove that

if

n be a
cos
n~ 2

positive integer greater than unity,

ft
I

x sin nx dx = -

Ti-l*
o

[OXFORD, 1889.]
/

23.

Find a reduction formula for the integral

in /"sin- nx-. ^

J 24. If

smo?
ft,

u m)

n=

fLJlfl&pj

where

m is not

less

than

and

TTC, 7^

are either both odd or both even integers,

(n
25.

l)(n

2)u m) n + m?um) n _ 2

show that - m(m - l)u m - n - = 0. 2)

-2

If

un =
un = , =-,

show that
where

._:

n-

+ J5 M
-3) a
2

A= that
less

=
(n

a2

b2

l)(a

o 2)

^ = - 7i-2 n
I

Show
e

I*
J

(l-e
2

(i_ e2)|
[ST.

16

being
26.

than unity.
sinW<r
J

JOHN'S COLL., 1885.]

finite

Prove that f

a+ 6 cos o?
n

can ^ e integrated in

terms when
27. If

m is an integer.
sinm^

Un =

J(a + 6cos^)

{-.

^
2

prove that

^7 n

can be calculated

from a formula

of reduction of the

form
C.

A Un + B Un -! + (7f7w _ = sin w+
and determine the constants A, B,

X+

6 cos #)- w+1 ,

[js,

1891.]

108
28.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Find a reduction formula for the integral xm dx
'

'

(log#)
29.

[OXFORD, 1889.]

Find a reduction formula for C xmdx

[ft

1891.]

30.

Prove that

if

X=a

Z&=/n
[ST. JOHN'S, 1889.]

31.

Find reduction formulae for

\CLJ
I

tann x dx.

(Q\

f
J

dx n (a+&cos# + csin#)

32. Establish

the following formula for double integration by

differ:

u and v being functions of x> and dashes denoting entiation and suffixes integrations with respect to x
parts,
/ /

u
1

+ (- l)n -

nu^ n

-1

hn+ i + (- l)"n uMvn+ idx + (- l)n {dx (u^vndx.

I

[a, 1888.]

CHAPTER

VIII.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

INTEGRALS OF FORM
f

dx
.

\^

88.

The integration

of expressions of the

form

dx
can be readily effected in
I.

all

cases for

which

II.

III.

X and Y are both linear functions of x. X linear, Y quadratic. X quadratic,- Y linear.

If and Y be both quadratic the integration can be performed, but the process is more troublesome.

89.

CASE

I.

and

Y both
is
:

linear.

The best

substitution

Let

dx

-fe

110
Putting

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

we nave
and

cdx ,_

= at/.
e)

ax + b = -(y 2
C

+ b,

and / becomes

21

jay
the standard forms

^ 2

ae
_^

+ bc
.

which, being one of

Jy
Ex.
Integrate

A2

is

immediately integrable.

/=

f
J (x-

Let
then

Thus

y-l y+lj

90.

The same

substitution, viz.,
l(fi(

*Jy=y
when

will suffice
is

T\f] 'IT

for

the integration of

-^

^(cc)

any

rational integral algebraic function of x, and are eacfe linear.

X and

Ex.
.

Integrate /== f
>/^ + 2=7/,

J^we have
%dy

Writing

and

.r

2
?/

- 2,

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. Ill

so that

-L ==& + 24/-32/ + 16
(by

common

division).

Thus

91.

CASE

II.

X linear, F quadratic.
is
:

The proper
Put
Let

substitution

X=\
y

Putting

ax + b = t/

we

have,

by logarithmic differentiation, adx dy ax + b y

ex 2 + ex +/=

and

- (- - 6 Y +
a 2 \/
/

(a\

- ft) +/
/

Hence the integral has been reduced

form

to the

known

/=

which has been already

discussed.

112
Ex.
Integrate

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
/=
f
./

Let #+l=y-i, then

#+1

__=_
y

an d

/=

__

i+i-2

i+%-y

JI*

92, It will

now appear
J(
f

that any expression of the

form

can be integrated,

<j)(x)

being any rational integral

algebraic function of

x.
.

For by common division

we

,, <b(x) in the torm can express ,

Af

Axn +Bxn ~ l +
remainder.

the being the quotient and thus have reduced the process to the integration of a number of terms of the class
...

We

+Z

Eaf
and one of the
class
f

-dx.

The

latter has been discussed in the last article, and integrals of the former class may be obtained by the

reduction formula

^(^_^/)4_2r-l
TO

r-lf
v '

2r

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 113

where F(r) stands for
f
I
,

xr
dx.

\Jcx*

+ ex+f

The proof
Ex.

of this

is left

as an exercise.

Integrate

/=

f
J

(x+l)*/x

^ 2 + 3 +5 ^ 2 -^.

+l

By

division

*2 +3*+5

*=x + 2 + -

Now

and to integrate

we put

#+!=_ and get

Thus

93.

CASE

III.

quadratic,
is
:

The proper substitution

Put
Let
Putting
T /= f
I

+/Y=y.
J

F
dx
(ax
2

linear.

+ bx + c) V

+/

*Jex+f= y,
edx
7

and ax2 4-&^ + c reduces

E.
I.

to the

form

C.

114

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
-f e)Ay*
2
i

and I becomes

dy

Now -j
as

n can be thrown into partial fractions

and each fraction

is

integrable

by foregoing

rules.

94. It is also evident that the

may
form

be made for the integration of expressions of the

f J

(ax

_
2

same substitution

*()

+ bx + c)\/ex +f
to y y>
_i_
t

__ dx>
and algebraic
2
7
;

where

<p(x)

is

rational, integral

for

when ^/ex + fis put equal

\

reduces to

the form

"^

/j/2nj_

,/

2n-2_i
-

>L

'

which by

divisi

'

and the rules for partial

as

fractions,

may

be expressed

and each term

Ex.
Integrate

is

at once integrable.

/=

Putting \/^ + l=y, we have -7====2e?y, and

v^ + 1
2

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 115

EXAMPLES.
Integrate the following expressions
:

95.

CASE IV.

X and F both
f

quadratic.

do not propose to discuss in general terms the method of integration of expressions of the form

We

^)

a dx
(<f>x)

where

and integral and

F are

both quadratic and

rational,

algebraic, as it is

the present volume.

We may

beyond the scope of

say, however, that the
is

proper substitution for such cases

A/y

= ^'

anc^

^e

student will glean the method to be adopted from the following examples.*
Ex.
1.

Integrate

1=

Putting

y ~dx

dy

(a

* The student may refer to Greenhill's "Chapter on the Integral Calculus" for a general discussion of the method.

116
Thus /becomes

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

(a

Also
so that

and

Thus / reduces further

to

If

a>

6,

we may arrange / as
i
/

V^TP

Ex.
.

2.

Integrate

/=

J (2x2 2x

__

2 -2^ -2^+1) \/3^ -2^ + 1

-,

dy _

~~
3^-1

2#

The maximum and minimum values yj 2 and yf of ;/ 2 are given by x = \ and # = 0, and are respectively 2 and 1, so that for real values of #, ?/ 2 must be not greater than 2 and not less than 1.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 117

Now
and

yi-f=^-y"='2^

t-tfm^l-g
3

Thus / becomes
_ r(&g
J - 2ar+l
2

)(2a7

/2# - 2.37+1

x(x-l)

Now

Thus

'=/(-,==
= cosh" + 2 cos" -^1

?/

/3^ 2 -

N /2

\2^-

EXAMPLES.
Integrate
1.

4.

_4

2.

5.

3.

6.

118

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Fractions of form
CT

96.

a l + Pi sin ^ + CfiOSX
1

+f

ina;

+ CCOSa;
.

This fraction can be thrown into the form

A
x) (Oj + ^sin x + where A, B, G are constants
c 1 cos

(a x + b^siu x + c-fos x)
so chosen that

A + Ca^a,
and each term
is

-Bc^ + Cb^b,
then integrable.

97. Similarly the expression

a + b sin x-\- c cos x

may

be arranged as

(a

+6^+0 cos .)"+

-

_|

(Oj

+6

sin

x + c-[Cos x) n

and the first and third fractions may be reduced by a reduction formula [Ex. 25, Ch. VII.], while the second
is

immediately integrable.
98. Similar

a + b sinh x + c cosh x ai + frisinh x + Cjcosh #'

99.

remarks apply to fractions of the form a + b sinh x + c cosh x n (a x + 6 1 sinh # + qcosh x)

'

Some

Special Forms.

It is easy to

show that
sin
a?

Isin^r

c\
.

sin

a
c)

a),

'sin(a

6)sin(a

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 119

and
sin 2,^
7
r
-.

-.

T\.

-,

a)sin(^
1/

6)sm(#
sin 2 a
,

c)

1
QTTn ollll
/

^^ r)\nY\( (-t/ __ U lollll rt ^^ I/ I ^^i /^ E51111 Iv

1
/

cC<

7*

^^

/Y

tv^

whence

f
I

-r,

sin
.

# c?a?

and

f
J

-5-7

--

sin(^

a)sm(x
-

r-^-p

S sin 2 ^

Ssina sm(a
-^7
, . 7 v

(a
,

6)sm(a
/

, /

r c)

r r

c)

lo^ sm(o3 v 6

a),

dx

o)sm(x sin 2 a
1\

sin (a

6)sm(a

tan

x
7r

a
.

c)

More generally Hermite has shown integrate any expression of the form
100.
sin($

where
Ti

f(x, y) is

1 dimensions.

For by the ordinary rules of partial fractions

(*

- Oj)(t - a
x
^

f(t, 1)
2)

_ _ _ _
*

how

to

/(sin a 1 )sin(0

8,

cos 9)
. . .

a2 )

sin(0

a n )'

any homogeneous function

of #,

y of

. . .

(t

- a^

(a x

- egCoj - a3)
...

/(a,, 1)

. . .

(a x

ax

(a2

^Xag

a3 )

which may be written

^r((a r

a 1 )(ar

a2 )

...

__
(ar

(a 2

an )

a2

aw )

_ a

ar being omitted in the denominator (the factor a r of the above coefficient).

*

Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., 1872.

120

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
,

= tan$, a1 = tana 1 Putting theorem becomes

sin($

a 2 = tana 2

etc.,

this

a 1 )sin(0

/(sin 0, cos 6) a 2) sin(0

. . .

an )

/(sin a r cos a r)
,

r= isin(a r

OL)

...

sin(a r

a n ) sin($

a r)

Thus

W:
"

/(sin 0, cos 9)

~
./

/(sin
7
^

or,
. . .

cos a,)
7

_
\

^ism(a

%)

sm(a r

an)

logtan
J-'-'ii
t/ctj-j.

^
;-:

EXAMPLES.
Integrate

sm ^

cos ^^7 cos

cos a

cos

2#

cos 2a

sin 2^7

sin

2a

cos cos
O.

cos a
cos

sn ^7 sn a
.

3#

cos x

cos

3a a

D.

sin #(sin 2,#

sin 2 a)'

GENERAL PROPOSITIONS.
101. There are certain general propositions on integration which are almost self evident from the definition of integration or from the geometrical

meaning.
102.

Thus
f (j)(x)dx=
J

I
is

for each

~~ equal to \^(^) \H C
\fs(x).

if

<f>(

x ) he the

differ-

ential coefficient of
*

The

result being ultimately

See Hobson's Trigonometry, page 111.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

121

independent of x it is plainly immaterial whether x or z is used in the process of obtaining the indefinite
integral.
/&

103. II.

<p(x)dx

pc

/&

<f)(x)dx
a

+
c

(j

For

if \[s(x)

be the indefinite integral of

<p(x)

and which

side is \{s(b) the right side is \^(c)

is

the left

the same thing.

Let us illustrate this fact geometrically.

dinates

Let the curve drawn be 2/ = 0(#0> anc^ ^ e ^ ^ne or " NJP^ N^P^ be cc = a, x = c, x = b respectThen the above equation expresses the obvious ively.

N^^

fact that

Area
104. III.

+ area
[ <j)(x)dx a

=
[
b

$(x)dx.

For with the same notation as before the left hand side is \/r(6) T// and the right hand side is
[

122
105. IV.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
f

</>(x)dx

0(a

- x)dx

For

if

we put

x=a

y,

we have
and
if

dx =
x = a,

dy, y = 0,

Hence

<p(x)dx=

(f>(a

y)dy

fV-2/X2/
o
I

(by in.)

<{>(a

x)dx

(by

I).

Geometrically this expresses the obvious fact that, in estimating the area 00' between the y and x

QP

O'
Fig. 9.

axes, an ordinate O'Q, and a curve PQ, we may if we like take our origin at 0', O'Q as our F-axis, and O'X

as our positive direction of the X-axis.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 123

p2a

106. V.

<f>(x)dx=\ (f)(x)dx+\
II.

For by

00
pa

pa

(j)(2a

x)dx.

rpa
<j)(x')dx

<j>(x}dx

p2
\

and if we put 2a x = y, dx = <%, we have and when x = a, y = a, x = 2a, y = Q. when

/2tt

Thus
a

0(a)c/x

=-

pO

0(2a
a

- y)dy

f
I

<f>(2a

x)dx.
pa
<t>(2a

fa

We leave the obvious geometrical interpretation to the student.

107.

ooo
o

pa

0(#)cfo=l 0(^)cZa;+

x)dx.

VI. Plainly

if 0(a?)

be such that

this proposition

becomes
p2a
I

<f>(x)dx

= 2\pa<f)(x)dx,
a?)=
<p(x),

and

if

<p(x)

be such that ^>(2a

p2a

^)cZ^ = 0.

124
Thus
since

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
sin"^^ sm"(7r - #),
/

smnx dx = 2
cos 2n+1 #
cos 2n#

sinw ^7 dx

and and

since
rir
I

COS

2 'l + 1

37(jfo7

= cos 2n+1 (?r = cos 2n (7r x\ = 0,

^7

x\

*o

and

r cos 2w# dx = %\ftcos2n

dx.

'0

To add up all terms of the form smnxdx at equal between and TT is to add up all such terms from

We may put

such a proposition into words, thus

intervals
to

and

to double. For the second quadrant sines are merely repetitions of the first quadrant sines in the reverse order. Or geometrically,

the curve

n y = $m x being symmetrical about the ordinate

#=

^,

the whole area between

|.

and

TT is

double that between

and
Similar geometrical illustrations will apply to other cases.

108. VII. If
/net
\

<>ti
pa

<j)(x)dx=n\

<j

For, drawing the curve y = <j>(x), it is clear that it an infinite series of repetitions of the part = lying between the ordinates OP (x 0) and JV^Pj (x = a} and the areas bounded by the successive portions of the curve, the corresponding ordinates and the #-axis are all equal.
consists of

Thus

<{>(x)dx=

r'(t>(x)dx=
/a
1

)dx = etc.

and

jwa I ^>(x)aa;

= 71

<p(x)dx.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

Thus, for instance,
2"

125

sin

o xdx=%

Fsm

>,

\276u?

=4
A

TBin n#aa?*4 A%n-I

-

2n-3
2ra- 2

IT

...-

-.

2?^

O
Fig. 10.

SOME ELEMENTARY DEFINITE INTEGRALS.

109.

We

have seen that whenever the indefinite

integration l^>(#)cfe can be performed, the value of

the definite integral

<j)(x)dx

can at once be inferred.

In many cases, however, the value of the definite integral can be inferred without performing the indefinite integration, and even when it cannot be
performed. We propose to give a few elementary illustrations.
Ex.
1.

Evaluate

= /=

{*(

Writing

we have
and
vers~ - = TT a

126
Hence

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
1= f\2ay ~3/
2

f (TT-

Hence
Putting

/=
?/

|
o

= a(l-cos0),

and we obtain

/=?a n+1 f'sm n+1 0d0 = 7ran+i

...

down

to

? or
3

E, 22

according as

is

even or odd.
ir

Ex.

2.

Evaluate

/=

log sin # ofo?,

Let
then

#=--#, 2
dx
dy
;

and

/=
rl

log cos y dy =

log cos # c&

rf

Hence

2/=

logsm^<ir+

j
o

log cos

xdx

/I o /f o
IT

log sin ^ cos # c?^

(log sin

2%

log

"j
Put
then

Io8 8inte<fo

-i

2x=z,
o?^7

= ^dz

then

Iogsin2^^=^/

log sin zdz

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

Thus

127

27= /-^ log 2,

2i

/=|logl.
r~%

/? log
Ex.
3.

sin

xdx

log cos # cfo? = - log -.

2t

-\

2i

Evaluate

1=

-^

Expanding the logarithm, we have

6
If
r

we put

x=l

y,

have

/=
also

^-dy =
^'a?

"

dx.

Hence we

have e

\-x

^=

"o

Ex.

4.

Evaluate

-I
Put
^=tan(9,

.-.

1=1 log(tan0+cot0X0
o

/2 o

(log sin ^
IT

4-

log cos $)6

- 2 /log sin

dO = Tr log 2.

128
110.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Differentiation under an Integral Sign.

Suppose the function to be integrated to be <p(x, c) containing a quantity c which is independent of x. Suppose also that the limits a and b of the integration are finite quantities, Then will

and independent of

c.

For
let

&

0(a?,
J
a,

u=

f
\

<f>(x,

c)dx.

Then

u + Su =

0(o3,

&
which, by Taylor's theorem,

And

if z,

say, be the greatest value of

which

be capable,

and vanishes in the limit when diminished. Thus in the limit

Sc

is

indefinitely

=
a

'

'dx.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 129

111.

The
is

contain c volume.

case in which the limits a and b also somewhat beyond the scope of the present

112. This proposition

may

be used to deduce

new

integrations
since

when one has been performed. = -*

tan- 1 \l2=2
*

many

Thus
J

Vc + a (x+cyJx-a we have, by differentiating n

--L= =dx

+a

(c

+ a> 0),
c,

times with regard to

Also, differentiating

/- +
(^
c,

c)(^

^
a)
2

n times with regard

to a,

we

obtain

Similarly, differentiating this latter

we

times with regard to

obtain
o?^?

IJ

2^+1
+1

(^+c)^

(^-a)

EXAMPLES.
1.

Obtain the following integrals

J

(i.)

f(i+*)-V*fo.

(v.)

f
J

(ii.)

An-^-xi + ar)-*^

(vi.)

I J

(iii.)

r#- 1 (2-3a?+ *?)"*<&.

-(vii.

E.

T.

C.

130
2.

INTEGRA L CA LCUL US.

Integrate
(i.)

(a
1

+ 6 2 - ^2 )v/(a 2 - ^2 )(^2 - 6 2

)'

[ST.

JOHN'S, 1888.]
'

(x2 + a2
|UL *

)^^+^
+ 67iii
2

I~

ST J HN
-

S > 1889.]

sin 6>Vacos 2 ^

<9+V

[TRINITY, 1888.]

3.

Find the values

/-

of

f
^

J (cos /"
\
I

sin x dx x + cos a)V(cos x 4- cos

cLx

fi)(cos

x + cos y )
C%
1890-]

J cotfx
4.

+ a\Jcos(a;+B)coa(a: + 'v} a)\/cos(^ + ^)cos(^ y

Prove

that,

with certain limitations on the values of the

constants involved,
d,L
\^

Olll

(x-p)(ax? + Zbx + cy*

5.

(-ap -2bp-cft

(x

- p)(b 2 - acf
]

[TRINITY, 188G

Prove that \(cQ$x} ndx may be expressed by the

j\r ^.v

series

_L ... -r

pf p etu,

being the coefficients of the expansion and n having any real value positive or negative.

ND

n-

2J

Nft

. . .

(1

+ a)

2
,

[SMITH'S PRIZE, 1876.]

6.

Evaluate the following definite integrals

W
(i \
/

f J

^2

/y.2

/a(a
o

+ ^72) 2
**

^'
[ST. JOHN'S, 1888.]

\ UL '

x dx
[OXFORD, 1888.]

J
o

(l+tfX 2 +^)(3 + #)
-

7.

Prove that

8.

Show

that

[0x^,1888.]

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES.

9.

131

Evaluate

(i.

2
*

+ cos x
dx
[I.

(ii.)

| 4 + 5 sin x
,

C. S., 1839.]

(iii.)
[I.

0. S., 1888.]

10.

Prove that

/
o

CQ&nxdx

is

equal to zero

according as n is odd or even. If S denote the sum of the infinite series

P rOV6that
11.

^"T-fif c

[OXFOBD, 1890.]

Prove that
(i.)

be

< 1,

f 8in-^

(ii.)

12.

Prove that

f^f. J Vs

13.

Find a reduction formula for

e~ T sin
[ST.

JOHN'S, 1888.]

14.

Evaluate

ft
(i.)
/

sin x log sin

x dx.
[8, 188,5. J

J
o

HF
(ii.) k y
/

tan a? log sin a? o?^?.

f
s

[ST. JOHN'S, 1882.]

ooon

r
(iii.)

132

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Evaluate
f
o

15.

dx
[I.

(i.)

C. S., 1887.]

[I.

C. S., 1891.]

16.

Prove

(i.)

f^an^^ #
sec 37+ cos

[POISSON.]

a2

cos 2.2

a being supposed greater than unity.

17.

[OXFORD, 1890.]

Prove

(i.)

f -2Sfc = 1
?

18.

Prove that
z2)

=a
3

a3 +

"

3.5

&5

ctf

3.5.7

+ ...

[OXFORD, 1889.]
19.

Prove that
IT

2r~% /

/-7A <^"

_T

1 2 o 1

1 2

Q2 1*3-4

1 2
i

^>

o2

PL2 & x,6

being supposed
20.

<

1.

Prove that

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1878.]

21.

Prove that

1.1
22. If

1
''*

[A

1888.]

-,), \*

$(x)dx=

F $(x)dx.
[TRIN. HALL,
etc.,

23.

Prove that
b

*"" 6

c-a?)

^ f^ ~^W
C

1886.]

^-6)

provided

remains

finite

when x

vanishes.

[ST. JOHN'S, 1883.]

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS AND EXAMPLES. 133

24.

Prove that

$(x)dx=
*

/""{<##)

+ <(2a-a?)}cfci7,

and

illus-

trate the
25. If

theorem geometrically.

f(x)=f(a+x\ show that

and

illustrate geometrically.

26.

Show

that

q-pj

q-p

q-p
sums
:

27. Determine by integration the limiting value of the of the following series when n is indefinitely great
'

n+ I n

n+2

n+3
n

n + ri
n
*

[a, 1884.]

(iiL)_J_ +
\/2?i-l 2
sin 2/

\/4?i-2 2

*_+ \/6rc-3.-+
2

+ -J*/2ri*-<n?

[CLARE,
(iv-)

etc., 1882.]

i
(.

2n

sin 2K

2n

sin2fc

2n

+...

+sin

2K
!-,

K beinsr an

integer.
28.

[S T. JOHN'S, 1886.]

Show
n

that the limit

when n
3n

is

increased indefinitely of

'2n

n2
is infinite

2*

[COLLEGES, 1892.]
29.

Show

that the limit

when n

of
i

/*+*.

is

e^a
this result to find the limit of

Apply

-('+
[CLARE,
etc., 1886.]

134
30.

INTEGRAL CALCUL US.

Find the limiting value
of (n\} /n
n

when n

is infinite.

31.

Find the limiting value when n

is infinite

of the

sum

of the Tith part

of the

n
n

quantities
'

n+1 n + 2 n + 3
Ti~
J

T~

n+n
J

"V
:

and show that

it is to the limiting value of the ?ith root of the product of the same quantities as 3e 8, where e is the base of the Napierian logarithms. [OXFOKD, 1886.]

32. If na is always equal to unity and n is show that the limiting value of the product

indefinitely great,

[OXFORD. 1883.]

CHAPTER

IX.
/

EECTIFICATION,

ETC.

113. In the course of the next four chapters we propose to illustrate the foregoing method of obtaining the limit of a summation by application of the process of integration to the problems of finding the lengths of curved lines, the areas bounded by such
lines,

finding

surfaces

and volumes of

solids

of

revolution, etc.

Rules for the Tracing of a Curve. As we shall in many cases have to form some rough idea of the shape of the curve under discussion, in
114.

order to properly assign the limits of integration, we may refer the student to the author's larger Treatise on the Differential Calculus, Chapter XII. for a full discussion of the rules of procedure. The following rules, however, are transcribed for convenience of reference, and will in most cases
suffice for

present requirements:

115.
1.

I For Cartesian Equations.

glance will suffice to detect

symmetry

in a

curve.

136
(a) If

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

no odd powers of y occur, the curve is symmetrical with respect to the axis of x. Similarly for symmetry about the ^/-axis. Thus y 2 = 4<ax is symmetrical about the cc-axis. (6) If all the powers of both x and y which occur be even, the curve is symmetrical about both axes, e.g., the ellipse

^2+ y*_ ~
a
62

Again, if on changing the signs of x and y, the equation of the curve remains unchanged, there is symmetry in opposite quadrants, e.g., the = a 2 or the cubic x 3 +y 3 = 3ax. hyperbola xy If the curve be not symmetrical with regard to either axis, consider whether any obvious transformation of coordinates could make it so. 2. Notice whether the curve passes through the also the points where it crosses the coordinate origin
(c)
,
;

any points whose coordinates present themselves as obviously satisfying the equation to the
axes, or, in fact

curve.
3.

Find the asymptotes

;

first,

those parallel to the

axes

next, the oblique ones.

4. If the curve pass through the origin equate to These terms will zero the terms of lowest degree. give the tangent or tangents at the origin.

Find y^; and where it vanishes or becomes indx' finite; i.e., find where the tangent is parallel or per5.

pendicular to the #-axis. 6. If we can solve the equation for one of the variables, say y, in terms of the other, x, it will be frequently found that radicals occur in the solution, and that the range of admissible values of x which give real values for y is thereby limited. The existence of loops upon a curve is frequently detected thus.

RECTIFICATION, ETC.
7.

137
simplified

reduced
116.
It is
1.

Sometimes the equation to the polar form.

II.

is

much

when

For Polar Curves. advisable to follow some such routine

:

as the

following
of r

If possible,

form a
^, O

and 9 which

table of corresponding values satisfy the curve for chosen values

,

of 9, such as 6
positive
2.

= 0,

JP

f o

etc.

Consider both

and

negative values of

9.

Examine whether there be symmetry about the

This will be so when a change of sign of 9 leaves the equation unaltered, e.g., in the carclioide r = a(l cos$). 3. It will frequently be obvious from the equation of the curve that the values of r or 9 are confined between certain limits. If such exist they should be ascertained, e.g., if r = asijm9, it is clear that r must lie in magnitude between the limits and a, and the curve lie wholly within the circle r = a. 4. Examine whether the curve has any asymptotes,
initial line.

rectilinear or circular.

RECTIFICATION.
117. The process of finding the length of an arc of a curve between two specified points is called rectification.

Any

formula expressing the differential

coefficient

of s proved in the differential calculus gives rise at once by integration to a formula in the integral calculus for finding s. add a list of the most common. (The references are to the author's Diff.

We

Gale,

for Beginners.}

118. In each case the limits of integration are the values of the independent variable corresponding to

138

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

the two points which terminate the arc whose length is sought.
Formula in he
Diff. Calc.

Formula in the

Int. Calc.

Reference.

Observations.

P. 98.

For Cartesian Equa tions of form

For Cartesian Equa tions of form
*=/(*/)

P. 98.

P. 103.

For Polar Equation of form

P. 103.

For Polar Equation of form

For case when curvi
is

ds _
dt

l(dx\*

Idy

P. 100.

M(di)+(Tt
rdr
Pp. 103,
105.

given as

dr
ds

For use when Peda Equation is given

P. 148.

For use when Tan Pola gential Equation is given

119.

We

add

illustrative

examples

Ex. 1. Find the length of the arc of the parabola x L =kay extending from the vertex to one extremity of the latus-rectum.

y=

yi=

and the limits are

#=0

and

x%a.

Hence

RECTIFICATION, ETC.

139

Ex. 2. Obtain the same result by taking y as the independent variable.

7
/

= A/-, /-,

and the

limits are

y=

and y = a.

Hence

(Put and
V
7T_

.B

7/

Ex.

3.

Find the perimeter of the cardioide r = a(l

cos

0).

Fig. 11.

The
from

c\irve is

symmetrical about the

initial line,

and

varies

to

TT

for the upper half.

Hence

are= 2

fVa (l -cos 0) +a sin

2

0rf0

= 2a.

140
Ex.
4.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Find the length of the arc of the equiangular spiral the points at which the radii vectores are
arc =

p = rsina between
and
r2
.

Here

f
J

2
-

-^
of

=r
of the involute of a circle,

VV2 -r2sin 2 a
any arc

Ex. 5. Find the length whose equation isp =

Here
where

and \^ 2 are the values of of the arc respectively.

120.

^ at the beginning

and end

Formula

for Closed Curve.

In using the formula

in the case of a closed oval, the origin being within the curve, it may be observed that the length of the

whole contour
\~ dj)~~]

is

given by

pd\fs, for the portion

-jy
Ex.

disappears

when

the limits are taken.

Show

that the perimeter of an ellipse of small eccen-

tricity e exceeds

by

of its length that of a circle

having the
[7, 1889.]

same

area.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 p = c^cos ^ + 6 sin ^ = a (l - e sin ^ with the the angle which p makes
),

Here
where

is

major

axis.

Hence
Hence

2 p = a( I - i^sin ^ - -e*sui*\ls. .A o / \
2i

,=4a{|-lA \-^-\\ f}

(very approximately)

RECTIFICATION, ETC.
The radius
(r) of

141

a circle of the same area

is

given by

vZ^ab^a^l-erf,
and
its

circumference = 27ra(

o
e4 ...

\
).

-e 2
4

32

*.

Circumf. ellipse

- circumf

circle

=
(

\lo

_ \irae* 3'2 /

=
t>4

2ira

o
'

64

[circ.

of circle], as far as

terms involving

e4 .

EXAMPLES.
1.

Find by integration the length of the arc of the circle = a2 intercepted between the points where cos a and
,

xa

2.

Show

that in the catenary y = c cosh - the length of arc

is

from the vertex (where #=0) to any point

s

given by

= c smh -.
.

x
c

In the evolute of a parabola, viz., 4(# - 2a) 3 = 27a# 2 show that the length of the curve from its cusp (# = 2a) to the point where it meets the parabola is 2a(3v3 1).
3.
,

4.

Show

that the length of the arc of the cycloid,

.r=a(0 + sin 0) y = a(l-cos<9)J

^

between the points for which

5.

0=0 and 0=2^,

is s

Show

that in the epicycloid for which

y=(a + 6)sin

-b

sin

=
a
5 beiijg

26

measured from the point at which 0=7rb/a.

n that

When &=--, show

222
on the

4r+y*a*j

and that

if

be

measured from a cusp which

lies

3 y-axis, s oc x*.

142
6.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Show that in the may be expressed
ellipse

# = a cos

$,

j/

= 6sin^,

the peri-

meter

as

7.

Find the length

(i.)

of

any arc of the curves

(iii.)

r = acos0.
r

= a6.
2t

(ii.)

aem0

(iv.)

r = asin 2 -.

8.

Apply the formula s=_

is

+
0).

\pdty to

rectify the cardioide

[TRINITY, 1888.}

whose equation
9.

r=a(l -f cos
OP,

Two

radii vectores

OQ

of the curve

drawn equally inclined to the initial line prove that the length of the intercepted arc is act, where a is the circular measure of the angle POQ. [ASPARAGUS, Educ. Times.']
are
;

10.

Show

that the length of an arc of the curve

finite

be found in
integer.
11.

terms in the cases when

*

or

=xm+n can + - is an *m *
n

of the curve
12.

Find the length of the arc between two consecutive cusps 2 a 2 )p 2 = c 2(r 2 a 2 ). (c
of the loop of the curve
2
2
i.

Find the whole length

3ay =x(x-a)
13.

[OXFORD, 1889.]

Show
>

between the limits

curve

that the length of the arc of the hyperbola xy = a? x=b and x=c is equal to the arc of the 4 2 2 4 (a +r ) = aV between the limits r=b, r=c. [OXFORD, 1888.]
that in the parabola

14.

Show

=1+0080,-^
'

=:-__^_ and
sin^w*

d>Y

hence show that the arc intercepted between the_yertex and the extremity of the latus rectum is a{\/2-flog(l +\/2)}.
[I.

C. S., 1882.]

RECTIFICATION, ETC.
121.
It

143

Length of the Arc of an

E volute.

has been shown (Diff. Gale, for Beg., Art. 157) that the difference between the radii of curvature at

Fig. 12.

two

points of a curve is equal to the length of the corresponding arc of the evolute ;

i.e., if ah be the arc of the evolute of the portion of the original curve, then (Fig. 12)
.e.

AH

(at

A)

/>

(at

H),

144

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
if

the e volute be regarded as a rigid curve, and a be unwound from it, being kept tight, then the string points of the unwinding string describe a system of parallel curves one of which is the original curve AH.
Ex.

and

Find the length

a, a', /3, /3'

of the evolute of the ellipse.

be the centres of curvature corresponding to the extremities of the axes, viz., A, A', B, B' respectively. The arc a/3 of the evolute corresponds to the arc AB of the curve, and we have (Fig. 13)
arc a/2 = /o(at
[for rad. of curv. of ellipse

Let

5)-p(at A) = ~Ex.
3, p.

^.

153, Diff. Calc.for Beg."].

Thus the length

of the entire perimeter of the evolute

EXAMPLE.
in the above manner for the parabola y 2 = kax that the of the part of the evolute intercepted within the parabola length

Show

is4a(3\/3-l).

Equation. between s, the length of the arc of a given curve, measured from a given fixed point on

122. Intrinsic

The

relation

Fig. 14.

the curve, and the angle between the tangents at the extremities of the arc is called the Intrinsic Equation of the curve.

RECTIFICATION, ETC.
123.

145

To obtain the

Intrinsic Equation

from the

Cartesian.

Let the equation of the curve be given as y=f(x). Suppose the #-axis to be a tangent at the origin, and the length of the arc to be measured from the origin.

Then
also

tan -^ =/(),

(1)
2

s=\

*Jl

+ [f'(x)~]

dx

(2)

If s be determined by integration from (2), and x eliminated between this result and equation (1), the will be obtained. required relation between s and

Ex.

1.

Intrinsic equation of a circle.

If i/r be the angle between the initial tangent at A and the tangent at the point P, and a the radius of the circle, we have

and therefore
Ex.
2.

sa^r.
in-

In the case of the catenary y + c = ccosh-, the

trinsic equation is s

= c tan ^.

For and
P.
I.
T

tan^ = dx

^
>

as

dx
c,

= \/ 1
/-,

-r

2smh <>x =
i

146
and therefore

INTEGRAL CALCUL US.

s

= c sinh -,
c
s

the constant of integration being chosen so that x and

together,

vanish

whence
s

= c tan

\js,

124.

To obtain the

Intrinsic Equation

from the

Polar.

Fig. 16.
/
>,

Take the initial line parallel to the tangent at the Then with the point from which the arc is measured. usual notation we have
T =/(0), the equation to the curve,
....... (1)

^ = 0+0,

....................................... (2)

If s be found by integration from (4), and 0, <f> eliminated by means of equations (2) and (3), the required relation between s and \fs will be found.

Ex.

Find the

intrinsic equation of the cardioide

r=a(l -cos

0).

Here
and

i/r

sin

RECTIFICATION, ETC.
Hence
and

147

Fig. 17.

Also

a sin

-,
r\

and
If

4a cos - + C.
2

we determine C so

that

= when 9 = 0, we

have

or

= 4a(

cos^

J,

the intrinsic equation sought.

We may notice that if A be the vertex, the arc AP is 4a cos

148
125.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS,

When the Equation

tan

of the Curve

is

given as

we have

^ = -^ = j (t) ax ^_-^

dy

d)'(t)

,- N

....... ..... ........ (1)

By means of equation (2) s may be found by integration in terms of t. If then, between the result and equation (1) t be eliminated, we shall obtain the required relation
between
Ex.
s

and ^.

In the cycloid

we have

ya(\ -cos t\ * mt = tan tan ^ =

,

1+costf

Also

^ = ax/(l + cos0 dt
sin if s

+ sin 2 * = 2a

cos -,

whence 5=4a

he measured from the origin where Z=0.

the equation required.

Hence
126.

= 4ot sin

T/T

is

Intrinsic Equation of the Evolute.

Let s=f(\f/) be the equation of the given curve. Let s' be the length of the arc of the evolute measured from some fixed point A to any other point Q. Let and P be the points on the original curve corresponding to the points A, Q on the evolute; p p the and P: \j/ the angle the radii of curvature at the QP makes with OA produced, and tangent angle the tangent PT makes with the tangent at 0.
,

RECTIFICATION, ETC.

149

Then

*//

-^r,

and
ds

or

O T
Fig. 18.

127.

With the same

Intrinsic Equation of an Involute. be given figure, if the curve

AQ

the equation s'=f(\}/),

we have
and
\Is

by

\//,

whence
Ex.

=
intrinsic

The

equation of the catenary

is

s=ctsm\Ir

(Art. 123).

Hence the
and

intrinsic equation of its evolute is

= radius of =c p=
s = c(sec
2v//-

curvature at the vertex

y
1 ),

= c sec 2
or
is

i/r

and T/r=0

'

the evolute

is

s = c tan 2^.

The

intrinsic equation of
s=
I

an involute
tan
"fy

(c

+ A)d^r
;

= c log sec + A^r + constant

T/T

and

if s

be so measured that
s

= c log(sec

5=0 when ^=0, we have

T

150
128.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Length of Arc of Pedal Curve.

If p be the perpendicular from the origin upon the tangent to any curve, and ^ the angle it makes with the initial line, we may regard p, % as the current polar coordinates of a point on the pedal curve. Hence the length of the pedal curve may be calculated by the formula

Ex.

Apply the above method

of the pedal of a circle ference (i.e. a cardioide).

to find the length of any arc with regard to a point on the circum-

Fig. 19.

Here,

if

2a be the diameter, we have from the figure

* 2 p = OP cos = 2ctcos *.
Hence
arc of pedal =
/

2 A/a 2 cos 4 - + a 2 sin 2 - cos -a * 2 2 2

=
j
/

2a cos *dx = 4a sin

+ C.
and X = TT.

The limits for the upper half of the curve are x = Hence the whole perimeter of the pedal

1 2[4asin- Jo =8a. 2 L-

RECTIFICATION, ETC.

151

EXAMPLES.
1-.

Find the length

Find the length

of

any arc

of the curve

u\a

x)=aP.
[a, 1888.]

2.

of the complete cycloid given

by

y=a

a cos

0.

3. Find the curve for which the length of the arc measured from the origin varies as the square root of the ordinate. 4.

Show

that the intrinsic equation of the parabola

s

is

= a tan ^ sec ^r + a log(tan + sec ^).

i/r

5.

Interpret the expressions

wherein the line integrals are taken rou id the perimeter of a [ST. JOHN'S, 1890.] given closed curve.

Jw

6.

The major
is

axis of

^/^eccentricity nearly.

1/10.

an Prove

ellipse is 1 foot in length,

its

and

its

circumference to be 3*1337 feet

[TRINITY, 1883.]

7. Show that the length of the arc of that part of the cardioide r = a(l + cos 0), which lies on the side of the line 4r=3asec remote from the pole, is equal to 4a. [OXFORD, 1888.]

8.

Find the length

of

an arc of the
sin 2 r _a
6>

cissoid

cos
9.

ff

Find the length of any arc of the curve

10.

Show

bola 3a3/ 2
11.

=2^ is

that the intrinsic equation of the semicubical para9s = 4a(sec3Vr - 1).

In a certain curve

show that

5=ee\/2 + a

152
12.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Show
that the length of an arc of the curve

is

given by
13.

s =/(<9)

+/"(#) +

C.

Show
Show

tion

is s

= a gd~

that in the curve

l
\ff.

y = alogsec-

the intrinsic equa-

14.

that the length of the arc of the curve

s

between the points (xl9

15.

yj), (#2 ,

3/2) is

n x
!
^.

y=logcoth-

log

sinn

X-^

Trace the curve y 2 =

od/

(a

#)

2
,

and find the length

[ST. JOHN'S, 1881

of that

part of the evolute which corresponds to the loop.

and

1891.]

Find the length of an arc of an equiangular spiral (p = rsma) measured from the pole. Show that the arcs of an equiangular spiral measured from the pole to the different points of its intersection with another equiangular spiral having the same pole but a different angle will form a series in geometrical progression. [TRINITY, 1884.]
16.

17.

Show

that the curve whose pedal equation

is

p 2 =r2

a?

has for
18.

its intrinsic

equation

= a-.
Zi

that the whole length of the limagon r=acos is equal to that of an ellipse whose semi-axes are equal in length to the maximum and minimum radii vectores of the limacon.

Show

19. Prove that the length of the nth pedal of a loop of the curve rm =amsinmO is
,-m

mn-m+1

a(mn+I)
o

(smmO)

dO.

1883

20.

Show

that the length of a loop of the curve

[ST. JOHN'S, 1881.]

CHAPTER
QUADRATURE,
129. Areas.

X.
ETC.

Cartesians.
of finding the area

The process

bounded by any

portion of a curve is termed quadrature. It has been already shown in Art. 2 that the area bounded by any curved line [y = <f>(x)], any pair of ordinates [x = a and x = b] and the axis of x may be considered as the limit of the sum of an infinite number of inscribed rectangles; and that the expression for the area is
9

ydx

or

(x)dx.

In the same

two given

abscissae [y = c,

way

the area bounded by any curve, y = d] and the y-axis is

fxdy.
130. Again, if the area desired be bounded by two given curves [y = <p(%) and 2/ = \^(^)] and two given ordinates \x a and x = 6], it will be clear by similar reasoning that this area may be also considered as the limit of the sum of a series of rectangles constructed

154

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
The expression
for the

as indicated in the figure. area will accordingly be

Li% PQ dx x=a

or

fj>(0)

- \fs(x)]dx.

Fig. 20.

Ex.

1.

Find the area bounded by the

ellipse

+ ^- = 1, 2
-

the

ordinates x=c,

xd and the
J

Here

area=

^Sr fa
d =a and c=0 and

2a
For a quadrant of the ellipse we must put the above expression becomes
.

a2 ?
.

or

2a

4
ellipse.

giving irab for the area of the whole

Ex. 2. Find the area above the #-axis included between the curves y 2 = %ax x 2 and y 2 = ax. The circle and the parabola touch at the origin and cut again at (a, a). So the limits of integration are from #=0 to The area sought is therefore

xa.

- x2 ~

QUADRATURE, ETC.
Now, putting x=a(\
cos 0\
21
TT

155

_ira

2 2~~4~'

and

J~axdx = *Ja\
is

Lf Jo
J.

= fa2

Thus the area required

a?(

Fig. 21.

Ex.

3.

Find the area

curve and
its

(1) of the loop of the curve (2) of the portion bounded by the

asymptote.

Here

To

trace this curve

we observe

(1) It is (2)

No <-a.
y

symmetrical about the ^7-axis. real part exists for points at which x

is

>a

or

(3) It has an asymptote #+a=0. (4) It goes through the origin, and the tangents there are

"

,7

(5) It crosses the #-axis

infinite.

where x
is

a^

and at

this point -f- is

dx

(6)

The shape

of the curve

therefore that

shown

in the

figure (Fig. 22).

Hence

for the loop the limits of integration are

to a,

and

then double the result so as to include the portion below the

156

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
the

limits are

For the portion between the curve and the asymptote a to 0, and double as before. For the loop we therefore have

a+x
for the portion

between the curve and the asymptote,

In

/v.

x\l
/O
>

a+x

dx.

Fig. 22.

To

integrate

a~x I xJ dx, put J a ~p x

*

x=a cos
Then
J

and

dx

a sin

c?$.

ftfJEfcfc- - Jl\ Va+x

1-cos 2 ^

=a

r
/

and

area of

--} I)

QUADRATURE, ETC.
Again,

157

r x J?E*dx=
J_

>a+#

a cos

fl^ l-cos 2 # "^gain Bd9 >

[The meaning of the negative sign

is this

In choosing the
are tracing the

sign before the radical in

y=#/v/^_
*

a+x

we

portion of the curve below the #-axis on the left of the origin and above the axis on the right of the origin. Hence y being negative between the limits referred to, it is to be expected
that

we should obtain a negative value

for the expression

Thus the whole area required

is

[It must also be observed in this example that the greatest ordinate is an infinite one. In Art. 2 it was assumed that every ordinate was finite. Is then the result for the area bounded by the curve and the asymptote rigorously true ? To examine this more closely let us integrate between limits a + e and 0, where e is some small positive quantity, so as to exclude the infinite ordinate at the point x a, we have as before

[<c J

A/fEfdfc.

*a+x

where
so that 8 is a positive small angle.

This integral

is

which approaches indefinitely

close to the

former result

when

8 is

made

to diminish without limit.]

158

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.

1.

Obtain the area bounded by a parabola and Obtain the areas bounded by the curve, the
:

its

latus

rectum.
2.

^7-axis,

and the

specified ordinates in the following cases

(a)

#=ccosh-,

to

x= a x=a
3.

to
to

x=h. x=b.

xb.

4.

X2la2 +y 2 /b 2 = l
5.

Obtain the area bounded by the curves y 2 =4ax, #2 =4ay. Find the areas of the portions into which the ellipse
is divided by the line y=c. Find the whole area included between the curve

X2y2 =a2(y 2
and
its

x2)

asymptotes. 2 6. Find the area between the curve y (a+x)=(a xf and its asymptote. 7. Find the area of the loop of the curve y*x + (x + af(x + 2a) = 0.

Folars. the area to be found is bounded by a curve r=f(6) and two radii vectores drawn from the origin in given directions, we divide the area into elementary sectors with the same small angle 89, as shown in the Let the area to be found be bounded by the arc figure. PQ and the radii vectores OP, OQ. Draw radii vectores
131.

Sectorial Areas.

When

at equal angular intervals. Then the successive circular arcs centre PN, 1 V 2 2 etc., it may be at once seen that the limit of the sum of the circular sectors OPN, OP^N^ OP2 N%, etc., is the area required. For the remaining elements V P^N^P^ 2 2 3 etc., may be made to so as to occupy new positions on the rotate about
19
,

OP OP2

...

OPn -i
,

by drawing with

PN P^

PNP

P ^P

QUADRATURE, ETC.

159

greatest sector say OPn -iQ as indicated in the figure. Their sum is plainly less than this sector and in the limit when the angle of the sector is indefinitely diminished its area also diminishes without limit provided the radius vector OQ remains finite.
;

O
Fig. 23.

The area

of a circular sector
2

is

J(radius)

X circular meas.

of angle of sector.
2

S(), the summation being conducted for such values of 9 as lie between 6 = xOP and = xOP n -i, i.e., xOQ in the limit, Ox being

Thus the area required

= l?LZr

the initial

line.
if

In the notation of the integral calculus and xOQ = /3, this will be expressed as
or

xOP = a,

Ex. 1. Obtain the area of the semicircle bounded by r = acos and the initial line. Here the radius vector sweeps over the angular interval from -. Hence the area is 0=0 to

i.e.,

^radius)*.

160

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

sin 3ft Ex. 2. Obtain the area of a loop of the curve This curve will be found to consist of three equal loops as indicated in the figure (Fig. 24). The proper limits for making the integration extend over the
first

ra

loop are
for

0=0 and 6 = -,
r vanishes.

for these are

two successive values

of

which

.-.

area of loop = 1

fWn

30 dO

= ~ f\l -cos 60)d9

3~~ 12'
2

The

total area of the three loops is

therefore!^.

Fig. 24.

EXAMPLES.
Find the areas bounded by

= 2cos 2 + 6 2sin 2 ft 3. One loop of r= a sin 4ft 4. One loop of r = a shift ft One loop of r=asin2ft coia bounded by the radii vectores 5. The portion of r=ae^ 9=13 and 0=/3 + y (y being less than 2?r).
1.

r2

2.

6. 7.

Any

sector of sector of

7^0=^
r(9

((9=a to 6*=^).
to ^=)8). = fi). to

8. 9.

Any Any
The

r0&a (0=a
= a (9=a
cos
0).

sector of

cardioide r = a(l

10. If s

be the length of the curve

r=tanh2

between the

= origin and $ 27r, and A the area between the same points, show that A = a(s air). [OXFOKD, 1888. ]

QUADRATURE,

ETC.

161

132. Area of a Closed Curve. Let (x, y) be the Cartesian coordinates of any point P on a closed curve (x + Sx, y + Sy) those of an adjacent point Q. Let (r, 9), (r + Sr 6 + $0) be the corresponding Also we shall suppose that in polar coordinates. the curve from P to Q along the travelling along
; ,

infinitesimal arc PQ the direction of rotation of the radius vector OP is counter-clockwise (i.e. that the

Fig. 25.

area

is

on the

direction).

left hand to a person Then the element

travelling in this

ir 2 (S$ = AOPQ = $(xSy

ySx).

Hence
curve

another expression for the area of a closed

is

Wxdy-ydx),
the limits being such that the point completely round the curve.
133.
If
(x,

y) travels once

we put y =

so that

^M^ =

(fo)

we
is

may

write the above expression as ^\x z dv, where x

to be expressed in terms of v and the limits of integration so chosen that the current point (x, y) travels As v is really once completely round the curve.

tan 6 and becomes infinite when 6 is a right angle care must be taken not to integrate through the value oo
.

E.

i.

c.

162
Ex.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Find by
this

method the area of the #2/a 2 +.y 2/& 2 =l.

ellipse

Putting y = vx, we have

and

=* f

JV

^L= L2 f*

between properly chosen limits. Now, in the first quadrant v varies from
area of quadrant =?
-,

to

oo

Hence

and therefore

area of ellipse

=irab.

134. If the origin lie without the curve, as the current point travels round we obtain triangular elements such as OP 1 Q V including portions of space such as OP2 Q 2 shown in the figure which lie outside

Fig. 26.

the curve.

element P 2 Q 2 for the triangular element OP 2 Q2 is reckoned negatively as 9 is decreasing and S6 is negative.
travels over the
,

These portions are however ultimately removed from the whole integral when the point P

135. If

however the curve

cross itself, the expression

^ (xdy
I

ydx), taken round the whole perimeter, no

longer represents the

sum

of the areas of the several

QUADRATURE, ETC.
loops.

163

For draw two contiguous

the curve again at

radii vectores

OP
Q3
,

OQl cutting
respectively.

Q2

P Q
3,

and

2,

X,

in travelling continuously through the complete perimeter we obtain positive elements, and negative elements such as OPiQi and 3 Q3 such as Q2 and Q4 2 4

Then

OP OP OP Now OP Q 1 -OP Q +OP3 Q3 -OP4 Q 4 = quadl. P^P^-quadL P2 Q 2 P3 Q 3

,
.

in integrating for the whole curve obtain the difference of the two loops.

and

we

therefore

Fig. 27.

Similarly,

if

the curve cuts

itself

more than

this integral gives the difference of the loops and the sum of the even loops.

sum

once, of the odd

To obtain the absolute area of such a curve we must therefore obtain that of each loop separately and then add the results. Of course in curves with several equal loops it is sufficient to find the area of any one, and to ascertain the number of such loops.
136.

Many

Other Expressions for an Area. other expressions may be deduced for the
plane
curve,

area of a

or

proved

independently,

164
specially

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
adapted to the cases when the curve
of coordinates. be an element Ss of a plane curve,
is

defined
If

by other systems

PQ

and

OF

the perpendicular from the pole on the chord PQ,

Fig. 28.

AOPQ = |OF.PQ,and any sectorial area =

the

summation being conducted along the whole

arc.
is

bounding
culus this

In the notation of the Integral Cal-

[This

may be

at once deduced

from |
\r

rW, thus
ds

(V 2 d0

ir^ds

sin

(where

is the angle between the tangent and the <f> radius vector)

137.

Tangential-Polar Form. = ds = P + d*p Again, since P 5

.

we have

area = \ \p ds = J

QUADRATURE, ETC.
a formula suitable for use

165

when

the Tangential-Polar

equation
138.

is

given.

When
some
For

Closed Curve. the curve is closed this expression admits of

simplification.

and in integrating round the whole perimeter the first term disappears. Hence when the curve is dosed we have
area =
^

Ex. By Ex. 23, p. 113, Diff. Cale. for Beginners, the equation of the one-cusped epicycloid (i.e., the cardioide) may be expressed as

p=

Fig. 29.

Hence

its

whole area=-^
i/r

9a 2 sin 2 ;'

a 2 cos 2 ^ \d^ taken be-

tween limits
Putting
-^

and
this
2

^=
IT

and doubled.

= 3$,

becomes
.

= 3a

f (9 sin 2 ^ - co**0)dO = 67ra 2

^o

166
139.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Pedal Equation.

we have

Again, for curves given by their pedal equations,

A = ip ds = i p
Ex.

dr = }p sec
spiral

dr = i

In the equiangular
sectorial area

p=r sin a,

Hence any

=f
140.

/>2

y2 s i

r r cosa

of curvature

Area included between a curve, two and the evolute.

radii

In this case we take as our element of area the elementary triangle contained by two contiguous radii of curvature and the infinitesimal arc ds of the curve.

To

first

order infinitesimals this

t

is

|/o <S\^,

and the

area =
Ex.
1.

p,
31)

.e.

p\

or

The area between a

is (Fig.

circle, its involute,

and a tangent

to the circle

QUADRATURE, ETC.

167

Ex. 2. The area between the tractrix and its asymptote is found in a similar manner. The tractrix is a curve such that the portion of its tangent between the point of contact and the ^7-axis is of constant
length
c.

Fig. 31.

Taking two adjacent tangents and the axis of elemental triangle (Fig. 32)

as forming an

o
Fig. 32.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Find the area

of the two-cusped epicycloid

2.

[Limits \jf = to "^=7r for one quadrant.] Obtain the same result by means of its pedal equation
7.2

[Limits

r=a

to r

= ^2 + 1^2. = 2a for one

quadrant.]

168

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

3. Find the area between the catenary s = c tan ^, its evolute, the radius of curvature at the vertex, and any other radius of curvature.

evolute,

Find the area between the epicycloid s = AsmB^s, and any two radii of curvature. 5. Find the area between the equiangular spiral sAe^y evolute, and any two radii of curvature.
4.

its

its

AREAS OF PEDALS.
141. If

Area of Pedal Curve.

_p=/(Vr ) be the tangential-polar equation (Diff. for Beginners, Art. 130) of a given curve, S\fs will be the angle between the perpendiculars on two contiguous tangents, and the area of the pedal may be
Gale,
2 expressed as J|p c^/r (compare Art. 131).

Fig. 33.

Ex. Find the area of the pedal of a circle with regard to a point on the circumference (the cardioide). Here if be the perpendicular on the tangent at P, and OA the diameter ( = 2a), it is geometrically obvious that OP bisects the angle AOY. we have for Hence, calling the tangential polar equation of the circle

OF

YOA^,

Hence

=^

QUADRATURE, ETC.
where the

169

limits are to be taken as and TT, and the result to be doubled so as to include the lower portion of the pedal.

Thus

^l=4a a f *cos*fe^ = 4a 2
J

f
J
o

4222

Fig. 34.

142.

Locus of Origins of Pedals of given Area.

t

Let be a fixed point. Let p \js be the polar coordinates of the foot of a perpendicular upon any tangent to a given curve.

OF

o
Fig. 35.

any other fixed point, J pendicular from P upon the tangent.

Let

P be

>

F (=^
1

1)

the per-

Then the areas

170

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
and
2

of the pedals with

respectively as origins are

2

ijV
taken between

cfyr

and
j[ft
definite

<%

Call these areas and Let r, 6 be the polar l respectively coordinates of with regard to 0, and x y their Cartesian equivalents. Then
certain
limits.

A P

Pi

P ~~ T cos($
a

-t/r)

=p

x cos ifs
\fs

sin

i/r,

and p
2
l

is

known

function of
\(p

Hence
y sin \l/fd\^
2^/

A =
=

= \p^d\fr
Vp^d"^

x cos i/r

2x \p cos
c?i/r

^ d\/r
1

|p

sin

\fs

d\fs

+ x*
+
Now
2
2
2/-

cos 2 i/r

+ 2a32/

cos

\[s

si

si

Jp

cos

\/r

d\fs,

2 Ip sin

\/r d\[s,

between such limits that the whole pedal

will be definite constants.

is

described

Call
a,

them
2A,
6,

-20, and we thus obtain

<

-2/,

If
its

2A = 2A + 2gx + 2fy + ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 then P move in such a manner that A l is constant,

.

locus
143.

must be a conic

section.

Character of Conic,

It is a

known

result in inequalities that

Hence

it

will be obvious that if p, q,

r, ...

stand for

QUADRATURE, ETC.
cos/^,

171
,

eos2h, cos3/i,
2/z,,

...

sin A, sin

etc.,

we

shall

cosnh, and p v q v r v ... for have in the limit when h is

finite
1

made
I

i.e.

oo
cos \fsd\[sX
2
I

indefinitely small
sin
2

and nh

= ^,

say,
cZx/^J
,

!//-

c?^ > /

sin\/r cosi/r

ab>h 2

Hence our conic section is in general an Moreover the position of its centre is given by

ellipse.

ax+hy+g = 0*\ hx+by+f=0j

Hence and is independent of the magnitude of v these several conic-loci will for different values of l all be concentric, shall call this centre 1

We

144.

Closed Oval.
closed

Next suppose that our original curve is a oval curve, and that the point P is within it.
the limits of integration are

Then

and
p2ir
I

2?r.

Thus

a=
h=

p2*

cos 2

^ d\js = =
TT

sin 2 \/r d\{t

=b

and

cos
o

\/r

sin

i/r

d^/r

= 0.

Hence the conic becomes

a circle whose centre
^
p27T
I

i.e.

is

at the point
-

/2
I

pcosi/rcZ^,

p sin \fsd\fs.

7TJ

7TJ

Connexion of Areas. The point 2 having been found, let us to 2. The linear terms origin from
145.

transfer our of the conic

172

INTEGRAL CALCULUS,
Thus
2

will thereby be removed.

is

a point such

that the integrals \pcos\fsd\fs and \psiu\^d\[^ both

vanish, and
is
2

if

we have

II be the area of the pedal for any other

whose pole

2A 1 = 211 + ax2 + 2hxy + by*

in the general case.

The area of
*

this conic is

(Smith's Conic Sections, Art. 171).

A -d.

Thus
(area or conic).
,
I?

*/ab TT = IH--s
,

h ""

2 \

^7T

For the particular case of tion of the conic becomes

any

closed oval the equa-

whence

J. 1

lies f o r where r is the radius of the circle on which from 2. constant values of A v i.e. the distance of

146. Position of the Point 2 for Centric Oval. In any oval which has a centre the point 2 is plainly at that centre, for when the centre is taken as

origin,

the

integrals

\pcos\fsd\fs

and

\psui\fsd\fs

the integration is performed for the oval (opposite elements of the integration complete

both vanish

when

cancelling),
147- Ex. 1. Find the area of the pedal of a regard to any point within the circle at a distance
centre (a limagon).
circle
c

with from the

Here
and

A = n+^,
n = 7ra2
.

Hence

Ai=ica*+

QUADRATURE, ETC.
Ex.
to

173
ellipse

Find the area of the pedal of an 2. any point at distance c from the centre.
II is

with regard

In this case

the area of the pedal with regard to the centre

2
<9

- 2 Vcos 2 + b%m*0)dO = (a2 +

/*

)|.

Hence

^1

=|(

Ex. 3. The area of the pedal of the cardioide r=a(l cos 0) taken with respect to an internal point on the axis at a distance c from the pole is

|(5sLet
be the pole,

and

and the two perpendiculars 2 P respectively ; < the angle

OF

[MATH TBIpos>187a] the given internal point ; p and p l

.

2 c+

2c').

PT on any tangent from Y$P and OPc then

l
;

pl p

c cos <,

and ^A l =2A

2clp

cos

<

cfc

Fig. 36.

Now

in order that

integrate between limits

p may sweep out the whole pedal we must = and = and double. Now in
<
<

-^

the cardioide (Fig. 36)

p= OQ sin Y QO = OQ sin^xOQ.
2

[Dif. Calc., p. 190.]

174
For

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

= itf0 =

Hence
or
so
,

|-{*-(-W-|

|-*=f,
/3

A*/

J-J-J,
,

23
</>

-.

Hence

p cos

<j>

d<j>

=2

2a cos 3 2 cos
fl
/

d(f>

'

= 4a x 3
= 12#
rf
/

cos% cos 3,s o?2

[4

cos% - 3 cos)<iz

6422
Also
J

42

fc cos

d>cta=3.2c i
2
Sir

^^^ 222
= 24a2 Tcos^ <fe,
1

Finally

24 = 2
J

4a**^*J>
6 3

^
2
'

642
mi

_?ra Al -8~
A

?rac

T"

148.

When

Origin for Pedal of Minimum Area. f2 is taken as origin, it appears that

2

A = 211 +
l
J

(05

cos

^ + y sin \Jsfd\ls.
+ ysm\}s) d\fs is necessarily
<2

Hence

as the term \(x cos\fs

positive, it is clear that

can never be

less

than

II.

QUADRATURE, ETC.

175

2 is therefore the origin for which the corresponding pedal curve has a minimum area.

149.

Pedal of an Evolute of a Closed Oval.

for the area of

The formula
in Art. 138
is

any

closed oval proved

area of

Hence

= oval + J jp */' jft )

2

which plainly expresses that the area of any pedal of an oval curve is equal to the area of the oval itself together with the area of the pedal of the evolute (for
-ry
is

the radius vector of the pedal of the evolute).

This also admits of elementary geometrical proof.

Ex. Find the area of the pedal of the evolute of an with regard to the centre. The above article shows that
area of pedal of evolute = area of pedal of ellipse
2

ellipse

- area
.

of ellipse

- -(a 2 + b ) - irab = ?(a - b) 2

176

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

150. Area bounded by a Curve, its Pedal, and a pair of Tangents. Let P, Q be two contiguous points on a given curve, 7, F' the corresponding points of the pedal of any origin 0. Then since (with the usual notation)

PF=-vjr
the
first

the elementary triangle bounded

by two
is

contiguous tangents PY, QY' and the chord YY'

order of infinitesimals

to

Fig. 38.

Hence the area of any portion bounded by the two curves and a pair of tangents to the original curve may be expressed as

and

is the same as the corresponding portion of the area of the pedal of the evolute.

151.

Corresponding Points and Areas.

2/)

Let f(x,

be any closed curve.

Its area (A^)

QUADRATURE, ETC.
is

177

expressed by the line-integral \ydx taken round

the complete contour. If the coordinates of the current point (x, y) be connected with those of a second point ( rj) by the relations x = mg, y = nrj, this second point will trace out the curve /(w nrj) = whose area (J. 9 ) is expressed

by the

line-integral

rj

dg taken round

its

contour.

And we have
l

=
is

\y

dx

nrjm

whence
f(x
t

it

y) =

appears that the area of any closed curve mn times that of f(inx, ny) = 0. Apply
this

152. Ex.

1.

method

to find the area of the ellipse

**

,* + ~1
b r

a
the corresponding point

=, r
,

T\

traces out the circle

and

area of ellipse

=~ x area of circle
r

Ex.

2.

Find the area

of the curve

(mV + n^f = a V + Wif2 )

Let

mx = ^
is

ny = ij,

then the corresponding curve

or in polars

r2

= ^- cos 2 + 2

ri

--,

sin 2 0,

the central pedal of an ellipse, symmetrical about both axes.

E.
i,

c.

178
Hence the area

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
of the first curve

mn

x area of second

EXAMPLES,
1.

Find the area

of the loop of the curve

ay =x\a-x).
2.

<L

[I.

C. S., 1882.]

Find the whole area

of the curve
2

a?y
3.

= a2x

-x*.

[I.

C. S., 1881.]
its

Trace the curve a 2# 2 =;?/ 3 (2ct y\ and prove that equal to that of the circle whose radius is a.
[I.

area

is

C. S., 1887

and 1890.]
area
is

Trace the curve cfiy* = x b (Za to that of the circle whose radius
4. 5.

x\ and prove that

is

its

a as 5 to

4.

Find the whole area

of the curve

[CLARE,
6.

etc., 1892.]

By means

of the integral

y dx taken round
lines

the contour

of the triangle

formed by the intersecting

enclose the area

show that they

[Sir.

PKIZE, 1876.]

a x be the angle the tangent makes with the axis of show that the area of an oval curve is
8.

7.

Find the area between y 2 =

If ty

the integration being taken

/r
y cos "fy ds
or
q:
/

and

its

asymptote.

#,

x sin ^r ds,

all

round the perimeter.

QUADRATURE,
9.

ETC.

179

Find the areas

of the curves

10.

a Find the areas bounded by a a +y2 = 4a 2 .??2+y 2 = 2ay, x = a.

,

= l-,

(iii.) }

[H. C.

S., 1881.]

cuts the hyperbola a? 2 y 2 =2a 2 at the points P, and' the tangent at to the hyperbola cuts the ; parabola again in R. Find the area of the curvilineal triangle
11.

The parabola y 2 =ax

PQR12.
,
.

[OXFOED, 1889.]

Find the area common to the ellipses #2 + 2# 2 = 2c2 2#2 +/ = 2c 2 [OXFORD, 1888.] 13. Find the two portions of area bounded by the straight line y = c, and the curves whose equations are x2 +y 2 =c 2 y 2 + 4x 2 = 4c 2 [I. C. S., 1891.]
,
.

contained by the lines y 2 = 4o#, x2 +y 2 = Zax, x=y + 2a. Express the area both when x is the independent variable and when y is the independent variable. [PETKRHOUSE, etc., 1882.]
is

Find by integration the area lying on the same side of the axis of x as the positive part of the axis of y and which
14.
9

15. If

is
2

the vertex,
2

hyperbola -x /a

-y 2/b 2 = 1,

the centre, and

P
,

any point on the

prove that
ab'
,

*=

ab'

where
16.

S is the sectorial area A OP. An ellipse of small eccentricity

a.

to that of a circle of radius

?ra 2
17.

Show
4

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1885.] has its perimeter equal that its area is
[a,

(l-^-e

nearly.

1883.]

Find the curvilinear area enclosed between the parabola 2 y = kax and its evolute.
18. Show that the area of the pedal of an ellipse with regard to its centre is one half of the area of the director circle.
19. Prove that the area of the locus of intersections of tangents at right angles for the curve + y7 = af is jTra2 [MATH. TRIPOS, 1888.] 20. Prove that if s be the arc of the curve

= tan a aj
where a
is

a variable parameter, measured from the initial

180
line to a point

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

P on

the curve
9,4 2

by the
21.

curve, the initial line,

and if A be the area bounded and the radius vector to P, then

;

= 2rf.
of the

Find the area of the closed portion _ 3a sin cos 9

Folium
[I.

~sin^6>TcoW
In what ratio does the
loop?
22.

C. S.,

1881]

line

x+y = Za
r=aOe be

divide the area of the

[OXFORD, 1889.] enclosed between two given radii vectores and two successive branches of the curve.

Find the area

of the curve

[TRINITY, 1881.]
23.

Find the area

of the loop of the curve r

= a0cos

between

24.

Show

that the area of a loop of the curve r = acosn0

is

-,

and

state the total area in the cases

n odd, n

even.

4?i

25.

Find the area

of a loop of the curve r

= a cos 3$ + b sin 3$.

[I.

C. S., 1890.]

26.

the

Show that the area contained between the circle r=a and curve r=acos5$ is equal to three-fourths of the area of the
[OXFORD, 1888.]

circle.

27.

Prove that the area

of the curve

r2(2c 2 cos 2 <9 - 2ac sin

is

cos 9

+ a2sin 2 #) = aV
[I.

equal to
28.

irac.

C. S., 1879.]

curve r = a(2 cos

30.
its

Find the whole area of the curve represented by the equation r = acos + b, assuming b > a. 29. Find the area included between the two loops of the

+ ^3).

[OXFORD,

1889. ]

Find the area between the curve r=a(sec $+cos

0)

and

asymptote. 31. Prove that the area of one loop of the pedal of the 2 lemniscate r 2 = a 2 cos2$ with respect to the pole is a [OXFORD, 1885.] 32. Find the area of the loop of the curve
.

(x'\-y)(x^+y
33.

= ^axy.

[OXFORD, 1890.]

Prove that the area of the loop of the curve

QUADRATURE, ETC.
34.

181

Find the whole area contained between the curve

asymptotes.
that the area of the ellipse
(

and

its

[OXFORD, 1888.]

35.

Show

*L^ = a 2

+b 2 -r2

in-

eluded between the curve, the semi-major axis, and a radius

vector r from the centre,
is

tan" 1 ^/^^-,

a,

being the
etc.,

semi-axes of the
36.
its

ellipse.

[CLARE,
5

1882.]

that the area in eluded between the curve = and its tangent at V*" <> i g tangent at

Show

= atan^,

-a 2 tan </> + a 2 tan ^ - a 2 log(sec

37.

<

+ tan c).
[TRINITY, 1892.]

that the area of the space between the epicycloid p =^isin Sty and its pedal curve taken from cusp to cusp is ^irA 2B. 38. Show that the curve r = a(^\/3 + cos^#) has three loops

Show

whose areas are a 2 (f TT + 2\/3), a 2 (fTT - f\/3), a\ -far - f V)

spectively.
39.

re-

[COLLEGES, 1892.]
of a loop of the curve

Find the area

Find the area

x*+y* = Za
40.

xy.

[OXFORD, 1888.]

of the pedal of the curve

=*(<**- d*)l,

the origin being taken at x = *Ja 2 6 2 y = 0. [OXFORD, 1888.] 41. Find the area included between one of the branches of 2= 2 2 the curve 3% a (# +;?/ 2 ) and its asymptotes. [a, 1887.]
,

42.

Find the whole area

Find the area

of the curve
[a, 1887.]

tf+yi = a\x*+y*).
43.

(mV +
44.

of a loop of the curve - b 2y 2 n,y)*

= aV

[ST. JOHN'S, 1887. ]

Trace the shape of the following curves, and find their

:

areas

(i.)

(ii.)

(^+^2)3 =aay*. 2 4 3 (^ + 2/) = a^?/

.

[BELL,
45.

etc.,

SCHOLARSHIPS, 1887.]

Prove that the area of

'

3?

V
'

1 /

V \

7TC

2
/

182
46.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Prove that the area in the positive quadrant of the curve

(av+w^w
47.

is

^(5+5).
&

[a;18900

Prove that the area

of the curve
is

f")

+ (V2 -

a 2 ) tan- 1 -

[ST. JOHN'S, 1883.]

48.

Prove that the area of the curve

9

,aV
62
5, is 7r(ab of the curve ^4

where
49.
is fTrtt

c is less

than both a and

c 2).

[OXFORD, 1890.]

Prove that the area

2
.

-3o^3 + a2(2^2 +y 2 )=0

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1893.]

50.

Prove that the areas of the two loops of the curve

(32^ + 24^3) a
(167r-24\/3)a
2
,

are

and

2
,

[MATH. TRIPOS, 1875.]

CHAPTER

XI.

SUKFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF KEVOLUTION.

153.
It

Volumes of Revolution about the a>axis. was shown in Art. 5 that if the curve y=f(x)

revolve about the axis of x the portion between the ordinates x = x^ and x = x 2 is to be obtained by the

formula
*2

Tr

2
.

dx.

154.

About any
generally,
if

axis.
if

More

AB, and

PN

the revolution be about any line be any perpendicular drawn from a

184

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

on the curve upon the line point contiguous perpendicular, the volume
or
if

AB
is

and P'N' a

expressed as

be a given point on the line

AB

155. Ex.

1.

Find the volume formed by the revolution of the

loop of the curve

f=x ?^ (Art.
2

130, Ex. 3)

about the

tf-axis.

Here

volume =/
J
o

7ry J

dx=7r

J
o

a~x x* dx. a+x

Putting a +x=z, this becomes

rf2a log z

- 5a 2z +

2az 2 - ~ 3 _J

Ex. 2. Find the volume of the spindle formed by the revolution of a parabolic arc about the line joining the vertex to one extremity of the latus rectum.

Fig. 40.

Let the parabola be

Then the
and

axis of revolution

is

y = 4o y = 2^7,
2

P
fi

VOLUME OF REVOLUTION.
Also

185

and

volume =

dAN

4?r

75

156.

Surfaces of Revolution.

out

Aain, if S be the curved surface of the solid traced y the revolution of any arc AB about the ^c-axis,

Fig. 41.

two adjacent ordinates, being the suppose PN, smaller, 3s the elementary arc PQ, SS the area of the elementary zone traced out by the revolution of PQ

QM

PN

186

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

about the #-axis, y and y

ordinates of

P and

+ Sy

the lengths of the

Q.

traced out

it were at the distance PN and less than if each point were at a distance QM from the axis. Then SS lies between ^y 8s and 2w(y + Sy)Ss, and therefore in the limit we have

Now we may take it as axiomatic that the area by PQ in its revolution is greater than it
if

would be from the

each point of

axis,

r/^

-j-

= 2-7T2/

or

f
\

This

may

be written as

as

may happen

to be convenient in
-r->

any particular
being obtained

example, the values of

-j->

-^,

etc.,

from the

differential calculus.

157. Ex. 1. Find the surface of a belt of the paraboloid formed by the revolution of the curve y 2 = &ax about the #-axis.

Here

dx

dx

/X<1 dx

ydx

Ex.
line.

The curve r = a(l + cos 6} revolves about the Find the volume and surface of the figure formed.
2.
/

initial

Here volume =

try^dx = TT
/

2
?'

sin 2

d(r cos 0)
-f

= TT

a' (l

-{-

cos #) 2 sin 2 #a c/(cos

cos 2 $),

S URFA CE OF

RE VOL UTION.

187

the limits being such that the radius sweeps over the upper half of the curve.

Hence volume - -

7ra 3

T(l + cos 0)
*o

(1

+ 2 cos 0)sin

:j

dO

T(l + 4 cos

+ 5 cos 2 + 2 cos3 0)sinW0

2 3 (l 4-5 cos 0)sin

Fig. 42.

The surface = 2ir \yds=2ir T r sin 0~c?0 J dO J

= 2?r

^
/

a(l

+ cos (9)sin <9\/a 2(l + cos 0) 2

(l

27ra 2
o

+ cos

0)sin

(9

2 cos

16?ra2

cos 4

2
o

EXAMPLES.
1.
(ii.)

Obtain the surface of a sphere of radius a (i.) by Cartesians, by polars, taking the origin on the circumference.

188
2.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

A quadrant of a circle, of radius a, revolves round its chord.

that the surface of the spindle generated

Show

and that

its

volume

= -^-(10 - 3?r).

L 3. The part of the parabola y = ax cut off by the latus rectum revolves about the tangent at the vertex. Find the curved surface and the volume of the reel thus generated.

THEOREMS OF PAPPUS OR GULDIN.

158. I. When any closed curve revolves about a line in its own plane, which does not cut the curve, the volume of the ring formed is equal to that of
is the length of the curve.

a cylinder whose base is the curve and whose height of the path of the centroid of the area
Let the #-axis be the axis of rotation. Divide the area (A) up into infinitesimal rectangular elements with sides parallel to the coordinate axes, such as

Fig. 43.

each of area SA. Let the ordinate P l l = y. PjPgPgP^, Let rotation take place through an infinitesimal angle Then the elementary solid formed is on base SA 89. and its height to first order infinitesimals is ySO, and
therefore to infinitesimals of the third order its volume
is

SA

THEOREMS OF PAPPUS.

189

If the rotation be through any finite angle a we obtain by summation SA y a. If this be integrated over the whole area of the curve we have for the volume of the solid formed
.
.

a!i/cL4.

Now
of a
2/i> 2/2'

number
>

the formula for the ordinate of the centroid of masses ..., with ordinates v 2

m m
then

is

y= y

X?7? II

-^

we

seek the value of

the ordinate of centroid of the area of the curve, each element 8A is to be multiplied by its ordinate and the sum of all such products formed, and divided by the sum of the elements, and we have

or in the language of the Integral Calculus

y=

(ydA
J

_=i

(yd A

\dA
Thus

Therefore volume formed = A(ciy). But A is the area of the revolving figure and ay is the length of the path of its centroid. This establishes the theorem. COR. If the curve perform a complete revolution, and form a solid ring, we have
a=
159. II. line in its
the
2-7T

and

volume = A(2jry).
curve revolves about a does not cut the curve,
is

When any closed own plane which

the

curved surface of

ring formed

equal

to that

190

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

of the cylinder whose base is the curve and whose height is the length of the path of the centroid of the perimeter of the curve.

Let the #-axis be the axis of rotation. Divide the perimeter s up into infinitesimal elements such as X P 2 each of length Ss. Let the ordinate P l l be called y. Let rotation take place through an infinitesimal angle Then the elementary area formed is ultimately a S9.

rectangle with sides Ss and ySO, and to infinitesimals of the second order its area is Ss y9.
.

Fig. 44.

If the rotation be through any finite angle a we obtain by summation Ss ya. If this be integrated over the whole perimeter of the curve we have for the curved surface of the solid
.

formed
an/cfe.

If we seek the value of the ordinate (rj) of the centroid of the perimeter of the curve, each element Ss is to be multiplied by its ordinate, and the sum of

THEOREMS OF PAPP US.

all such products formed, and divided the elements, and we have

191

by the sum of

Lt
or in the language of the Integral Calculus

^yds
\ds

\yds
s

Thus
and the surface formed

\yd8=8tj,

= s(afj).

s is the perimeter of the revolving figure, and the length of the path of the centroid of the perimeter. This establishes the theorem. Con. If the curve perform a complete revolution and form a solid ring, we have a = 2?r and
arj

But
is

surface = s( 2 -73-77).
Ex. The volume and surface of an anchor-ring formed by the revolution of a circle of radius a about a line in the plane of the circle at distance d from the centre are respectively

volume =
surface

Tra 2

= 2:ra

X 2?rc? = 27T 2 a 2 o?, x Zird = 4ir 2 ad.

EXAMPLES.
ellipse revolves about the tangent at the end of the major axis. Find the volume of the surface formed. 2. square revolves about a parallel to a diagonal through an extremity of the other diagonal. Find the surface and volume formed.
1.

An

3.

scalene triangle revolves about

any

which does not cut the surface and volume of the

Find expressions triangle. solid thus formed.

line in its plane for the

192
160.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Revolution of a Sectorial Area.
sectorial area

revolves about the divide the revolving area up into infinitesimal sectorial elements such as OPQ, whose area may be denoted to first order infinitesimals by <2 |r o0. Being ultimately a triangular element, its centroid is f of the way from along its median, and in a complete revolution the centroid travels a distance
initial line

When any

OAB

we may

27r(f r sin 6)

or

f irr sin

9.

Fig. 45.

Thus by Guldin's first theorem the volume traced by the revolution of this element is
to first order infinitesimals, and therefore the traced by the revolution of the whole area
3 sin f 7r[r si 9 d9.

volume
is

OAB

we put = x = rcos9, y = rsin9, and ~ r 3 sin 9 S9 = r 3 sin (9$(tan l f) we have

161. If

= r3 sin 9

= r*cos*9t St = xH St,

EXAMPLES.
and the volume may therefore be expressed as
(xHdt.

193

EXAMPLES.
Find by integration the volume and surface of the right circular cone formed by the revolution of a right-angled triangle about a side which contains the right angle.
1.

2. Determine the entire volume of the ellipsoid which is generated by the revolution of an ellipse around its axis major.
[I.

C. S., 1887.]

Prove that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of an ellipse round its minor axis, is a mean proportional between those generated by the revolution of the ellipse and of the auxiliary circle round the major axis.
3.
[I.

C. S., 1881.]

Prove that the surface of the prolate spheroid formed by the revolution of an ellipse of eccentricity e about its major
4.

axis

is

equal to
2 area of ellipse
.

Prove also that of all prolate spheroids formed by the revolution of an ellipse of given area, the sphere has the greatest
surface.
5.
[I.

C. S., 1891.]

Find the volume

of the solid produced

by the revolution
x.
[I.

of

the loop of the curve

y^x^

about the axis of

C. S., 1892.]

Find the surface and volume of the reel formed by the revolution of the cycloid round a tangent at the vertex
6.

7.

Show

that the volume of the solid formed

tion of the cissoid to 2?r 2a 3.

y (2a

^)=x3 about

by the

revolu-

its

asymptote

is

equal

[TRINITY, 1886.]

8. Find the volume of the solid formed by the revolution of the curve (a - x)y 2 = a?x about its asymptote. 1883. ] [I. C. S. 9. If the curve r = a + b cos revolve about the initial line, show that the volume generated is 7ra(a2 4- b 2 ) provided a be
,

greater than
E.
i.

b.

[a, 1884.]

c.

194

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

10. Find the volume of the solid formed by the revolution about the prime radius of the loop of the curve r^ =

between 6 =
11.

and
that
if

0=|.

[O x TO KD 1890.]
,

Show

the area lying within the cardioide

and without the parabola r(l+cos $) = 2a, revolves about the initial line, the volume generated is 187ra 3 [TRINITY, 1892.] 2 12. The loop of the curve Zay 2 =x(x a) revolves about the Find the volume of the solid generated. straight line y=a.
.

[OXFORD, 1890.] that the coordinates of the centroid of the sectorial area of r=f(0) bounded by the vectors 0=a, 6 = ft, has for its coordinates
13.

Show

f
14.

Show

that the centroid of the cardioide r = a(l

cos $)

is

on the

initial line at

a distance

from the

6
15. If

origin.

the cardioide r = a(l cos #) revolve round the line p=rcos(9 y\ prove that the volume generated is

3^7r%
16.

+ f 7T 2

cos y.
e is

[ST.

JOHN'S, 1882.]

The curve r=a(l -ecos 0\ where

about a tangent parallel to the initial volume of the solid thus generated is approximately 2 27r 2 a 3 (l+e ). [I. C. S., 1892.1 2 2 17. The lemniscate r = a cos2# revolves about a tangent at
the pole.

very small, revolves line. Prove that the

Show

that the volume generated

is

CHAPTER

XII.

SURFACE INTEGRALS. SECOND-ORDER ELEMENTS OF AREA. MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS.

162. Use of Second Order Infinitesimals as Elements of Area.

For many purposes it is found necessary to use for our elements of area second order infinitesimals.
163. Suppose, for instance,

we

desire to find the

mass of the area bounded by a given curve, the #-axis, and a pair of ordinates, when there is a distribution of surface-density over the area not uniform, but represented at any point by cr = </)(x, y), say, where
(x,

Let Ox, Oy be the coordinate axes, AB any arc of the curve whose equation is y=f(x)', {a, /(a)} and
{&,/(&)} the coordinates of the points A, upon it; and B. Let PN, ordinates of be any contiguous ordinates of the curve, and x, x Sx the abscissae of the points and Q. Let R, be

y) are the coordinates of the point in question.

AJ and BK the

QM

+ U

whose ordinates contiguous points on the ordinate of are y, y+8y. And we shall suppose Sx, 8y small quantities of the first order of smallness. Draw JRSf, UT, Then the parallel to the ce-axis.

PV

196

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

area of the rectangle is Sx.Sy, and its mass be regarded (to the second order of smallness) as 0(0, y)Sx Sy. Then the mass of the strip may be written

RSTU

may

PNMV

or in conformity with the notation of the Integral Calculus

between the limits y =

and y =f(x).

In performing

this integration (with regard to y) x is to be regarded as constant, for we are finding the limit of the sum of the masses of all elements in the elementary strip PM,
i.e.

the mass of the strip

PM.

then we search for the mass of the area AJKB such strips as the above must be summed which lie between the ordinates AJ, BK, and the result may be written
If
all

which

may

be written

the limits of the integration with regard to x being

from x = a to x = b.

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
Thus mass
of area

197

A JKB =
or

n
164.

Notation.
is

This

often written
<j>(x,y)dxdy,

f f

the elements dx,

dy being written in the

reverse order.

There

is

no uniformly accepted convention as to the

order to be observed, but as the latter appears to be the more frequently used notation, we shall in the present volume adopt it and write
'x,

y)dxdy

when we

are to consider the first integration to be

made
and

with regard to y and the second with regard to

x,

the first integration is with regard to x. That to say, the right-hand element indicates the first integration.
is
2 2 xP+y = a be given

when

the surface-density of a circular disc bounded by to vary as the square of the distance from the y-axis, find the mass of the disc. &JL^ 2 Here we have [juv for the .mass of the element 8x 6y, and its mass is therefore /*# 2 &#6y, and the whole mass will be

Ex.

If

The

limits for

w411 be

quadrant, and for x from

= #=0
;?/

to y=*Jdl x L for the positive The result must then to x=a.

198

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

be multiplied by 4, for the distribution being symmetrical in the four quadrants the mass of the whole is four times that of the first quadrant.

Fig. 47.

Putting

x=asm0

and dx=acosOdO, we have

Other Uses of Double Integrals. The same theorem may be used for many other purposes, of which we give a few illustrative examples, which may serve to indicate to the student the field of investigation now open to him. But our scope in the present work does not admit exhaustive treatment
165.

of the subjects introduced.

DO UBLE INTEGRA TION.

Ex.

199
ellipse

Find the

statical

moment
r2
4,2

of a

quadrant of the

_+_ = ! 9 2
a
'

62

1,9

about the y-axis, the surface-density being supposed uniform. Here each element of area 8x8y is to be multiplied by its surface density cr (which is by hypothesis constant in the case supposed) and by its distance x from the y-axis, and the sum of such elementary quantities is to be found over the whole quadrant. The limits of the integration will be from y=0 to
7

_Va y=a

x* for

?/

and from #=0

to

x=a for x.

Thus we have
2

moment =

crxdxd'u=^\
a
) 2

Wa

x 2 dx

J 00
a
)%-\

_<rbr _(a?-x

aL
166.

Jo

_o-ba* 3

Gentroids.

Cartesians.

The formulae proved in statics for the coordinates of the centroid of a number of masses m v m 2 m 3 at points (x v y^, (x 2 y 2 ), etc., are
,
,

. . .

_ ~
may apply these to find the coordinates of the centroid of a given area. (See also Arts. 158, 159.) For if o- be the surface-density at a given point, then or Sx Sy is the mass of the element, and
-

We

_ S(cr ox 8y)x "

9

I(<rSxSy)
or, as it

may

be written

when
I

the limit

is

taken

arx

\\
J

dx dy

\ardxdy

200

INTEGRAL CALCULUS,

Similarly

jja-ydxdy ~

ff~
jJ

\\a-dxdy

the limits of integration being determined so that the summation will be effected for the whole area in
question.

Find the centroid of the elliptic quadrant of the Example in Art. 165. It was proved there that the limit of the sum of the ele-

mentary moments about the y-axis was ?

Also
/
/

<rdxdy= mass

of the

quadrant =^^-.

Hence
Similarly

*=
y=

3/4 =-

STT

167.

Moments

of Inertia.

every element of mass is multiplied by the square of its distance from a given line, the limit of the sum of such products is called the Moment of Inertia with regard to the line. Such quantities are of great importance in Dynamics.
Ex. Find the moment of inertia of the portion of the parabola f/ 2 = 4a# bounded by the axis and the latus rectum, about the #-axis supposing the surface-density at each point to vary as the nth power of the abscissa. Here the element of mass is

When

/x

being a constant, and the

moment
or
to

of inertia is
\

Lt 2/i# V*&a? 8y where the limits for y are from

//,

n \y*x dx dy,

2vW, and

for

x from

to

a.

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
We thus get
Mom.
In.

201

=
3
o

f* oj

U + fo
is

Again, the mass of this portion of the parabola

n

given by

ny\/ax

l*x

dxdy = p\ \y\

C a \~

~~l

xn dx

-+
271

Thus we have

Mom.

In.

about 0ff=3

EXAMPLES.
2 2 2 quadrant of the circle ,27 +^ =a the surface density varies at each point as xy. Find (i.) the mass of the quadrant, (ii.) its .() " centre of gravity, (iii.) its moment of inertia about the #-axis.

1.

In the

first

2. Work out the corresponding results for the portion of the parabola y^=^ax bounded by the axis and the latus rectum, the p q surface-density varying as x y 3. Find the centroid of a rod of which the line-density varies as the distance from one end. Find also the moments of inertia of this rod about each end and about the middle point.
.

4.

Find the centroid

y = mx, x = a, and the #-axis, when the surface-density at each point varies as the square of the distance from the origin. Also the moment of inertia about the #-axis.
168.

of the triangle

bounded by the

lines

Polar Curve.
it is

Second-order Element.

desirable to use for our element of area a second-order infinitesimal of different form. Let OP, OQ be two contiguous radii vectores of the curve r=/(0); Ox the initial line. Let 0, 9 SO be

For polar curves

202

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

the angular coordinates of and Q. Draw two circular arcs RU, ST, with centre and radii r and r Sr respectively, and let SO and Sr be small quantities of the first order. Then

area

RSTU= sector OST- sector ORU

=r
9 Sr to the second order,
therefore be considered

and to

this order

RSTU may

a rectangle of sides Sr (RS) and rSO (arc

RU\

Fig, 48.

the surface-density at each point R(r, 9) is the mass of the element RSTU is (to second<f)(r, 9), order quantities err S9 Sr, and the mass of the sector is therefore
if
cr

Thus

Lt dr==Q [2o-rSr]S9,
the summation being for r=f(9),i.e.
all

elements from r =
-i

to

<rrdr\80, Q/(0)

which integration 9 is to be regarded as constant, and taking the limit of the sum of the sectors for infinitesimal values of S9 between any specified radii
in

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
vectores OA(9 = a) and OB(9 = /3) the sectorial area OAB

203

we

get the mass of

M
or as

rpriv

we have agreed
a

to write
(

it

(Art. 164),

\^ \rdOdr.
o

Ex. Find the mass of a circle for which the surface-density at each point varies as the distance of that point from a point on the circumference. as the as the origin, arid the diameter through Taking initial line, and a as the radius, the equation of the curve is

Then we have density at

R (r.

0) is ur,

and mass

of element

Fig. 49.

The mass

of the sector is therefore

the integration with regard to r being between limits

OR=0 and OR = OP=2acos 0.

And
have
/TFr

if

these sectors be

summed
rVfinnaif r2acoa&
/

for the

whole

circle,

we

-|
\

pr*dr \dO

/~5"[-

204

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
=2/
C~%

rZacoaO
/

or (Art. 164)

pr*dOdr

169.

Centroid.

Polars.

The distance of the centroid of a sectorial area from any line may be found as before by finding the sum of the moments of the elementary masses about that line and dividing by the sum of the masses. Thus err SO Sr being the element of mass and r cos
its abscissa, its

moment about
r cos 6
JJ
.

the y-axis

is

a-r

SO

ST.

rcos(9. a-rdOdr

Thus

\o-rdOdr

r sin

o-rdOdr

and similarly

'~fl
We

a-r

dO dr

Ex. 1. Find the centroid of the upper half of the circle in the example of Art. 168. established the result for that semi-circle that

Also between the limits

r=0 and r = 2acos

for

r,

and

0=0

to

S
/*

fr cos ^or c^^ dr= Tfji cos

0R

^^

53

15

'

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
and
I

205

rsm6crrd6dr=

jnsin0 -

J J

J
Q

L4 Jo
cos 4

dO

sin

dO

/~2

Ex.

2.

Find the centroid of the area bounded by the

cardioide

r=a(l+cos

#),

the surface-density being uniform.

Fig. 50.

The centroid is evidently on the initial line. abscissa we have

/

To

find its

Ir cos
"

rdOdr

"x-

'rdOdr
the limits for r being from r=0 to r=a(l+cos 0), and for from to TT (and double, to take in the lower half).
'"

The numerator

=2 1 a3

fT-1
J
/"'(cos

L3J

cos0o?0

+ 3 cos 2 + 3 cos3 + cos*0)dO

206

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

=
|

a 3 T(3 cos 2 <9 + cos 4 6

1
2
5
r~ r 2

' ;

'

'

^4-2 5

'

'

o3;r

a(l+cos 6)

/TT

L2Jo

dO

a 2 T(l +2 cos 0+cos 2 0)dO

r rf
/

2a 2

(l

+ cos 2 6>)d<9

Hence

x = -?ra 3

-?ra 2

= -a.

Ex. 3. In a circle the surface-density varies as the nfh power on the circumference. Find the of the distance from a point moment of inertia of the area about an axis through perpendicular to the plane of the circle. for origin and the diameter for initial line, the Here, taking bounding curve is r=2acos 6, a being the radius. The density

Hence the mass

=p,r". of the element

rSOSr

is

//,r

moment

of inertia

about the specified axis

f
ffj

is

//,r

n+1 S$Sr, n+3 8$ 8r.

and

its

Hence the moment

of inertia of the disc is

where the limits for r are

double).

to

2a cos

0,

and

for

0,

to ~ (and

Thus

Mom.

Inertia

= J?^L(2a)+4 rc os+4 dO n+4 J

(9

DOUBLE INTEGRATION.
Again, the mass of the disc
=
is
/*2acos0

207

r"5"

2|J

^o
r

= _?^L(2a)w+2 f cosw+2 0d0. n+2 J

n

Hence

Mom.

Inertia = 4

EXAMPLES.
1.

Find the centroid of the sector

(a)
(ft)

of a circle

when when

the surface-density is uniform, the surface-density varies as the distance from

the centre.

Find the centroid of a circle whose surface-density varies on the circumas the nth power of the distance from a point
2.

ference.

Also

its

moments
(1)

of inertia

(2)
3.

about the tangent at 0, about the diameter through 0.

Show that
c<ft

the

moment of
is

surface-density

bounded by the

inertia of the triangle of ?/-axis and the lines y

uniform
l

= m x+c

l^

y=mtfc +

about the #-axis,

is where 4. Find the moments of inertia of the triangle of uniform surface-density bounded by the lines

6 \m l m 2 J the mass of the triangle.

Ml GI-%

V
'

about the coordinate axes

and show that

if

M be the mass of

the triangle, they are the same as those of equal masses placed at the mid-points of the sides. 5. Show that the moments of inertia of a uniform ellipse
2
2

bounded by
respectively

a2
4

_--f fC 62

about the major and minor axes are

~, and about a line through the centre 4 2 7)2 and perpendicular to its plane, being the mass of the ellipse.

--- and

208

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

6. Find the area between the circles r=a, r=2acos#; and assuming a surface-density varying inversely as the distance from the pole, find

(1) the centroid,

(2) the

moment

of inertia about a line

through the pole

7.

perpendicular to the plane. Find for the area included between the curves

(1)

the coordinates of

its

centroid (assuming a uniform

surface-density), (2) the moment of inertia about the #-axis, (3) the volume formed when this area revolves about the
8. Find the moment of inertia of the lemniscate r 2 about a line through the pole perpendicular to its plane (1) for a uniform surface-density,

(2) for

a surface-density varying as the square distance from the pole.

of

the

9.

Find
(1)

the coordinates of the centroid of the area of the cycloid

(2) the

#=a(0-hsin$), y=a(l cos0) volume formed by its revolution (a) about the base (y=2a), about the axis (#=0), about the tangent at the vertex.
;

ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS.

E.

I.

C,

CHAPTER

XIII.

DIFFEEENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER.

VARIABLES SEPARABLE.

LINEAR EQUATIONS.

170. It is proposed to add a brief account of the of solution of the more ordinary forms of differential equations leading up to such as are required by the student in his reading of

common methods

Analytical Statics, Dynamics of a Particle, and the elementary portions of Rigid Dynamics. We shall not enter at all upon the solution of
differential
coefficients.

equations

involving

partial

differential

171. Genesis of a Differential Equation. " Let us examine for a moment how the " ordinary differential equation is formed, and what kind of

result

we

Any

are to expect as its equation, such as

"

solution."

f(x,y,a) = 0,

(1)

in which the form of the function is known, is representative of a certain family of curves, for each individual of which the constant a receives a particular

212

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
but

and definite value, the same for the same curve different for different curves of the family.
Problems frequently occur in which
it is

necessary

to treat the whole family of curves together, as, for instance, in finding another family of curves, each member of which intersects each member of the former set at a given angle, say a right angle. And it will be
letter

manifest that for such operations, the particularizing a ought not to appear as a constant in the functions to be operated upon, or we should be treating one individual curve of the system instead of the

whole family collectively. Now a may be got rid of thus Solve for a we then put the equation into the form
:

0(,y) = a,

........................ (2)

and upon differentiation with regard to x, a goes out, and an equation involving x, y and y v replaces
equation (1). This is then the differential equation to the family of curves, of which equation (1) is the typical equation of a member. In the formation of the differential equation it may be impracticable to solve for the constant. In this case we differentiate the equation

f(x,y,a) = Q

'

........ ............. (1)

with respect to x and obtain

and then eliminate a between equations (1) and (3), thus obtaining a relation between x, y, and y v which is true for the whole family.
For example, consider the family of straight lines obtained by giving special values to the arbitrary constant in the equation

ORDER OF AN EQ UA TION.
Solving for w,

213

and
or

differentiating,

y= Blwe have

ether-wise, without first solving for m,

= yi m,
and therefore
This then
is

y=%yi-

the differential equation of all straight lines passing through the origin, and expresses the obvious geometrical fact that the direction of the straight line is the same as that of the vector from the origin at all points of the same line.

172. Again, suppose the representative equation of the family of curves to be

ftx y,a,b) = 0, (1) two arbitrary constants a, b whose values containing particularize the several members of the family.
9

single differentiation with regard to x will result in a relation connecting x, y, y v a, b say

;

4(x y y l9
9

= b)
,

(2)

differentiate again with regard to x we shall obtain a relation connecting x, y, y v y 2 a, b ; say

If

we

\MX

V>

2/i> 2/2>

>

= &)

>

3)

and from these three equations a and b may theoretically be eliminated (if they have not already disappeared by the process of differentiation), and there will result a relation connecting x, y, y v y 2 say
;

F(x>y, yi>y z )

=>

the differential equation of the family.

173.

Order of an Equation.

We define the order of a differential equation to be the order of the highest differential coefficient occurring in it and we have seen that if an equation between
;

214

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

two unknowns contains one arbitrary constant the

result of eliminating that constant is a differential equation of the first order; and if it contain two

arbitrary constants the result is a differential equation of the second order. And our argument is general so that to eliminate n arbitrary constants we shall have to proceed to n differentiations, and the result is
:

is

a differential equation connecting therefore of the nth order.

Ex.
1.

x, y,

yv

...,2/ n >

an(l

Eliminate a and

from the equation x2 +y 2 =2ax + c.

Differentiating,

x -f yy^ = a.

Differentiating again, and the constants having disappeared

l+^+y^^^

we have obtained as their eliminant a differential equation of the second order (?/ 2 being the highest differential coefficient involved), which belongs to all circles whose centres lie on the #-axis.
Ex.
2.

Form

the differential equation of

all central conies

whose axes coincide with the axes of coordinates. Here the typical equation of a member of

this family of

and we have and whence

is

x(y? + yy 2 ) -yyl =0

the differential equation sought.

Elimination an irreversible process. this process of elimination is not in general a reversible process, and when we wish to discover the typical equation of a member of a family of curves when the differential equation is given, we are com174.

Now

pelled to fall back, as in the case of integration, upon a set of standard cases, and many equations may arise which are not solvable at all. may infer, however, that in attempting to solve a differential equation of the nth order we are to search for an algebraical relation between x, y, and n

We

VARIABLES SEPARABLE.

215

arbitrary constants, such that when these constants are eliminated the given differential equation will result. Such a solution is regarded as the most general solution obtainable.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER.

175.

There are five standard forms.

I.

CASE

Variables Separable.

All equations in which it is possible to get dx and all the x's to one side, and dy and all the y's to the other, come under this head, and solve immediately

by

integration.

Ex.1,

Thus

if

sec

y= sec x-, dx
cos y dy,

we have
and integrating,

cos x dx

sin x = sin y

+A

a relation containing one arbitrary constant A.

Ex.

2.

If

y+l
we have
and therefore
2
(

= xy-^*
dx

x + - ) dx = (y 2 + y)dy, xJ
2

+ log

x^32 + A, 32
+y~-

containing one arbitrary constant A.

EXAMPLES.

y
I

Solve the following differential equations

1.

'

dy = x*+x+\ dx *++l'

'

dy y*+y+l

dxx*+x+l

4.

Show

that every

cuts every

member

of the family of curves in Ex. 3 of the set in Ex. 2 at right angles.

member

216

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

7. Show that all curves for which the square of the normal is equal to the square of the radius vector are either circles or rectangular hyperbolae. 8. Show that a curve for which the tangent at each point makes a constant angle (a) with the radius vector can belong to

no other
9.

class

than r=Ae^ cot a

Find the equations of the curves for which

(1) the Cartesian (2) the Cartesian

subtangent is constant, subnormal is constant, (3) the Polar subtangent is constant, (4) the Polar subnormal is constant. 10. Find the Cartesian equation of the curve for which the tangent is of constant length.
176.

CASE

[DEF.

An
.

Linear Equations. equation of the form

II.
. .

when P,
no

K, Q, said to be linear.
,

R are

functions of x or constants

is

differential

Its peculiarity lies in the fact that coefficient occurs raised to a power
first

higher than the first.] As we are now discussing equations of the order, we are limited for the present to the case
'

If this

be multiplied throughout by

*
it

er

will be

seen that

we may

write

it

d
Thus

dP
ye
fPdx

/Pefccv

)=<^
/Pdx

fPdx

=\Qe

dx+A,

a relation between x and y satisfying the given differential equation, and containing an arbitrary
constant.
It is therefore the solution required.
'

which rendered the left-hand member of the equation a perfect differential coefficient is " called an integrating factor."

The

factor e

LINEAR EQUATIONS.
Ex.
1.

217

Integrate
fxd~
e-**

yi+xy = x.
is

or
e2

Here

an integrating

factor,

and the equation

mav

be written

d
or

ax(ye*)=xe*, & *2

ye*=e*+A,
+ y = l+Ae
2.
2
.

i.e.

Ex.

Integrate

^l + -y=x2 dx x
factor
is e

Here the integrating

Jldx x

=elogx =x, and

the equation

may be

written

*JH-+
and
x*

xy=--+A,

177.

Equations reducible to linear form.

equations,
if

Many
form

not immediately of the linear

may

be immediately reduced to
of the

it

by change
is

of the

variables.

One

most important cases

that of the

equation

Or

y-n

Putting

~n

= z,

we have

y-^dy=^

218

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

or

which

is linear,

and

its
,~

solution
ft)

is

ze

(l-ri)fpdx

=(1
,.,

\fr\ Q-~ n )fPdx J

\Q

dx+A,
dx+A.
A

l-n
i.e.

(\-ri)fPdx

=(1

f^

ri)

We

(l-ri))

x-,

Ex.1,

Integrate -^ + ^=?/

2
.

Here
or putting

^-2^+^
t7

= 1;

-=0,

dx
and the integrating
factor being
e

-fix* j *

= e - loex

we have
i.e.

dx\x)

^(^=-1, x
?=logi X X

i.e.

-=Ax
y
2.

Ex.

Integrate the equation

2

-jf. Cv^7

+ x sin 2y =

Dividing by cos y

we have
ec 2y-^

dx

+ 2# tan yx^.
tany=2,
GW?

Putting

we have
and the integrating factor
is

^ + 2^=^,
J 2xdx O r
e*
z
,

giving

LINEAR EQUATIONS.
Let then
so that
/

219

x 2 = co, 2# dx = d<o, x3 ex2 dx = %l

(ue

w o?cu

Thus
is

=1^(0, -1). tan y e* = e*\x2 -l) + A

.

the solution of the given equation.

It will be obvious that for examples of this kind considerable ingenuity may be called into play in order to effect the reduction to the linear (or other known) form.

EXAMPLES.
Integrate the equations
"- *
1

4 ^X + -=f.
'

dy

5.

O. -77,

dr

7.

cW S Show that no

r
-?;

ttC/

fr

/e- 2 v.

fi O.

- -7

y
7

Vfc?
j-j

-- I

/s^

JxJdy

of Art. 176

by adding a constant
fpdx j

greater generality is obtained in the solution to the index in obtaining the

integrating factor e 8. Find the curves for which the Cartesian subnormal varies as the square of the radius vector.

Integrate the equations

9.+2= x
_--_
dx
x

10.
2
.

f +?=. dx x x
n

11.

^ dx
1

x2

iny.

[Put
[put

?/

= sin~ ^.]

^-

U. ^- + x=xe^-^. dx

[Put

= logy.]

15. Find the curves for which the sum of the reciprocals of the radius vector and the polar subtangent is constant.

220

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

16. Find the polar equation of the family of curves for which the sum of the radius vector and the polar subnormal varies as the nth power of the radius vector. 17. Show that the curves for which the radius of curvature varies as the square of the perpendicular upon the normal
2 2 belong to the class whose pedal equation is r -p =^ + ^ * %* being a given constant and A arbitrary.

Jc

18.

Integrate the equations

CHAPTER

XIV.
CONTINUED.

EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER

HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS.
CASE
CLAIRAUT'S FORM.
178.

ONE LETTER ABSENT.

III

Homogeneous Equations.

Equations homogeneous in x and y

may

be written

dx
(a) In this case

we

solve

if

possible for -^,

and

obtain a result of the form

Putting

y = vx
v+

we

obtain

x^

= <j>(v)>
_dx
x
'

dv
~<p(v)v

and the variables are separated and the solution thus comes under Case I., giving as result
log

Ax

r
1

222
(6)

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
But
if it

be inconvenient or impracticable to
solve for
.

solve for

-. we
dx

and and write p for dx

.

we have
y = x<f>(p) ............................... (1)
Differentiating with respect to
x,

or

dx = x

<[>'(p)dp

-<

Integrating this equation

function of

we have x expressed as a p and an arbitrary constant Ax=F(p)(**y) ......................... (2) Eliminating p between equations (1) and (2) we
1.

obtain the solution required.

Ex.
Solve (x*+y*)ty-=xy.

dx

and putting

y=v%,

^+v dx
or

dv x =dx

or

og=a;2

or

Ay^eW.
Ex.
2.

Suppose the equation to be

dx

\dx)

'

HOMOGENEO US EQ UA TIONS.
Then
2 p = (p +p ) + x(l + 2p),

223

p
giving
log J,#+2logp

-=0,

i.e.

and the jo-eliminant between

p 2 +p= x
\

and
is

Axp*=&

<

the solution sought. This eliminant is

But when it is algebraically impossible to perform the elimination of p, or when, if performed, the result will be manifestly unwieldy, it is customary to leave the two equations containing p unaltered, and to regard them as simultaneous equations whose jo-eliminant if found would be the required
solution.

EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential equations
.

dx
2.

.=. x+y

224
179.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

Special Case.

The equation
Put

~ dx

ax+oy+c
:

-^x

is

readily reduced to

the homogeneous form thus

TVi

^
choose
h,

a ^+ by + (ah + bk + c) a'g + dg-

b''

'

Now

k so that

^e. so that

.1

oc

r-

^- = be ca

ca

,-

-^ ao

-^
a
6

Then
This

^=
equation being homogeneous we may now ^ ne variables are separable as before

put n~ v ^ an(i shown.

180. There is one case, however, in which cannot be chosen as above, viz., when a_ b c
~~

h,

a'

6'

c''

Now
Then
so that

let

=m and
dy

Tx=
7 dx

-~ a = V -- * - n
drj

my + c

/)

_ (am + b)rj + ad + 6c
-,

dec""

and

mrj
,
>.

+c
.
-,

n.

(am-\-o)r)-\-ac

+bc

HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS.
The

225

may

variables being now separated, the integration be at once performed. 181. One other case is worthy of notice, viz.,

dy _ ax + by + c

dx~
when

bx + b'y + c"

the coefficient of y in the numerator is equal to that of x in the denominator with the opposite sign. For then we may write the equation thus

an
A.

"

(ax + c)dx + b(y dx+x dy) = (b'y + c')dy " exact differential equation the integral being
;

ax 2 + 2cx + 2bxy = b'y 2 + 2c'y + A

being the arbitrary constant.
Ex.l.
Integrate

dx
ri

yx+y-Z
so that

Put

#=+ k, y =
Ic

+ k,

Choose h and

so that

=
then

Now

put

77=0(1,

then

l+v

_ ~

v+1

'

- 1)2 l

where
E.
I.

=#1
c.

and
p

v=^~

x\

226
Ex.
2.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
Integrate

dx

*+* f = x+y
..
.

Let .#+y=??, then

and

^
?7=
:

dx

??

=
if]

'

where

EXAMPLES.
Integrate the equations

dy _

dx

bx+ay-b
^

1*

8
9.

Show

that a particle #,

y which moves

so that

~
will always lie
10.

upon a

conic section.

Show
'

that solutions of the general homogeneous equa-

tion

fUL dx) ~) \
Show

must always represent

families

of

similar

curves.
11.

that solutions of

/(-, \X

-j-} CLX J

are homogeneous in x,

y and some power of a single constant, and conversely that if the typical equation of a member of a family of curves be homogeneous in x, y and some power of one constant, the differential

ONE LETTER ABSENT.

227

equation of the family is homogeneous and the family consists of similar curves. 12. State which of the following families of curves are similar sets
:

(1) ya

= 4flW7.

(4)

2/

=
tan" 1
*7

(2)

y = a cosh -.

(5) b

= a +y.

for different values of

a and

b.

182.

CASE IV. One

letter absent.

absent.
differential equation,

A. Suppose x absent from the which then takes the form

-

we now
(i.)

solve for

Xdy\ ZH ~ or as may be most convenient.

y> y,

If

we

solve for

-^ we throw

the equation into

the form

Then
and the integral
is

(ii.)

If this

solve for

y and obtain y = (j) (p) where p stands as

)

be inconvenient or impossible

we may

before for --.

ax

228

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
i.e.

Differentiate with regard to x,

the absent letter.

The
and

P
dx
x

Thus
between

After the integration is performed we eliminate p this equation and 2/ = </>(p) and the solution of the given equation is obtained.
183.

absent.
differential equation,

y absent from the which then takes the form

B. Suppose

Since

-^ = ax ax
dy

fj 1J

this

may

be written

dx'

and therefore

if y be regarded as the independent variable the foregoing remarks apply to this case also.

Thus
convenient result of the form
(i.)

if

we
dx

dx
solve
,

for

-^-,

and obtain a

a5T*S
then

dy =
7

dx

7-^,

and the integral

is

dx

ONE LETTER ABSENT.

(ii.)

229

But

if

this solution for -7- be inconvenient or

dy
impossible

we

solve for x

and obtain a
yy /v>

result of the
differen-

form

x = (j)(q)

where q stands for

-j-

Then
,

tiating with regard to y, the absent letter

Thus
and
After the integration we eliminate q between this equation and x = <f)(q). and the solution of the given equation is obtained. The student should note that in either case, x absent
or y absent,

we

solve for

~ by ax

preference

if possible.

this is impossible or inconvenient we solve for the remaining letter and differentiate with regard to the absent one\ thus considering the absent letter in either case as the independent variable.

But when

Ex.
'

1.

Integrate the equation

Here
dy

and
is

#= 2
Solve

the solution.

Ex.2.

dx

=
\dx)

Then
where

q=. dy

230
Then

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
differentiating with regard to the absent letter y, /, 1 \dq l *

and

#
this equation

and the ^-eliminant between

equation

and the

original

x=q+~ is the solution

required.

EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
1.
:

dy =

+ I.

5.

6.

-B

\dx)

dx

4.

(2a^

+ ^2 )=a2 +2a^7.
dx

8.

\dx)

=A+. dx
^=

184.

CASE V. Clairaut's Form,

^9

Writing

for -~-

we have

y=px+f(p) ........................ (1)

Differentiating with regard to x,

dp
or

{x+f(p)}0, .................... (2)

either

whence

= -^-=0 or cc+/ (p) 0. CLOu

/

Now

-f =

gives

p=C

a,

constant.

CLAIRA UTS FORM.

Thus y = Cx-\-f(C)
Again, equation
if
is

231

ential equation containing

a solution of the given differan arbitrary constant C. be found as a function of x from the

+/(,) = 0,

........................ (3)

equation (2) will still be satisfied, and if this value of be substituted in equation (1), or which is the same thing, if p be eliminated between equations (1) and (3) we shall obtain a relation between y and x which also satisfies the differential equation Now to eliminate p between

y=px+f(p)}

0= x+f(p)I
is

the same as to eliminate

between

= x+f(0)J
i.e.

the same as the process of finding the envelope of the line y = Cx+f(C) for different values of 0. There are therefore two classes of solutions, viz.
:

(1)

The

linear solution, called the

"

tive,"

complete primicontaining an arbitrary constant.

(2)

The envelope or " singular solution " containing no arbitrary constant and not derivable from the complete primitive by putting any
particular numerical value for the constant in that solution.

The geometrical relation between these two solutions is that of a family of lines and their envelope. It is beyond the scope of this book to discuss fully the theory of singular solutions, and the student is referred to larger treatises for further information
upon the
subject.

232
Ex.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
Solve y=jt
JP

By

Clairaut's rule the complete primitive is

and the envelope or singular solution m between the above equation and

is

the result of eliminating

o=*-m
i.e.

y*=ax.
will at once recognize in the singular solution the equation to a parabola, and in the complete primi-

The student
y
2
-

= 4a#

tive

y=mx+

the well

known equation

of a tangent to the

parabola.

EXAMPLES.
Write down the complete primitive, and find the envelope
solution in each of the following cases
4. 5.
:

y y = (x
(y

a)p

p^.

6.

185.

The equation
y=x<P(p)+*Kp),
..................... (i)

may be solved by differentiating with regard to x, and then considering p as the independent variable.
For
differentiating,

we have

whence

-= -dp
the solution being
[<P(P)*P

&

which

is linear,

<t*P)-P xe J<t*P)-P = e

.,,Ji

(P)

tW-Pdp + A ....... (2)

EXAMPLES.
If
(2),

233

now p be eliminated between equations (1) and the complete primitive of the original equation
Solve

will result.
Ex.

y = 2px+p
p

2
.

(1)

We

have

giving

p^x %p A .............................. (2) The jo-eliminant from these two equations may now be found by solving equation (1) for p, and substituting in equation (2). But if it be an object to present the result in rational form, we
:

may proceed thus By equation (2)

from
(1)

2p

Hen ce

+ 3p 2# + SA = 0, \ = 0. / j9 + Ip^x -py p*x Zpy 3 A = 0.

3 3

And by

cross-multiplication

between

this equation

and

giving as the eliminant

2

4(y

+ 3Ax)(x* +y) = (xy - 3 A) 2

186.

The algebraic process of eliminating p being

cases difficult or impossible, the equations (1)

in

many

and (2) are often regarded as simultaneous equations whose >-eliminant is the solution in question but the
actual elimination not performed.

EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
1.
,
:

2. 3.
4.

y= y= y= y=

234
8.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

The tangent at any point P of a curve meets the axis Oy in and OT2 is proportional to the tangent of the inclination of PTto the axis Ox. Find the curve. [OXFOKD, 1888.] 9. Find the differential equation of all curves which possess the property that the sum of the intercepts made by the tangent on the coordinate axes is constant. Obtain as the complete primitive the equation of the tangent, and as the singular soluT,

tion the curves in question. 10. Obtain the curves for

which the area bounded by the axes and a tangent is constant.

of

the triangle

11. Form the differential equation of curves for which the, length of the portion of the tangent intercepted between the coordinate axes is constant. Obtain and interpret the complete primitive and the singular solution.

also

the differential equation y=p\xp)) and determine its equation. ; [OXFOKD, 1889.] IS. Find the complete primitive and singular solution of the
12.

A curve satisfies

that^>=0 when

x=\

equation
'

dx
14.

\
s

V^yj
and y 2 =
,

[OXFORD, 1890.]

Show

that by putting x 2

the equation

is

reduced to one of Clairaut's form. Hence write down its complete primitive and find
Interpret the result.

its

singular

solution.

CHAPTEE XV.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND ORDER. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. EXACT
187.

Second Order Equation.

of the differential

We next come to the consideration

equation of the second order,
0(^2/>2/i>2/2)

There is no general method of solution, but particular forms arise which present but little difficulty.
188.

Suppose the Equation The typical form will be

I.

CASE

linear.

dx
where P, Q,

R are functions of x.
is first

The usual method

to omit

and try

to

obtain or guess a solution of

Suppose y =f(x) to be such a

solution.

Put

y =2/0*0-

236

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

Then

= zj(x)+zf(x); = zj(x)+^'(x)+zf"(x). 2/2

yi

Thus on substitution we get

But /'(*) + Pf(x) + Qf(x) =

z

by

hypothesis.

Hence

an equation which is linear for z v The integrating factor is

or

and the

first

integral

is

whence the second integral may be and the solution effected.

Ex.
Solve
L

at once obtained

da?

dx

Here
Put
then

y=x

makes -r^

Hence

/K

4-

and the integrating

factor is e^

3^

**

or x*e 4

SECOND ORDER EQUATIONS.

Thus
and

237

j
z 1x2

x*

~(z l x^)=x^
a*

e*=~+A

_*

whence

z=-\e

+A

r
\

-e J a?

and the solution required

-=

is

189.

A. If

CASE II One letter absent. x be absent, let y 1 =p,

and the equation

takes the form
<f>(y,

yv y2) =

<f>(y,
\

p, p-S-\

= Q,
y l =p,

dy/

and

is

of the first order.

B. If

y be the

letter absent, let

*and
<f>(x,

yv

y%)

becomes

and again
Ex.1.

is

of the first order.

.

Solve the equation yy 2 +#i 2 =2# 2

is

Here x

absent.

So putting

y=p

and y2 =p^?, we have

The integrating

factor

is

e^

Ay

or

2
,

or

py

y* + constant =?/

+ a4

say.

238
Hence
or
i. e.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

y*
2.

= a sinh(2# + A).
2

Ex.

Solve
is

l+#i =#y 2 #i
So putting y-^p^

Here y

absent.

or
i. e.

dx = pdp ---5, x 1+jtr

log

x = log Vl+p 2 + constant.

^.e.

or

ady
oy

^Jx*

a? dx,
2

giving

=i?^ _<
EXAMPLES.

a and b being arbitrary constants.

Solve the following equations

1.

^2 = 1.
1+3^=^2.
i+y!
2

6.

2.

7.
2
-

3.
4.
5.

-^

_L2
2
-

y2+/i-y=-e
^</

9y 22=4 iyi-

a y#2=#i
~#
2

-#i-

[OXFORD, 1889.]

= (l+.yM 3/2
Solve the equation
ow?

10.

(1

that
11.

^ = when y = 0.
Given that #
2

)^~#(^)
y which

= 2/>

having given
1890. ]

[OXFORD,
a value of
satisfies

is

the equation

find the complete solution.

[L 0.

S., 1894.]

REMOVAL OF A TERM.
190.

239

General Linear Equation.

Removal of a

Term.
Let us next consider the more general equation

where

Pv P2 Putting y = vz,
,
.

. .

Q are given we have

functions of

x.

y 2 = vz2 + 2V& + v2z,

whence
,

etc.,

n(n --

1)

- 2

The coefficient of n _i is If then v be chosen so that

dv
v

P
n

or

v=e

the term involving zn -i will have been removed. Similarly, if v be so chosen as to satisfy the differential equation

the term containing The coefficient of z

W_ is

will

have been removed.

and

a value of v can be found or guessed which this expression vanish, we can, by writing zl = rj, and therefore z 2 = ly etc., and z n = rj n -i, reduce The student the degree of the equation by unity. should notice that this expression is the same in
if

will

make

rj

240

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

form as the left hand member of the given equation. Hence if any solution y v can be found or guessed of the given equation when the right hand member is omitted, we can, by writing y = vz, and then Z^
Y\,

reduce the degree of the equation.

191.

Canonical Form.

In the case of the equation of the second degree

the substitution
will

y = e~

dx

by what has been above stated reduce the given equation to the sometimes simpler form

But the general

solution of this equation has not been at present effected.

"EXACT" DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.

192.

When

is

<

q.

x p -r~
^

is

an exact
be.

differential.

and can be integrated whatever y may

For denoting
\xPy q dx

by y q

etc.,

Thus

EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.

It will be noticed that when q tegration cannot be effected.

241
the in-

=p

or

<p

193. By aid of the above lemma we may often see " exact/' For quickly whether a given equation is if all terms of the form x p y in which p is < q be q first removed, we can frequently tell at once by inspection whether the remainder is a perfect differential
coefficient or not.

Ex.

#2

2 Here, by the lemma, # y 5 and x?y are perfect differential and obviously ocy^-\-y is the differential coefficient of xy. Hence a first integral of this differential equation is

coefficients,

obviously

=- cos x+A.
more General
test

194.

Test.

more general

equation

may

for an "exact" differential be established in the general case

whatever forms the

coefficients

P Pv
,

...

Pn V may
,

have, provided they be functions of

x.

For denoting differentiations by dashes, we have upon integration by parts

n- Bysdx

=Pn

- 32/2

- Pn - 8^1 + P"n - zV etc.

it is

P"'n -

Hence upon addition

p.
i.

obvious that

if

c.

242

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
is

the given equation

tegral
is

exact;

and that

its

first

in-

Ex.

Is the equation cfiy z + 1 2x?y 2 + SG^2

^ + 24#?/ = sin x exact

Applying the test,

'

we have

P3 - P2 + PI - PQ'" = 24^ - 72^ + 72^ - 24^ = 0, and Thus the equation is exact ; and its first integral is
or

This again will be a perfect differential

if

which
or

is satisfied.

(8#

Hence a second integral will be 43% -f ^4yx = - sin x + Ax + B,

4^73

y+^4y = sin^+^^ + J?,

1

which may again be tested. third and final integral is

But

it is

now

obvious that the

^=

cos.*?+
IB

EXAMPLES.
that the equation exact, and solve it completely. 2. Solve the equation
1.
.

Show

^7/3
3.

+ 6^/2 + %i + sin x(y* ~ %i) + cos X 33/2 - !/} = sin ^

first integrals of

Write down

the following equations

'(a)

(b)
(c)
4.

Show

that

if

the equation
//,,

P y + P^y^ + P y = F admits
2
0<

of

an integrating factor
equation

then

//,

will satisfy

the differential

CHAPTER

XVI.

GENERAL LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS.

195.

General Linear Differential Equation.

linear differential equation

The form of. the general of the nih order is

where

Pv P2 P3 ..., V are known functions of Let us suppose that any particular solution,
, ,

x.

y=f(x)
can be guessed, or obtained in any manner.

Then making the

~

substitution

we

obtain
, . .

equation

z = z n to be solutions of this Suppose z = zv z = z2 then it is plain that

.
,

z
is

= A lz + A 2z2 +A 3 z3 +... +A nzn

l

also a solution of equation (2) containing

constants

A A2
lt

...,

An

arbitrary

244

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

Hence
a solution of equation (1) containing n arbitrary and is therefore the most general solution to be expected. No more general solution has been found. The portion f(x) is termed the Particular Integral (P.I.), and the remaining part containing the n arbitrary constants, which is the solution when the right-hand member of the equation is replaced by zero, is called If these two the Complementary Function (C.F.). parts can be found the whole solution can be at once written down as their sum.
is

constants,

196.

Two remarkable

Cases.

There are two cases in which these solutions can be

generally readily obtained. (1) When the quantities
constants.
(2)

Pv P

2,

...,

Pn

are

all

When
ri

the equation takes the form

Jn-l

2+
r7n-2n/

-'-

+ ^= F

'

>

av a 2 ..., a n being constants and V any function of x. The solution of the second case is readily reducible, as will be shown, to the solution of an equation coming
,

under the

first

head.

EQUATION WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

COMPLE-

MENTARY FUNCTION.
197. Let us therefore such an equation as
first

determine the solution of

+... + ^n2/ = 0,
;

2/n+^i2/u-i

+ a 2/n2

......... (1)

the coefficients being constants i.e. for the present we confine our attention to the determination of the " " Complementary Function in the first case.

COMPLEMENTAR Y FUNCTION.
As a
trial solution
,

245

m +a m
n
1

n-1

mx and we have put y = Ae w-2 + a 2ra +...+a n = ....... (2)

Let the roots of this equation be

774,

m m
2,

s,

...,

mn

supposed (for the present)

are
all solutions,

all different,

then

and therefore
x
2

also

y=
is
, ,

A^ + A e^ + A
x

mx e *

+...+A n e m *x

...... (3)

a solution containing n arbitrary constants A v A 3 ..., A n and is the most general to be expected.
198. If

2,

Two
2,

Roots Equal.

roots of equation (2) become equal, say first two terms of the solution (3) become (A!+ J. 2 )e" 11 *, and since A^ A^ may be regarded as a single constant, there is an apparent diminution by unity in the number of arbitrary constants, so that (3) is no longer the most general solution to be

m =m
x

two

the

expected.

Let us examine this more

closely.

Put

97i

Then

= A l e m^x -\-A 2 (^x

2

^ r
\

= m 1 +A. 2 x + A 2e( i+*X

TO

l+hx+-^- +
.

h?x 2

~~\

...

= (A l + A )^x + AJi xem x +A z hem rhy? + ~\ ^~^ Now A^ and A 2 are two independent arbitrary
^
.

..

I.

quantities,

and we

may

therefore express

them

in

terms of two other independent arbitrary quantities by two relations chosen at our pleasure.
First

A 2 h when
an

so large that ultimately 2 indefinitely small may be written 2, arbitrary finite constant.

we

will choose
is

246

DIFFERENTIAL EQ UA TIONS.

so large and of opposite Secondly, we will choose 1 be regarded as an arbitrary sign to 2 that 2 may finite constant Bv Then the terms

A^+A

ultimately vanish with h since Aji has been considered finite and the expression in square brackets is convergent and contains h as a factor. ^ may, when 2 = v Thus the terms be ultimately replaced by B1 emiX xe miX and there2 fore the number of arbitrary constants in the whole solution remains n, and we therefore have obtained the general solution in this case.

A^^+A^e

11

m m

+B

>

199.

Three Equal Roots.

Consider next the case

equation (2)
terms,

when
ri*

three of the roots of

em l

&+A# +A f?
2 s

become equal,
m *x
x

viz.,
,

m =m =m
1
2

The
re-

have already been

placed

by (Bi+B^e^+Atf**.

Let

m =m +h
x

Then
Thus

A^ = AjPtifc = A^
x

x
(

for

A+Aw + Ae'W
AB 5
,

+ kx + -^- +...)

fcZftZ

we have

and we may so choose

2,

and

B v that

Ov C2

being any arbitrary constants, whatever k

COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION.
may
be,

247

2 provided it be not absolute zero. But AJc being chosen a finite quantity, and the series within the square brackets being convergent, it is clear that ultimately, when k is indefinitely diminished, the

limiting form of this expression

is

200. Several Roots Equal. In a similar manner it will be obvious that

if

p
if

roots of the equation (2)

become equal,
. . .

viz.,

m^ = m 2 =

= mp

there will be no loss of generality in our solution we substitute the expression

(%! + K^x + Kfl? +

. .

+ KjxP - *)&*&,
complementary
*>

for the corresponding portion of the function, viz.,

A^ + A
x

m *x

+...+ A p ew

x
.

201. Generalization.

More

generally, if

be the complementary function of any linear differential equation with or without constant coefficients, what is to replace this expression so as to re-tain the
generality

when

Let

m =m m
x

2 2

Then

and the terms

l <f>(m 1 )

+A

<p(m 2 )

become h2

Now

putting

A^A^ = B
finite

ly

AJi =

2)

two arbitrary

constants, the remaining terms

248

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
when we approach
the limit in

ultimately disappear

which h is indefinitely diminished. Thus A l <f)(ml )+ J. 2 0(m 2 ) may be replaced by

thus retaining the same number (n) of arbitrary constants B19 5 2 2 A^ ..., A n in the complementary function as it originally
,

possessed. And as in Art. 200 we may proceed to p roots become equal, viz. ^i 1 = 2 = ...

=mp

show that
,

if

the terms

J. 1 0(ra 1 )

+ 4 0(m )+
2 2

. .

+Ap <j>(mp

may

be replaced by

the generality of the solution will be retained. results of Arts. 198, 199, 200 are of course particular cases of this, the form of <p( m^) being e m ix

when

The

202.

Imaginary Roots.
remembered that

equation (2) of Art. 197 is imaginary, for equations with real coefficients imaginary roots occur in pairs.
it is

When a root of
to be

Suppose, for instance,

we have

where

= \/

1.

Then the terms

A^+A^e**
may
1

or

A^
:

be thrown into a real form thus

sin bx)
(

= ( A l + A 2 )e

ax

+ A eax(cos bx eos bx + A - ^ >6 a*sin bx

2 1
2

sin bx)

sm bx,

COMPLEMENTARY FUNCTION.

249

A^+ A 2

where the two arbitrary constants Bl and and (A l A 2 )i respectively. Let B^ = p cos a, B% = p sin a, then

B2

replace

= JB* +
Then

and

a = tan

ijgF.

^cos

fr#

sin bx 2

= p cos(bx
Ce
L

a).

We may

thus further replace ax jB^cos bx + B2 e sin bx by

2

aa!

cos(6aj

where C^ and

are arbitrary constants.

203. Repeated Imaginary Roots. For repeated imaginary roots we may proceed as before, for it has been shown that when 777 2 = ??i 1 x A l em x may be replaced by (J^+J?^***, and
if

+A^ m =m
^

3,

A^ +A^
X
x 2

may
and

be replaced by

If then

m =m
(

= a + ib

m =a
4

6,

we may

replace

by
that
is

by

e ax [(Bl

+ 53 )cos bx + (B - B3 sin te] + xeax [(B + ^4 )cos 60? + (B2 l

)i

4 )^

sin 6

and therefore by
e^CC^cos that is by
or which
is

6^+ (72 sin 6aj) +cce

3

aaj

((73cos

6x+ (74sin

tf*(Ci

+ cc(7 )cos 6aj + ^

by

the same thing

Any of the last three forms contain four arbitrary constants which replace the original four arbitrary constants A v A 2 A^ A^ and thus retain intact the
,

250

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

proper number (n) of arbitrary constants requisite to make the whole solution the most general to be expected. And this rule may obviously be extended to the case when any number of the imaginary roots
are equal.
204. Ex.
1.

Solve the equation

^dx
2
y

dx

Here our

trial solution is

y=Ae

mx

and we obtain

whose roots are 1 and 2. 2x Accordingly y A^e* and y = A 2 e are both particular and y=A 1e*+A 2 e2x
is

solutions,

the general solution containing two arbitrary constants.

Ex.2.

Solve -*V- a?y =0.

aOC
is

Here the auxiliary equation and the general solution is

or as
it

a2 =

with roots

a,

may be

written

(if

desired)

by replacing
Ex.3.

A l by

y = .Z^cosh ax + ^sinh ax B^~ B B +B* and A

i

by

Solve
is

Here the auxiliary equation Hence the general solution is

which
is its

-f-a

=0

with roots

+ai.

y = AjCos ax + ^t 2 s i
or,

equivalent,

y = Bl

Ex.4
where

Solve

ax?

?-4| + 5-2y = ax ax
.

or

(D- l) (-2)y = 0,
2

D stands

for

ax

ILLUSTRA TIVE EXAMPLES.

Our
or
auxiliary equation
is

251

m-lra-2 = 0,
1, 1, 2.

having roots

Accordingly the general solution

is

Ex.

5.

Solve

(Z>

+l)(7)-l)y=0.
is

Our

auxiliary equation

with roots
or

i,

1,

and the general solution

is

therefore

?/

= ^008(37 + J52)-h Atf?,

Ex.

6.

Solve

Our

auxiliary equation

has roots

e^L. and
JQ

2,

and the general solution

is

cos
2

+ ^I 2 e sn

Ex.

7.

Solve

(Z)

+ />+l) 2(Z>-2)3(/)-5)y=0.

Here obviously the general solution is x^ + ( A 3 + ^t 4#)e~^sin y = (A l + A 2 x)e ^cos

+ (A 5 + A Qx + J.7^
containing eight arbitrary constants.

2
;

EXAMPLES.
Write down the solutions
tions
:

of the following differential equa-

252
3
-

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
9

4-

SS~ 3
g=y.
9.

5.

6.

g=y.
11. 12.

10.

(THE PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.

205. Having considered the complementary function of such an equation as F(D)y = where F(D) stands for

a v a2

...,

we next

a n being constants, and Fany function of x, turn our attention to the mode of obtaining

a particular integral, and propose to give the ordinary and most useful of the processes adopted.

We may

write the above equation as

2/

(or [/(D)]F),

where

^7^

is

such an operator that

206.

"Z>"

satisfies

the

fundamental

laws

of

Algebra.
It is

shown

in the Differential Calculus that the

-y- j satisfies

operator
(1)

(denoting

The Distributive Law

of Algebra, viz.

(2) The stants, i.e.

Commutative Law

as far as regards con-

D(cu) = c(Du}.

PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
(3)

253

The Index Law,

i.e.

m and n being positive integers.

Thus the symbol
of combination of
it is

D satisfies all the elementary rules

algebraical quantities with the not commutative with regard to

exception that
variables.

It therefore follows that

any

rational algebraical

identity has a corresponding symbolical operative Thus since by the binomial theorem analogue.
'

7?

T)
JL
.

"
2i

~L

we have by an analogous theorem for operators which may be inferred without further proof
JL
.
<

207.
It
if

Operation f(D)e has been proved in the Differential Calculus that

.

ax

r be a positive integer,

Let us define the operation

r r

D~ r

to be such that

D D~ u = u.
l suppose that in the operation D~ u no arbitrary constants are added (for our object now is to obtain a particular integral and not the most general integral). Now since D ra~ re ax = e ax = D rD- re ax it follows that
,

Then D~ l represents an

integration,

and we

shall

D~ re ax = a- r e ax
Hence
values of
it is

clear that

Dne ax = aneax

n positive

for all integral

or negative.

254

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

208. Let f(z) be any function of z capable of expansion in integral powers of z, positive or negative = ^A rzr say, A r being a constant, independent of z). (

Then

The

result of the operation f(D)e ax

be obtained by replaci'ng
Ex.
1.

D by
-

may

therefore

a. -e

Obtain the value of

is

^
"* or

Obviously by the rule this

g.

E, 2 ,
By

Obtain the value of

is

the rule this

3a/

'=-^-e

EXAMPLES.
1.

Perform the operations indicated by

'

3.

Apply Art. 208

to

show that
=/(

2 /(Z) )sin m^7

m )si
2

/(Z)

m2)c )cos mx =/(

Operation f(D)e X. Next let y = e ax Y, where Fis any function of

209.

ax

x.

PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
Then
since

255

D e ax = are ax
r

we have by
dx

Leibnitz's
n
1

Theorem
1

y n = e (a

F+ n (7 an - D Y+ n C D Y+...+Dn F),
2

which, by analogy with the Binomial Theorem (Art, 206), may be written

D neax Y= eax (D + a) n F,
n
being a positive integer.

Now
so that

let

X
write

we may

Then from above

or

and therefore

Dneax Y=eax(D+a)n Y Dneax (D + a) ~ nX = eaxX, D

n
positive or

Hence

in all cases for integral values of

negative

D ne axX = eax(D + a)nX.

in Art.

210.

As

208 we shall have

ax

f(D)e

X=

That

is,

e ax

may

the left of the operator

by

D + a.

be transferred from the right side f(D) provided we replace

to

Ex.

2.

4D + 4

2x

sin x

= e2x ~ sin x *

e~

sin x.

256

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Perform the operations

1

(D - If*
2.

o
'

1
6 h
l

1
'

(D-I)*

D-l

Show

that

211.

Operation /(7>

We

have

sn 2
cos

wwu = ( -

sin
y )

cos

mx,

and therefore
Hence, as before, Arts. 208 and 210,
a^
J
ax

it

will follow

nD
j;/

r>9\
) '

sin

cos

mx = f(
/v 1

o\ 2 ) y

sin

cos

mx.
1

Ex.

sin bx dx

= Z)-

ax

sin

6^7

= eax (D + a)~

sin

6^ (Art. 210)

X/^iSJlll

7)Wri f<x/ hv
6 cos bx

f'Arf xxi li,

^

91^ 1y
Zi L

a sin &.#
ea*(a?+ 6 2)

-_

^sin^.r

- tan- 1 - Y

EXAMPLES.
1.

Find by
e

this

method the
2

integrals of
e^sin 3^,
si

2.

cosbx, e^sin ^, Perform the operations

-sin 2^,

ax

-_L_cos,r,

_I

sin

2^7.

3. Obtain by means of the exponential values of the sine cosine the results of the operations /(/>)cos mx, /(Z>)sin mx.

and

PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
212.

257

Operation

Let us next consider the operation

where F(z)

is

a function of z capable of expansion in

positive integral

powers of

z.

Let F(D) be arranged in powers of Z), then if no odd powers occur the result may be written down by the
foregoing rule of Art. 211.
Thus
"" S1T1 sin

2#

^=
:

L-4 + 16-64

sin "

%x ~
51

sin 2#.

both even and odd powers occur we may Group the even powers together proceed as follows and the odd powers together, and then we may write

But

if

the operation

sm mx =

/T^ox

/TV,V

sin

mx
^

m )sin mx mx
2

^m
(

)cos

mx

Upon examination it will be seen that in practice we may write m2 for Z) 2 immediately after the step

writing immediately
1
\

f)~7

^ sin mx>
R

E.

I.

C.

258
or'

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
mi
in/
)

J-'Xv

in

r-y^
1.

SYT^

fjsrS

4^0 sin ma;,

etc.

Ex.

Obtain the value of

sin 2#.

Thisis
sin 2#,

D
-

sin 2^,

J.O

or

^ cos 2^ ^ sin
Ex.
2.

2^7.

Obtain the value of

^
-

-^e
cos

*cos

^p.

This expression

=e

*-^

2 [replacing each Z>

by

1] 2* e

____
1

=
4

(cos

sin x).

EXAMPLES.
1.

Perform the operations indicated in the following ex:-

pressions

Z> 3

-e*sin

x+

PARTICULAR INTEGRAL.
2.

259
...

Show

that

(D+a)
being n
3.

/T,

V=

e~ ax f [ f ... fe ax Vdx J J J J

dx,

there

integral signs.

Show

that
1

by

first

expressing

operation ^fm F may

integrations.

*W

^=-r~

in partial fractions, the

be expressed in terms of a set of

common

213.

Operator

rV- v

Algebraic.

If in the operation

of x, rational

wy^F, Fbe an algebraic function and integral, we may expand rrrr\\ by

any method in ascending powers of J9 as far as the highest power of x contained in F.

Ex.
1.

For example, find

This

is

l
(1

-D+ D

- D^+ etc.)(#2

Ex.2.

Again, find
is

This expression

10

260

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

EXAMPLES.
Perform the operations
CD+l)(Z> + 2)
2
-

3.

J?

COsh 37 COS 07.

Cases of Failure. In applying the above methods of obtaining a Particular Integral, cases of failure are frequently met with. We propose to illustrate the course of procedure to be adopted in such cases.
214.
215. Ex.
1.

Solve the equation

^L-y=e dx
'

x
.

The Complementary Function is Ae*. To obtain the Particular Integral we have

If

we apply

Art. 208, the result becomes

i^i

or

We may
operation

evade

this difficulty

and obtain the result

of

the

by applying Art. 210 when we have

which

is the particular integral required. Instead, however, of substituting another method, let us examine

the operation

= -&
+ h)

more

carefully.

Writing x(\

instead of #,

we have

263

CASES OF FAILURE.
Of

may be

this expression the portion Lte x//i becomes infinite, taken with the complementary function Ae x ; and b

arbitrary

we may regard A + /i

as a

new

arbitrary constan

for we may suppose A to contain a negatively infinite por to cancel the term I/A. The term xe* is the Particular Integral desired. The remaining terms contain h and vanish when h is decre;
indefinitely.

The whole
Ex.2.

solution

is

Solve the equation

Ct/X

^
is

The complementary function The

and
Art. 211,

clearly

y = A sin Zx + B cos 2#.

particular integral consists of
sin 2#.

two parts
if

e*

o
ri

In this second part,

we apply

the

we

get

2HL,

i.e.

oo

and so

fail.

We now
=1
1

consider the limit,

when h = Q,

of --

sin2.i'(l-

This expression

_1
1

4 i_(i+A)a

9A

JT2^

U ^ X COS ^IX "*" COS ^^ S ^ n ^^

<

J?

1 sin
2.2?

l
fi

-x cos 2.27 + powers

of A

= (a

term which may be included in the complemfunction)

-xc

+ (terms

which vanish v
g
"

Thus the whole solution

of the. differential equation

JOS

260
:.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
3.

Solve the equation

(D
'ere

+ 3D)(D -l) 2y = e* + e~x + sin x 4- x

is

1
.

the complementary function

plainly

particular integral consists of four parts,

1 6
x

viz.,
T

iy*

<? _ 1 = *_ JL ~(D-I*' 4~4 'I?''

= (a part going into the

+
,^-PP,

complementary function)
h)].

+ (terms which vanish with

10

6 + 2Z)

sin

x= 3-Z) /

2(9

= (3 sin # - cos ^)/20.

jjinally

open

44
the whole solution
l

ie

is

y= A +A

e~ 3x + (A 3 2
e
2x

3 sin x

~~

cos x .3?
'

+ + ""
.

5# 2

"

44

ILL USTRA TIVE EXAMPLES.

Ex.
4.

263

Solve the equation

^-?/

= ^sin^.

The
To

C.F. is

find the
is

P.I.

we have
i

.-a
in
1

which

the coefficient of

"?>. in

#*,

plX

rp

-4^-6/^Tr.
**
l
l

'

~^l-^D..\^

Thus the

COSJP
P.I. is

_ 3^ gin ^
8

and the whole solution

is

y = A ^inh ^ + ^ 2 cosh x + A 3sm x+A 4 cos x +

c s

^'

^ sin

^p.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Obtain the Particular Integrals indicated by

sina7
'

0) 7TTT

5>

/n

w^ovn-Q-x*'(sinh # + sin ^?).

(6)

_
/na

nT-T 8*1111 *'

(7)

^/ n ^o,(^ + cosh 6^).

COS - COS o o
.

264
2.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
Solve the differential equations

(3)
Cfc#

+y =
(5)

(4)

(D*-l)(D*-l)y=xe*.
(6)

(Z)x
2

(ZP-3D2 -3D + I)y = e2

(7)

OD

-%=#sin..
(9) (Z>

(8) (Z>

(10) (^>-

216.

The Operator &-. CvQC

A transformation which renders peculiar service in reducing an equation of the class

where

A v A 2 ..., are constants, to a form in which the coefficients are constants, arises from putting
,

all

x=e
In this case
It is
-TT

t
.

at

e*,

and therefore x~- = -^ax at

obvious therefore that the operators x-j- and

d
-ji

are equivalent.

Let

D
n

stand for

d
-j-.

dx Then we

have

dx\
nf\

-*n n

)X
_
11 -I.

dxn

Z.

dx

__

1 ]X /

~1

dxn

___ l ~

EXAMPLES.

265

Now

putting

11

in succession

2, 3, 4, ...,

we have

etc.

Hence generally

or reversing the order of the operations

= D(D-l\D-Z)...(D-

Ex.

Solve the differential equation

Putting x = c?, the equation becomes

D(D -l)(D- 2)y + 2D(D or

i.e.

% + 3% -

3# =

(D y = Ae* + B cos
,

giving

~+ ;rIog
EXAMPLES.
Solve the differential equations
1.

s
2

dx
a?

2.

x-

--^ +

-^ + (^ = [log ^-] 2 + x sin log ^ + sin q log a?.

ote2
'

3.

cfc
4.
i

3^++2/=^
rfa?

dx?
5.

dx*

dx

CHAPTER

XVII.

ORTHOGONAL TEAJECTOEIES. MISCELLANEOUS

EQUATIONS.
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.
217. Cartesians.

= is representative of a f(x, y, a) of curves. The problem we now propose to family investigate is that of finding the equation of another family of curves each member of which cuts each member of the former family at right angles. And in such a problem as this it has been already pointed out that it is necessary to treat all members of the first family collectively, so that the particularizing constant a ought not to appear in the equation of the family. It has been shown in Art. 17 1, that the quantity a
The equation

may

be eliminated between the equations

*dx

'dy

dx

Let this eliminant be

This

is

the differential equation of the

first

family.

ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.

267

Now at any point of intersection of a member of the first system with a member of the second system, the tangents to the two curves are at right angles. Thus if be the current coordinates of a point on r\ a curve of the second family at its intersection with one of the first family, and x, y the current coordinates of the same point regarded as lying upon the intersected curve of the first family, we have
*

dn
of

dx
the second family
is

t-x.i-y.g^
The
differential

equation

therefore

and when
"

this is integrated "

:

we have

the family of

Orthogonal Trajectories

of the first system.

The

rule is therefore Differentiate the given

rtnt*

equation,
fl 1J
,

eliminate

the

constant, write

-7-

in place of -j

and integrate the

new

differential equation.

218. Polars.

If the curve be given in polars the angle the tangent

makes with the radius vector now:

write ite
.,

is

df) r-j-, so

dr
.

our rule

is

Differentiate the equation, eliminate the constant,

1

dr
-70

in plac of r-v-, place

dO

and integrate the new

differential equation.

219. Ex.
circles

1.

Find the orthogonal trajectory

of the family of
(1)

each of which touches the y-axis at the origin.

268
Here

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
x+yJL= a cLx
#,
.v
,

and, eliminating

2 +y = 2x( x -\-y

),

Hence the new

differential equation

must be

or

2 ^ + 2^-^2 = o,

........................... (3)

ay

a homogeneous equation, and the variables become by the assumption y = vx. However, this being the same as equation (2) with the exception that x and y are interchanged, its integral must be

which

is

separable

another set of
origin.

circles,

each of which touches the #-axis at the

Ex.

2.

Find the orthogonal trajectory

2

of the curves

--

n\

A being the parameter

of the family.

and A must be eliminated between these two equations.

(2) gives

x(b*

+ A) +yy l(a? + A) = 0,

so that

a2 + A =

and

Thus the

differential equation of the family is

(at-b^yy
or

x*-y*+xyyi-

=a -5
2

................ (3)

ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORY.
Hence changing
y^ into
#1
is
2
,

269

the differential equation of the

familv of trajectories

(4)

But

this being the

:

same

as equation (3)
n

must have the same

primitive, viz.

^
i

_-.

i.e.

a set of conic sections confocal with the former

3.

set.

Ex.

Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of

cardioides

r=a(l

cos 0) for different values of a.

Here
and, eliminating

^
a,

r^ = l
dr
1

~ sm

=
2

Hence

for the family of orthogonal trajectories

we must have

dr
n

or
or

log r

2 log cos
2t

+ constant,

r=b(l+cosO),

another family of coaxial cardioides whose cusps point in the

opposite direction.

EXAMPLES.
1.

= 4cM? for different

2.

Find the orthogonal trajectories

values of
a.

of the family of parabolas

Show

that the orthogonal trajectories of the family of

similar ellipses - 4-^,=m 2 for different values of 2 2

is

s?

=Ay

b
.

3. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the equiangular spirals r = ae^ cota for different values of a.
'

4.

Find the orthogonal

trajectories of the confocal

and coaxial

parabolas

=1 -f cos 9

for different values of a.

270
5.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
Show
that the families of curves

are orthogonal. 6. Show that the curves

r sin 2 a = a(cos
cos a)

and

r sinh 2 /?

= a(cosh ft

cos 0)

are orthogonal. 7. Show that

if

f(x+iy) = u + iv the curves

form orthogonal systems. 8. Prove that for any constant value

cosh
cut the family
/z

of

/z

x cosec y p cot y = constant coth x cosech x cos y = constant

the family of curves

at right angles.

[LONDON, 1890.]

SOME IMPORTANT DYNAMICAL EQUATIONS.

220.
is

The equation

particle

the general form of the equation of motion of a under the action of a central force.

Multiplying by 2-^ and integrating

dO

we have

which we may write as

and the solution

is

therefore effected.

221. Equations of the

form

SOME SPECIAL FORMS.

stant coefficients. The solution may
factor.

271

have already been discussed as being linear with con-

however be conducted thus

Multiply by sin n9, which will be found to be an integrating

Integrating,
sin

nO^. d6

- nu cos nO=
is

f*f(ff) sin J
o

n&dff + A.

ing

Similarly, cos nO first integral is

cos

an integrating factor and the correspond-

n(& + nu sin nO=

d\j

f'f(ff) cos J
o

nO'dO'+B.

Eliminating -^L

du

nu =

- O')d0 f(0') sin n(0

+ Bsmn6-A cos n6.

222. The equation of motion of a body of changing mass often takes some such form as
d!

dt

and for this equation integrating factor.

<f>(x)-rr

will be

found to be an

leads at once to

i{<(^' J

j ^x)<l>(x)dx + A,

1
J

^Xto

and the variables are separated.

272

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
FURTHER ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

223. Many equations may be solved by reducing to one or other of the known forms already discussed by

special artifices.

Ex.

1.

^=f(ax+by). ax
'

Let

ax+by=z.
dx

Then
Thus

dx

dx
dz

or

x+A=l a J
Ex.2.

+ bf(z)

*..

dx\ y+a dx
xy=z.

Put
rpi

Then

dy dz y+^^=-y-, dx dx
.

or

dz 1 = X-j- +-5,

dx

dz

dx
which
is

of Clairaut's form,

and the complete primitive

.

is

Ex.3.

Solve

e^

dx)
6^

\dx
77,

Let
Then, since this equation

= s-

may

he arranged as
\ e *dx

dx

ILL USTRA Tl VE SOL UTIONS.

we may
write
it

273

as

?7

which being
written

of Clairaut's

form the complete primitive may be

or

Ex.

4.

-(an.

equation occurring in Solid Geometry).

,v=*Js

Put

and

y=

Jt.

Then the equation becomes

ds

giving

t=
ds as

which

is

of Clairaut's

form and has the complete primitive

t-sG ~

BC
1+2(7'

and singular solution the four straight

lines

9J-Jy
Ex.
5,

Solve the equation

dx
E.
I.

C.

274

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

Let the transformation be such that

then x

is

known by

direct integration as a function of

t.

dy

Now

dx
*

d^dL_
'

and
dx*

Thus

(^ax^yJ^- ax 4 dx f dx* dt* dt

}
.

and the given equation thus reduces

to

whose solution is y=A sin qt + B cos <^, and when the value of t in terms of x is substituted, the
is

solution

complete.
[If

a be positive we have
1
-[=.

dx

,.

>-

~j=
If

sinh^Wa) =
dx

t.

a be negative we have
1

V-a

,=dt>

Ex.

6.

Solve the simultaneous differential equations (which

are linear with constant coefficients)

SIMULTANEO US EQ UA TIONS.

275

We may write

these equations as

(3

D + 34>? + (ID + 38)y = e\

.

where

D stands for
at

Operating upon these equations respectively by 7J9 + 38 and by 9D + 49 and subtracting, we eliminate y and obtain
[(4Z)

or

+ 44X7/> + 38) - (3D + 34)(9Z> + 49)> = 7 + 38* - 58e, 2 (D + 7Z> + 6)ff = 7 + 38* - 58e,

giving
or

^=
a?

= ^e
let

To obtain y
Multiply the
This gives

us eliminate

-^ from the

original equations.

first

by

and the second by 9 and subtract.

It

^ + 1x +y =
at

- 9e*.

Thus

y = 7^-9^-2^-^

= It - 9e* - 2( Ae~* + Be
Thus
6

^=^-* + ^- + 139-^--^--^V \ = - Ae-< + 4^e - - *t + * + *fr*. )

?

6'

.y

[The student should notice the elimination of ^-. the introduction of supernumerary constants.] at
Ex.
7.

This avoids

Solve the simultaneous equations

^+ f
dt 2

dt

dt

These equations

may

be written

276

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

whence operating upon these in turn by subtracting, we eliminate y and obtain

[(D
2
2

D +9
2

and by 3D and

or
i.e.

whence

+ 16)(D + 9) + 1 5 Z) 2> = 0, 4 2 = 0, (Z> + 40Z) + 1 44> (D* + 4)(D' + 36)^=0, x = A sin ~2t + B cos 2 + C sin 6 + D cos 6*.
2

Differentiating the first equation and subtracting three times the second to eliminate differential coefficients of y, we have
*"

dt

whence we obtain the value

viz.
:

of

y without any new

constants,

y=-%B sin 2t + 2 A cos 2t + i&D sin 6

EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
i.

- ^-

2^-(i-*)y=**. 'cte

2.

3.

4.

5.

(1.

2
8.

cosy

Obtain the integrals of the following differential equa:

tions

+ 9y - 25 cos ^
[I.

C.

S,

1804.]

EXAMPLES.
9.

277

Integrate the simultaneous system

4=0.

10. Find the form of the curve in which the tangent of the inclination of the current tangent to the #-axis is proportional to the product of the coordinates of the point.
11. Find the form of the curve for which the curvature varies as the cube of the cosine of the inclination of the tangent to the
12. Show that in the curve for which the projection of the radius of curvature on the 7/-axis is of constant length

(l) S

oclogtan(?+|),
log sec ~.

(2)

y oc

ANSWEES.
CHAPTER
PAGE
1.

I.

12.
2

Area = e 6 -ea
Vol. =-(e*
b

3.

Area=ia
Vol.

tan

0,

4.

Vol.^. 5
Vol.=f7ra
3
.

2.

-e2n
6.

).

= -a

tan 2 <9.

5.

(a)

Vol.

=|

Vol.

TT VoL =
1

(8)

JL

25

Vol.
3

=JL
t)

7,

7Tfia

8.

Mass

of half the spheroid

= J?r/xa26 2

ANSWERS.

279

CHAPTER
PAGE
17.

II.

a
2.

^Y.

6.

1.

10.

+ (sin 6 -sin a).

3.

?^1.
Ioge |.

7.

x/2-1.

4.

8.

|.

PAGE
X
2

23.

ft
'

r !00

Ht;

r!000

&

r!001

*'
.o

C>

loo'

Tooo'

Tool'

c 10'

_^ _^
100'

98

PAGE
2
2.
J ,

25.

a log x,

~j a log ^ +#,

PAGE

26.

2.
3.

logtan"

^,

logsin' ^,

log(log^).

280

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
PAGE
28.

9 "

>>
5.

log2

4+

aT +
log
3'

log 6
?

+
I

'

logo
4.

log tan ^, log sin ^ cosec ^.

sin- 1 *, 1

tan-,

86

an-^, l

^!

7.

8.

-log^ + e*),

log(log sin x\

CHAPTER
PAGE
1.

III.

32.

sine*,

sin#

n
,

sin(log^).

3.

asin^+-tan- 1^4 -a cose* +6

4
,

log cosh #.
8.

4.

J_ tan- -JL-.
x

6.

~.

V2

^2
.

3
L

sin-V^'

_-,

V*

PAGE
/-

41.
g

-1
?,

-H-.-f Jain- *,

2.

cosh^+l),

si

ANSWERS.
3.

281

-Vl=F, x/^,
i(^ +1)4,
2

4.

6.

siii-

^-2\/r^-iWl -^

2
,

1 2 | sinh- ^ + 2\/l + # +

7.
1 xyJ\^3?, 4 cosh- - + ^?x/5?^ 2 2

8.

^logtan^, -logtan CL

a<r+&
2
,

^logtan(-+.A \4 /
\

fx

),

J log tan

13.

log(log^),

log{log(log,^)},

Iog[log{log(loga7)}],

CHAPTER
PAGE
sinh x
47.

IV.

^7

cosh #, (2 + # 2 )sinh x

Zx cosh x.
CQS 2 ^
,

x sm 2<r
in 3a? + 9 sin
3.

a?)

+ cos 3^ + 27 cos^].
cos

J(sin

2a?

- 2^ cos 2^),

~""
sin 4.f

4^ _ ~""^~~ ~~ _
sin 6^7

/cos

2^7

cos ~~ 6^7

282
5.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

--^sin^-tan-^),
2

v5

^sin^ - tan- 4).

a

6.

^2(a + ^ )~sin^-tan- -,
2

for the values of n,

ct /

p + q-r,
7T
I.
2

q + r-p,

r+p-q, -p-q-r.

7T,

_,

7T

A -4.

9.

339
sin- 1 *?

+ x/f^;2 -

(1

- ^2 ).

PAGE

51.

- 3(^2 + 2)cosh x, - 5(^4 + 1 2^72 + 24)sinh x. (rf + 20^ + 1 20#)cosh x

>3

6)sin x,

84\V
3

2/

\ 2

- 3^)sin 2^ - (2^4 - 6^ 2 + 3)cos J{2(2^ - 5?r4 + 607T2 - 240, 265e-720.

PAGE
1.

52.

(a)
(6)

(m
4
\

+ l)~^rnecos(^-cotsn
3

m),

where #=sin#.

gsmg + cos^cos x.

-g,
3
/
/ \ ^7 4

where A = S i
-

(c)

^ tan ^ + log
^tan" 1 ^

(e)
2
).

tan

_i l

x-

.tT

3^7

(d)
(a)

Jlog(l+^
^sin" 1 ^.

(/)

x sec" 1^ - cosli" 1^.

\/l

(b) 6>(sec(9

+ cos0)-sin<9-logtan

+ Y where ^ = sin(9.

(c)
2

(c?)

(sin

</>

<^>

cos

</>),

where

^=

ANSWERS.
3.

283

(a)!*"-*. m
(6) '
-

W <J^>*p^. l+m l+^

2

ie*/I + A^cos^tf-tan- \\ 2 m//' \m Vm2 + 4 V

1

where tan0 = #.

(c)

-eme ( 4

Vm +l

JL_c 2
where tan B=x.

4.

(a) e*sin^.
(6)

ie*(#- 1)(a sin

6.^7

sinh ax
2

b cos u? cosh a^)

2

(d)

-6~ ax

sin(6^
r*
(e)

\ + 2</>) V, where

and

</>

are as in Art. 53.

2 X (P sin 2# -

cos 2^),

where
cos 2<>

=
7*

cos

<

?'-

+
7*

cos

=. sin
r

>

r2

sn
and
"log
2*

and

r2

= 4 + (log2) 2

x
7.

+\/l^

* log

x
6>

+ log g
cot

_
(9

6.

- cot (9 log(cos (9 + \/c7^2g) sin 6 cos

+ AVC

Sill

..
C7

8.

log(l

+ tan 0) - - + ilogsin( + - Y
(6)

9.

(a) e*tan-.

-e*cot-.

284

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

CHAPTEK
PAGE
58.

V.

2.

3.

log(^'

+ 4# + 5) - taii"
2

^+

2).

4. 5.

-log(3-.r).

6.

#-2log(# + 2.r + 2) + 3tan2# - log(# 2 + 6^7 + 10) + 1 1 tan- 1 ^ H- 3).

(.

PAGE

62.

(iii.)

^-_
ct

(ix.)

x+

^T -giZ^ log(^ - q.) +etc.

e
1
l

(^Tiy
g ^-l

+8

(^-l)

8(^-l)

+ 16

27

a^^ + I_L.-?-JL_.

ANSWERS.

285

(ii.)

.+(
tan- 1 *tan- 1 * VS.

(iii.)

(iv.)

3^2 tan-'(4r -_) \A/21 x*J

(i '>

(v,)

(viii.)

2V2

5.

(i.)

3
l

(ii.)

log^/V^T).
-lo g (*

(iii.)

(iv.)

(v.)

286

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

(ix.)

ilog^

(x.)

^ o
ll

17

17

17

6.

(i.)

(iii.)

,+

ANSWERS.

287

CHAPTER
PAGE
1.

VI.

68.

sinh-^+1,
x/2

2.

3.

bx + a) 4.
8

2 -LRcar - b)Jc(a + 26^ - cr ) + (6 + acj

PAGE

74.

1 /

3 3 sin kx
.

1 /sin 6^7

15 sin

2.r

288

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

2H

5 or
cos

x + co

A-O

cos 5^

+ - cos

#.

- l) n /sin Znx _ 2^/7 sin(2tt - %)x 1 2^-2

l

2M

@2 sin(2?a 4)^ _ ) 2^-4 "*/'

\

COS(2tt-l)#_ 2M+1 ff COS(2^- 3>,

2n-l

2n-3

"f

or
2.

Jsin

^-^sin ^, - sin
in

2# - 2 sin

x-

sin

6^ + J sin

3.

Jtan
7r

^,

4
5.

~2
8
'

43
60^/2'

157T

+ 44
|

192

2 4 \ cos #, f sin ^

sin% + f sine#,
.

cos nx

- r^

cos(n

-4(n-2)

1.

2\/tan#.

PAGE

83.

3.

(i.)
(ii.)

[a0 + 6 log(a cos

2 2 (9 + 6 sin (9)]/(a + b ). - ae)log(c sinO+e cos (9)]/(c2 + 6 [(ac + be)0 + (be

1
5.
(i.)

tan- 1 /"

tan

0*1 a*
/
\

-V*
i/l,
1

Wo^-P
/.

A
/
\

2,

(11.) ' '

^tan3

^\ -tan2/

1
-:

\3

(m.) 7

sma

-u cosh- 1

ANSWERS.
(iv.)

289

^-i3co^-tan-i3)-x/10 S-vlO 000(4?- tan- z 3)

( vii.)

a;

cos a CO8 x cos a + sin a cosh- 1 1 + cos a + cos x

(ii.)

^v^CTW&^-V^tan-'-tan- ^^) }.
_1_

(iii.)

-'

.(

if

a>a' and a'b>ab', with analogous forms

for other cases

8 3
'

'

(l+2cos(9)

Q sin 2^, ^.cos^ + sin^ _ y. AW o log r 7i ?i 2 cos # - sin

.

-2i

1,

^
2

sec 20.

10.

cosh x tan-.

11.

12.

- 2 x/1 -

sin

x-

\/2 log

tan(|+|

13.

- sin ^

+ sin #

v6
15.
-.

a
18
.

I.

C.

290

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
2

16. log log

tan x.

19.

na 2
17.

-cosh-^cosfl+sinfl).

20.

cos x + x sin

22.

23.
1

24. cosec-

(l+sin2^).
2
).

25.

26.

artan-^-logtl+tf

- tan x
1

CHAPTEE
PAGE
94.

VII.

7.

If

ANSWERS.
and

291

/i= _
r /2 =

xax -- +-a x^f 5

.

T 73 =

x\2ax-xrf 7 -+-a
,

-g2a,

Between

limits

and

A = ~^ /2 = f
PAGE
1.

4
,

/3

95.

fsi

and similarly for

6.

2, 3, 4, 5.

fsirAEcfe=
/

t,

T
/

7.

cos 71.!1 c?j;

= sin^cos"" ^ + nlf cos w ~ 2^ ax.

1
<>

J
/ \

4
/

_co^

8 in%

3/ ; _ g in2f \
4
\
Zi

an

sin 6^ dx, etc.

J
1 /

3 _ sin ^ cos%

1 f

3 sin _ si x cos #

sin

2^\ \

6
(ii.)

2\
sin x cos #).
(iii.)

4\2
tan x

//
3 \ cot #.

su- x -

cos

3(x

2 cot x

PAGE
TT

102.

3?r

35?r
25(3'

128
315'
a 10 r o sin 6>,

g"
8 J sin 6>

3?r

8
'

8
693'

4'
4.

16'
8

29

693'

60'

siii ^,

i sin 8 6> -

- J cos3 ^ + f cos 6 6> - f cos7 (9 + J cos9 0, - JQ sin 5 6> cos^ + yjgd ^ - i sin 40 +
5 ^28-71^/2

^ sin
5?r

8(9).

37T-8
'

3?r
'

+4
'

289
^

?r

2
9'

1680

32

192

4480'

8'

192*

292

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
PAGE
104.

2.

If

Im< n denote the given

integral,

m + n+l

6.

With a

similar notation,
n

W
/

(K T ~~ n>p

(a^bxf^

an

Tn

(y)

(m - n + l)/m
2

=
,

,v,m-

- - (m - 2)a 3/m _ "

1

3,

(3)

m/m =^- (^

/ = __^

cos 3

Xa cos x + 4 sin #)
+ -g-^
cos
2
1

X acos ^+2sin^)+2.

8.

In = 7n =
,-

_ ^
7

71

-1
i

a sin

a?

n cos #

IH =

-8llln
.

-i l

a sin

^7

sin eu?

+w --- ^ n -a
cos
5
2
-

cos

9 2

ax --- n(n- 1) r win-* ^ n* a 2

1

17

1
'

3m 3m(3m - S)

___ra

w(m~l)
3?7i(3m

- 2)(3m - 4)

"*"

-2).. .(m

+ 2)

ANSWERS.
ramv

293

ork

20

(77?

x PVPTIl ;

>rn III

9VH )

/...^/t

Aj2_t_92\

-TAJ
2

It

2 oosli

'

m(m- 1X^-2X^-3).. .3.

23.

/^ 2 sm(tt-l)* n1

28.

(n-l)u m

=_

29.

amlm + (2m
r r /n = /n _ 2 -

/ Q1 N 31. (a)

(/?)
/
v

Deduce from
r

25.

_ _(7i- 2)^7 cos ^7 + sin ^7 w +

,

2,
n

(^_

l)( 7i _2)sin"-

^T
VIII.

CHAPTEE
PAGE

115.

\/3

2.

-cosech- 1 ^,

x/2

v/^ 2
1
3.

+2^+3 - sinh-

- --

lo

2\/2

^-

^^+l

JL
\/2

294

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
_
x/2
f 7=tan

PAGE

117.

*2

<v>

^=^g

--^
If a,

sinh
c

-ws

3.

V2

5.

6,

are in ascending order of magnitude

with modifications for other

6
p
1"

cases.

9 _ T9 sinh-

PAGE
COS 07 - COS
1.

120.

- -log
cos ^ + cos ~

2.

2(sin#+#cosa).

3.

sir

4.

Prove

(TZ.

being a positive integer)

cos wo, ^u^-u, cos a

cos nx
cos x

_ 2 cogec a
r,

~-\^

r=i

gin ra cos (^ _ r \ x
/
\

+ __
,

sin Tia
.

sin a

Then

cos a?

cos a

sin a r= i

?i

ANSWERS.
tan
5.

295

-cot

2 sin x + 2 sin a log(sin x - sin a) -f 2 sin a log

tan --tan"
6.

5 2sm2 a

_
V

PAGE
1.

129.

(i.)2tan-V#.
(ii.)

(iii.)

-4\/2
-sinh- 1 -x/3 l

2tan- 1 v/fT2^.

(iv.)

z.

(v.)

v/^+^+1 -l
1
.

sinh- 1

5^+1- sinh-i-L Llf

\/3
(viii.)

(vi.)

(vii.)

^^L -- L inh-if2
B

no?

\*'

(ii.)

If

a>c
cosh-i
e.

with a corresponding real form

if

<

c.

3.

(i.)

v (cos a

cos /5)(cos a

- cos

y)
1

2
CQS X mall -1

^ + COS a
cos a

COS a

~ COS

"~
ft

cos a

~ C QS

cos

for the case cos a

> cos fi

or cos

other cases.

cos a cos y y with modifications

for

296

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
_1

Vsin(a

/3)sin(a

y)
l

x cosh" 1
cot /?
6.
(i.)

tan

3?

cot a

-+,

cot a

cot

3
-:

cot a

cot-/
t
.
:

cot a

cot y - cot a
(iii.)

j iogX24

(ii.)

-L.

Mi)

5^5.

(ii.)ilog2.

(iii-

14. (i.) Iog e 2-l.

(ii.)

15. (i.)

JL.
Iog e 2.

(ii.)

1.

27.

(i.)

(ii.)

F.

(iii.)

29.

2/^.

30. e-

1
.

CHAPTER
PAGE
7.

IX,

141.

(i.)^-^).
(ii.)

(iii.)

(rj-r^^S
12.

(iv.)

2a(cos|-cos|^.

*L.

PAGE

151.

a
2.

a-x

8a.

3.

The

Cycloid.

ANS WERS.
r\/l+3cos 2 0_ V3,10

297

~~co^0~ --2-

v/1 + ^^^ 3 cos

+ V3 cos ff~\

e*

5.

5o.

CHAPTEB
PAGE
158.

X.

2.

2 (a) c sinh-. G

h (b) e

-l.

(o)

^
.

V^rp _ *

sin-i^i

(/)

Mog

5.

4a2

6.

37ra 2 .

PAGE
*

160.
2

2.

3.

8
*

16
(n odd).

4.

^. 4?^
2

Total

area=^!
2

(w even), or

tan a
4

2 /3 cot

a/^gycot a

-i

R
'

a2
6"

/3

-a3
'

~^g3.

8.

z.
2
a/5

9.

PAGE
1.

167.

37ra 2

3.

3 -(tan f + J- tan i/r).

298
4.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

PAGE
1.

178.
5.

TV*

2
-

2.

^.
128

(7r-2)a

2
.

7.

9.

(i.)

%nrab.

(ii.)

r(m + l)

m being supposed

odd.

11.

a 2 [2log(\/2 + l)-iW2l

14.

-(32 + 24\/3 - STT).

6

12.

4cV2sin- -Lv/3

17.

^?V2.

22.

23.

^7? 7r^-^".
12

24 ^ even
)-

'

nr
4

7'

odd

'

2
'

25.

30.

^^-.
4

39.

^-.

28. TT( 6 2

32.
J.

a2
2

1--J.

40. 7raj(a-b).

29.

^(107r + 9 x/3).

34.

(7r

+ 2).

41.

a2

42.

7rV2

i*s4 bm
44.
(i.)
,

(ii.)

ANSWERS.

299

CHAPTEE
PAGE
3.
7

XI.

187.

PAGE
2.
3.

191.

If the sides be a, 6, c ; s the semiperimeter ; and h^ distances of the midpoints from the given line,

h^ h 3 the

surface

= 27r(aA 1 + bh2 + cA3 = -^(hi + h 2 + k 2 )>Js(s - a)(s - b)(s - c). volume

),

PAGE
1.

193.

If

a = rad.

of base,

5.

27ra 3 (log e 2

).

h = altitude,

6.

Surface
2

= slant height, surface = Tral, volume = ^TraPk.

=%2-7ra

2
,

volume =irV.
8.

J7r

a3

10.

2 3 TV7T a

CHAPTER
PAGE
1.

XII.

201.

(i.)

'ass=-g-,
)

(11.)

x=

y=^ m
(

-)

fi

M-

(ii.)

J=l

a)

y = 2Z

Z.

(iii.)

300
3.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

f of length of rod from end of zero density.

If

^length,

5'

PAGE
1.

207.
initial line,

Let 20 be the angle, a the radius, the median the

2.

5=

2,
n+4'
2

about tang.,
about diam.,

4.

If^1= _A^3, m w
Mom.
Area
In.

and

m m

about ^-axis =
6.

=
_.

2(3v/3-7r)'

Mom. In.
a

3v'3-7T
(2)

7.

(1) \ f

9 ^, K

??V
R /

Hijfa2 ^^

(3)

(i)

jr^,

(2)

(2) (a)

ANSWERS.

301

CHAPTER
PAGE
1.

XIII.

215.
sec y

x tan x - log
3

sec

x =y tan y - log

+ C.

3.

5.

6.

9.

(1) (2)

y = (7e
?y2

(3)

= 2^ + a

(4)

10.

PAGE
1.

219.

2ye
(a
2

iAn ~ lx

~ ==e2i&n lx

+O.
b cos bx + Ce~ ax
.

2.

+ b' )y = a sin bx
2

3.

rO = a

+ C.

-I

o.

X6

^=

tan

-f~ C/.

1^2.

x sin ?/
13.
-

2^7 2

"{"C/.

6.

ye

v*= 2V^7 + a

x log 2

= ^L+
2^? 2

(7.

2
9.

-L_JLf(7.
^cy
2.^^

15.

i=i+ 7* a

Cfe'

(7.

16.

JU= --

302

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
18. (1)

f^
x
2

2#2

+C-.

(2) (a (3) si

+ & 2 y = a sin bx-b cos 6^ + (7e

CHAPTEE
PAGE

XIV.

223.

2.

- =
2x/73

where v=yjx.
3.

i-I = a
^

y
of

4,

The jo-eliminant
and

y=
<y=

5.

The jo-eliminant

of

y=x(Ap* + Bp + C), and

-1> + 0} _
7- (B'

I)

\/4^6Y -(^226.
2,

I)

PAGE

(y-^)

4.
5.

.r-

6.
7.

Gy-S^-^

8.

ANSWERS.
PAGE
230.
3.

303

+ C,
5.

4.

o~s

6,

c<

PAGE
y = Cx + C\
y=

232.

2.

3.

4.

y=

PAGE

233.

logp-p + C

5.

?/

2.y=apx+p\

n p x = (n]
6.

v=

1 ^

JL

3^

3a ~ 2

I
8.

3a

A rectangular hyperbola.

304
9.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
Parabolae touching the axes.

10.
11.

Hyperbolae.

A four-cusped hypocycloid x*+y*' =0?.

8?/=(2^-l)
2
.

12.
13.

y=

y=c
,

cos 3 6>

3c sin

14.

2
2/

=&

-jTpj

a series of conies touching the four straight

\A#, the singular solution.

lines

x*J^Ay =

CHAPTEE XV.
PAGE
1.

238.
6.

y=x\ogx+Ax + B.
y = acosh(- + 6\
2y =

x+b= J\-

dy
-

2.

7.

3.

4.

,-^

+&

9.

y = 6 tan
/1

5.

(^-^)2 + (y -J5)

=a 2
11.

10.
1

y = Ex*

Ax log x.
242.

PAGE

2. 3.

(a)

^3-^2+? =
(o)

ANSWERS.

305

CHAPTER
PAGE
In the results of the following set constants
1.

XVI.

251.
all capitals
:

denote arbitrary

bx ax y = Ae +Be

3.

y= Ae x + fie** + Ce5x
y=(
2

2.

y=*Af*+ Be** +&"*.

4.

cos

8.

y=A

sin

a?

+ B cos a? + <7e~ fsin *? + Z)e~ fcos

+ ((7+ 7>o?)cos
a?

9.

y = (A + y = (-4 +

0)siii ^P

10.

^+

Cfeajsin

+ (Z) + JEr + ^r2)cos a?

11.

y(44-^+^^+l)^4<i^^)tf-^
y = (A + -5j?)sin a# + ((7+ Z)^)cos GW7 + E sin fo? + F cos &#

12.

PAGE

254.

PAGE 256

(First Set).

306

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
PAGE 256 (Second
-tan- 1 -), d/
2
Set).

^(sin
2.

x cosh #

cos

x sinh #).

\ sin 2#, J cos x,

^ sin %x.
PAGE
g(^
2

258.
4 2 a^+(a - 6a + l)cos

l)sin

2 cos a? cosh x.

PAGE

260.

3.

~K 10

2^7

+-

l.\

5/

)cos^7

^7

+-

5/

jsin^

PAGE
1.

263.

(i)
/ON (2)

-* c i.
x sin 2#
j-r-

(6) -(cosh

^r

+ cos

or).

(3) -cosh;*.

x
(7)

(e^_e^ + e ~^~Zb
ar

(4)
2.

*(!

(8)

- sin
t

(5

sin 2 -. 2

(1) (2)

y-. y=.

ANSWERS.
(3)

307

y=A

sw
6

-(sin#
5
(4)

2 cos#).

y = (4 1

(5)

yr^ +
y = J jer y=A1
x

(6)

(7)

+{(#
(8)

3)cos a?

a?

sin

^r

25

(9)

y = ^L

e 1

ar

+^l2 e

ar

~t cos x coshe

(10)

y=(J 1

+ i-^ sin^+^ 8
2

PAGE

265.
^7).
'

>g
1.

y = A^m(q log #) + A 2cos(q log

2.

y = A ism(q log x) + ^ 2 cos(^ log ^) +

r2

^/

__

sin(log

^7)

2 cos(log a?)

log x cos(^ log ^

~~

4.

y = ^! sin | log(a + bx) \ + J 2 COS | T lg( a + ^)

-j

5.

308

INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

CHAPTER
PAGE
3.

XVII.

269.
.

= be~ e ^ a
276.

4.

= l-cos<9.

PAGE
2
2.
3.

Put tany=2

tan?/

Put a + bx=S; y = C( + bx)^ + D(a + t C(a

where m^

x* - no +

..,

b{n-\-Ao)

m
;

are the roots of the equation

2
*
*

4.
5. 6. 7. 8.

= tan~^ y = Put = sin~ o? y=^ Put 6^ = ^, ^=77; (<*-ex +iy*=A.

Put
2
1
;

Put sin^=^, siny=?7 (siny = (a) y = (b) y ^^3 sin(log x) + JB^cosQ.og x). (c) y
;

9.

y + Z = A sin 3x + B cos 3x + C si 32= - 6(^1 sin 3x + B cos 3a?) + (C7siii 4r + D cos 4^).
10.

= Ad\

11.

2/

=^

GLASGOW

PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND

CO.

WHICH BORROWED

Publication 'Fdue on the

and

HOUR stamped below

LAST DATB

j5Cs

JUL

.,.
(F5759slO)4188

n e 'al Library niversity of California

.

Berkeley

ASTRGitiGf".;