Extracted from "A Half Century of Maritime Technology 1943-1993".

Reprinted with the permission of the Society of Naval

Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME). Material originally appearing in SNAME publications cannot be reprinted or
reproduced without written permission from the Society, 601 Pavonia Ave., Jersey City, NJ 07306.
Tanker Cargo Systems
MAURICE GORDON
Overview
W
HILE THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES of tanker cargo
handling have remained the same since the
days of the Gluckauf, the methods have changed
significantly. Since World War II, the forward pump
room and open loading have gone the way of the
crow's nest. On the other hand, virtually all modern
tankers are built with remote control and monitoring
ofcargo operations. Radar has migrated from scanning
the sea to plumbing the depths of the cargo tanks.
Advances in technology as well as major regulatory
changes have resulted in significant changes in the
support systems for cargo handling. All tankers over
30,000 dwt are now built with inert gas systems.
Crude oil washing systems are installed on most crude
oil tankers. Closed loading is required and, in some
areas, air quality concerns dictate that tanker and
barge owners install vapor recovery systems rather
than venting to the atmosphere while loading.
Pumping
Piping Arrangements. The cargo systems on tank-
ers built until about 1970 were usually arranged with
three or four segregated systems. This permitted car-
rying multiple grades of cargo, and to swing from
crude to refined product-possibly within a single
voyage. Crossover piping was installed for use when a
single grade was to be carried or a pump was disabled.
Through the early 1960s, these crossovers were double
valved to minimize cargo contamination. Austerity by
the shipbuilders reduced this to a single valve except
where the shipowner specifically required double
valves. After the mid-1960s, the number ofcargo tanks
on new tankers decreased by about 50 percent, sim-
plifying all cargo systems.
Cargo piping arrangements changed in the age of
the very large crude carrier (VLCC). Some ships built
specifically for crude oil are fitted with sluice valves.
These are installed as part of the bulkhead, or on a
short stub ofpipe through a bulkhead. In general, one
valve is installed in the longitudinal bulkhead of each
wing tank and multiple valves are installed in the
transverse bulkheads. When the valves are opened,
cargo from the wing tanks flows into the center tanks
and then aft to the last centerline tank which contains
a large suction bellmouth for each pump. Stripping
piping, generally in the form of a ring main is also
installed to permit final stripping and assist in crude
oil wash operations. A typical arrangement is shown
in Fig. I.
Cargo Pumps. To this day, the standard arrange-
ment for cargo pumping on tankers uses centrifugal
pumps located in a pump room directly forward of
the machinery space. From World War II through the
1950S, most tankers were fitted with a second pump
room forward of the cargo block. Some of the early
100,000 dwt tankers, most notably the Manhattan
(1961), had a third pump room amidships.
The aft pump room generally contained three or
four large centrifugal cargo pumps and a centrifugal
ballast pump. Double suction, single stage pumps
were favored because of their relatively low net posi-
tive suction head requirements. Through the 1950S
and 1960s, most cargo pumps were horizontal; but in
the 1970S vertical pumps became common. Over the
past 50 years, cargo pump capacities have increased
with ship size-from II34 m
3
/hr (5000 gpm) and
about 450 kW (600 bhp) to 5670 m
3
/hr (25,000 gpm)
and 2250 kW (3000 bhp).
On ships handling high viscosity cargo, positive
displacement pumps were installed. Most of these
were screw pumps but some owners preferred the
Waterous cycloid pumps. These can handle suction
vacuums of 560 mm (22 in.) Hg to overcome the high
friction losses of these cargoes.
In addition, one or more positive displacement
pumps were installed for stripping the cargo tanks.
These were usually duplex double-acting reciprocating
pumps driven by 7-10 bar (1OG-150 psig) steam. On
occasion, screw or cycloid pumps were used instead.
The forward pump room generally contained re-
ciprocating pumps for stripping the forward tanks,
126
TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 127
CARGO PIPING ON UPPER DECK
TO CR DE 01 U L
WASH SYSTEM
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STRIPPING P
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CARGO PipiNG IN pUMp BOOM CARGO PIPING IN CARG0---IAliKS
Fig. 1 Typical VLCC cargo piping arrangement. Note the ring main in the cargo tanks, the sluice gates, and the stripping eductors.
In this system. each cargo tank has its own loading drop line which also is used as an Inert gas purge line,
handling ballast in the fore peak and transferring fuel
oil, ballast, or cargo from the forward deep tanks.
Main cargo pumps in pump rooms were generally
driven by a single stage geared turbine in the machin-
ery space with a jackshaft through a gastight bulkhead
seal. When most tankers were steam propelled, this
was the obvious way to use the high boiler capacity
while in port.
A5 the age of the diesel approached, various meth-
ods to drive cargo pumps were explored. For VLCCs,
where high horsepower was required, steam turbines
were still favored, with steam supplied by a large
auxiliary boiler. Smaller ships favored increased elec-
trical generating capaci ty and motor driven pumps.
Another method of cargo handling, which has
come increasingly into use, is the vertical deep well
pump. These come in a variety of forms, the earliest
and most common being the multi-stage vertical tur-
bine pump. In more recent years, submerged, single
stage hydraulic driven pumps have become more
common. Deep well pumping arrangements are
prevalent on chemical and specialty tankers. On these,
each cargo tank has its own pump. On crude oil and
product tankers, the deep well pumps are often in-
stalled in suction casings, which are attached to the
cargo piping system. The Marine Dow-Chem (1954)
made extensive use of deep well pumps for its chemi-
cal cargoes. Pumps were arranged one per tank to
prevent cargo contamination.
The vertical turbine pump consists of an impeller
and bowl assembly at the bottom of the tank. This
assembly discharges vertically through a pipe column
containing the shaft extension and its bearings to a
discharge head at the upper deck. The most common
method of driving the vertical turbine pump is a
vertical electric motor mounted directly on the pump
discharge assembly. Some ships have used a turbine or
horizontal motor to drive the pump through a right
angle gear.
The submerged hydraulic driven pump (Fig. 2) is
a Norwegian development that has become common
in chemical tankers. The pump assembly is located at
the bottom ofthe cargo tank. It consists ofa hydraulic
motor close coupled to a single stage centrifugal
pump. The hydraulics and the cargo are separated by
a series ofseals with an atmospheric cofferdam in the
middle. Hydraulic power is developed by multiple
power packs in the machinery space and distributed
via piping on deck. Cargo pump speed is controlled
from the cargo control room by throttling the hy-
draulic fluid flow. The hydraulic fluid is conveyed to
the motor by a concentric pipe arrangement with
128 PART III POWER AND CONTROL
HYDRAULIC GOVERNOR
HYDRAULIC SUPPLY
&: RETURN PIPING
EXHAUST TRAP
COFFERDAM PURGE PIPE
HYDRAULIC PIPING
AND COFFERDAM
HYDRAULIC MOTOR
CARGO PUMP
t
DISCHARGE PIPE PURGE GAS
PUMP DISCHARGE VALVE
MAIN DECK
CARGO DISCHARGE
PURGE RISER
--'-NN-E-R-S-O-T-r-OM-SL-:-:N-;A-: )
Fig.2 SUbmerged hydraulic driven cargo pump when purged, residual cargo can be as little
as 38 liters (10 gall.
hydraulic pressure in the center, hydraulic return in
the first annular space, and a cofferdam in the ourer
annular space.
Stripping Pumps. The past 50 years began and
ended with the standard stripping pump being the
steam powered duplex double acting reciprocating
pump; but these are now difficult to obtain because
of the decline in overall use of reciprocating pumps.
There have, however, been significant developments
in cargo tank stripping.
One method that has come of age is the use of
eductors to strip cargo tanks. Eductors for this pur-
pose are large and are located in the pump room. The
large motive fluid requirements are generally supplied
by the main cargo pumps. Eductors are widely used
with crude oil washing systems. This arrangement is
shown in Fig. 1.
Priming systems have had a large impact on cargo
stripping. The first of these is the venturi priming
system. Priming valves are arranged to remain closed
until discharge flow is reduced owing to loss of suc-
tion. These valves open to recirculate liquid to the
pump suction to enable the pump to remain primed.
Vacuum priming systems-some quite elaborate--
have come into increasing use. The simplest of these
'consists of a water ring vacuum pump taking suction
from the cargo pump casing to maintain or regain
prime. Other systems are fully automatic and are
based on the level in the main cargo pump suction
strainer. & the level falls, the vacuum pump starts and
takes suction from the top of the cargo pwnp casing
and from the strainer. When this no longer maintains
the level, the system slows the cargo pump turbine to
75-80 percent of full speed. After this, further drops
in level cause the system to throttle the cargo pump
discharge valve.
One other stripping system worthy of note is that
used for the submerged hydraulic pumps. Since many
of the cargoes are of high value, and fall under the
noxious liquid substances stripping requirements of
MARPOLAnnex II, these tanks must be virtually dry
when stripping is complete with no more than 15cr
950 liters (4cr250 gal) remaining, this amount de-
pending on cargo classification. Once the pump loses
suction, it continues to run, the discharge valve is
closed and a small bypass line from the pump casing
to the cargo main is opened. Compressed air or nitro-
gen is introduced upstream ofthe discharge valve and
the liquid is forced down the discharge pipe and up
through the bypass. The running pump creates a seal
against back flow. With proper sump design, this can
result in only 38-76 liters (lcr20 gal) remaining in the
tank. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.
LNG Pumps. Pumping systems on liquid natural
gas (LNG) carriers require special cryogenic pumps.
These are generally submerged electric motor driven
centrifugal pumps. Their most remarkable charac-
teristic is that part ofthe cargo is pumped through the
motor casing between the rotor and the stator. The
dielectric properties of the LNG preclude electrical
short circuits and grounding problems. The 100 per-
cent gas rich atmosphere in the cargo tanks is outside
the explosive range, which removes any concern about
problems caused by sparks or mechanical failure.
Cargo Control
Until the mid-1960s, the key to cargo control was
muscle power. Valve lineups were done manually via
reach rods to in-tank valves. The only concession to
automation was remote control of cargo pump speed
from pneumatic panels in the pump room access.
Monitoring ofcargo operations was done by a roving
watch mate and seamen. This kind of controlled to
the likelihood ofoverfilling a tank with a subsequent
oil spill.
Cargo control rooms began to appear on U.S.-flag
tankers in the mid-1960s. It is hard to make any gen-
eral statements about cargo control systems since they
seem to be customized to the extent that the owner or
shipyard, or both, deem economically attractive. Nev-
ertheless, cargo control rooms contain some or all of
the following components:
I. Cargo and Stripping Pump and
stripping pump control includes a means to control the
pump driver, and suction and discharge pressure indica-
tors. On/off, pump speed or other suitable feedback
is provided as appropriate to the type of pump driver.
2. Valve or all of the valves may be
remotely controlled from the cargo control room. The
valve controls and indicators are usually laid out on
a mimic panel containing a schematic of the cargo
TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 129
piping arrangement. The preferred method ofremote
valve operation is hydraulic, though some owners
prefer electric drive. Hydraulic actuators can be sub-
merged or on deck, while electric actuators are limited
to the deck level. In pump rooms, however, because of
Coast Guard restrictions on electrical equipment, con-
trol is almost exclusively hydraulic. Valve position feed-
back consists of position indicating lights or meters.
3. umk Level Tank level indication is
provided in the cargo control room. Generally, this is
combined with overfill alarms. This enables the mate
on watch to take early action to avoid oil spills. Tank
level information may be fed into loading computers
that continuously monitor shear forces and bending
moments.
4. Other Functiom-Additional monitoring and
control systems are installed in cargo control rooms.
Inert gas system monitoring and tank pressure control
are required by the regulatory bodies. Segregated bal-
last pumps and valves are usually controlled. Oil
content of ballast water is monitored. Any specialized
systems relating to chemicals and specialty products
are usually monitored. For example, tank tempera-
tures for heated cargo may be provided. On LNG
ships, the custody transfer computer, which deter-
mines the volume and quality of the delivered LNG,
is part of cargo control.
The development of the microcomputer and mi-
croprocessor based control systems in the 1980s has its
application in the cargo control room. While not yet
implemented on U.S.-flag tankers, it is possible to
combine cargo control, tank level feedback, and hull
stress information to enable the chief mate to prepro-
gram cargo tank loading and discharge sequences.
These systems are currently available, but this degree
of automation has not yet found favor with U.S.-flag
operators.
One development that has made cargo control
practical in the U.S.-flag fleet is that of electrical
components such as transmitters, switches and sole-
noid valves that are intrinsically safe. These low volt-
agellow current devices are used in hazardous areas.
Zener diode barriers in the safe zones ensure that the
excessive electrical energy cannot reach the hazardous
area. Intrinsically safe devices and explosion proof
light fixtures are the only electrical devices the Coast
Guard permits in pump rooms.
Ancillaries
Inert Gas Systems. Probably the most significant
change in cargo handling in the past 50 years has been
130 PART III POWER AND CONTROL
the requirements by International Maritime Organi-
zation (lMO) and the Port and Tanker Safety Act of
1978 (PTSA) to install inert gas systems on most
tankers. Before that time, cargo tank atmospheres
were assumed to be too rich for combustion during
the laden voyage. On the ballast voyage during tank
washing, cargo tank atmospheres were kept too lean
for combustion or, regardless of hydrocarbon levels,
all sources of ignition were removed. In the early
1970S, mysterious major explosions occurred on sev-
eral VLCCs during tank cleaning, sometimes result-
ing in loss of the ship. Research determined that the
high capacity tank cleaning machines in the large tanks
created static electric charges, which discharged them-
selves between the tank cleaning machine nozzle and
the tank structure. If the uncontrolled tank atmo-
sphere was in the explosive range, ignition could occur.
As early as the 1950S, cargo tank inerting was inves-
tigated as a means to control corrosion in product
tanker cargo tanks. Sun Oil Company used these early
systems for many years. By 1974, U.S. owners were
beginning to install inert gas systems on new VLCCs.
SOLAS 1974 required inert gas systems on all new
tankers over 30,000 dwt ordered after mid-1979. Inert
gas was also required on most existing tankers by 1983.
The basic requirement for inert gas systems is that
they provide inert gas with no more than eight percent
oxygen content to the cargo tanks. The production
rate during cargo discharge must be 25 percent higher
than the pumping rate. The tanks must also be main-
tained under a positive pressure of no less than 10 mm
(4 in.) H
2
0 at all times during a voyage, including the
ballast leg. As the pressure level decays, the system
must be used to replenish the gas.
Two major types of gas generating systems have
evolved: flue gas and independent generators. In the
flue gas system, the inert gas blowers take suction from
the boiler uptakes through a scrubber, which removes
soot and sulfur compounds and cools the gas. The
blowers discharge to the distribution main on deck
through a pressure controller and an oxygen content
monitor. These systems are well suited to steamships
and diesel ships with large boilers to meet cargo pump
steam requirements.
Independent generator systems burn diesel oil in
closely controlled combustion. The gases are then
cooled and scrubbed for distribution. In these sys-
tems, the blowers discharge air to the generator. These
systems are suitable for diesel ships and for trades in
which the oxygen content of the inert gas must be
tightly controlled. Some of these generators are capa-
ble of controlling oxygen content below one percent
without excessive carbon monoxide. Small versions of
these systems are used for topping off the tanks at sea
on diesel ships with flue gas systems.
Two main methods of distributing inert gas inside
the cargo tanks have evolved. Some vessels are fitted
with mixing systems where the gas is jetted into the
tank through a nozzle at high velocity (30 m/sec [100
ft/sec]). This creates turbulent mixing ofthe incoming
gas with the tank atmosphere. The other method is
displacement. In this method, inert gas enters the tank
at low velocity through the tank hatch trunk and
maintains a constant blanket above the cargo as the
tank is emptied. The latter method has a lower first
cost, as the cargo piping can be used when purging or
gas-freeingan empty tank. (Mixing requires a separate
standpipe for each tank.) The blowers can also provide
air for gas freeing.
Chemical and specialty tankers use inert gases but
there are currently no requirements for general inert-
ing of chemical tankers. Some products degrade in
the presence of conventional inert gas while others
change when the tank atmosphere is air. Chemical
tanker operators do not inert some cargoes while they
blanket or pad other tanks with nitrogen gas to pre-
vent problems in transit. Where nitrogen is required,
the ships either obtain it from the terminal or they
are fitted with liquid nitrogen tanks and vaporizing
equipment.
LNG tankers also require an inert gas system. In
this case, its use is limited to when tanks are to be
warmed up and gas-freed for personnel entty or re-
pairs. The systems are conventional generator systems
with tight oxygen control and a desiccant drier after
the scrubber. In this case, the inert gas is used as a
buffer between the 100 percent gas rich atmosphere
during normal operations and the introduction of
air. After the cargo tank is warmed above -40C
(-40 OF), it is purged with inert gas until the methane
content is below one percent. At that time, air can be
safely introduced.
In the late 1980s, air pollution concerns caused
some loCal governments to limit cargo vapor emis-
sions when loading. This is generally done by con-
necting a vapor hose between the inert gas main and
the terminal. During loading, the vapor from the
ship's tanks are returned to shore where they are used
or destroyed. During lightering operations, the
lightering vessel's vapors are introduced into the
lightered vessel's tanks in lieu ofinert gas. At this time,
requirements for this type of operation vary by local-
ity, but in 1990, the Coast Guard issued rules govern-
ing these installations when they are installed.
Tank Cleaning Systems. Until the late 1970S
cargo tanks were washed regularly with hot water at
the start of the ballast leg of the voyage to prepare
them for ballast. On product carriers, additional wash-
ing and rinsing were done to prevent cargo contami-
nation.
Early in the period, most of the washing was done
using portable rotating jet machines. These were
placed on the end of a hose inserted through the tank
cleaning openings on deck. The machines were low-
ered at intervals until the tank was clean. The ma-
chines, which had a capacity of about 60 m
3
/hr
(265 gpm) consisted of two nozzles, which the force
of the water rotated around a horiwntal axis. A gear
train rotated the entire assembly around a vertical axis.
To improve the tank cleaning process, some port-
able machines were permanently located in cargo
tanks. Because there were substantial shadow areas
(not reached by direct jet impingement), some clean-
ing with portable machines was still required. On the
whole, this reduced the number of man-hours re-
quired to clean a tank.
As the size oftankers increased, it became necessary
to increase the capacity of tank washing machines.
The new machines had capacities up to 160 m
3
/hr
(1170 gpm). In the large tanks, these machines create
static electric charges and can be used only in con-
trolled atmospheres.
In the mid-1970s the concept ofwashing tanks with
crude oil rather than seawater was developed. Crude
oil washing had a number of major advantages. First,
it removed wax and sludge buildup by dissolving it
into the crude oil so it could be pumped ashore with
the cargo. Second, it minimized oil on board prior to
ballasting and any subsequent cleaning for clean bal-
last only required water rinsing to reduce oil content
of the ballast to less than 15 ppm for overboard dis-
charge.
Crude oil washing proved so promising that IMO
required it in new crude tankers over 20,000 dwt
beginning in 1979. It was also required as an alterna-
tive to segregated ballast tanks in existing crude oil
tankers beginning in 1981. Because of the high capa-
city machines required, and the potential for static
electricity buildup, inert gas is always needed for crude
oil wash.
Crude oil washing is done with deck mounted,
high-capacity nozzles installed in each cargo tank.
These may be supplemented by additional machines
mounted inside the tanks (called bottom washers) for
cleaning areas under horizontal webs. The IMO spe-
cifications required that the machines be arranged so
TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 131
that 85 percent of the vertical surfaces and 90 percent
ofthe horiwntal surfaces receive direct impingement.
The machines generally have a capacity of 60--150
m
3
/hr (440--1100 gpm).
Crude oil washing is performed at the discharge
port. It may start with a top wash before the tank is
empty. When the tank is empty, however, its bottom
must be kept free of standing oil throughout the
bottom washing cycle. This high capacity stripping
.operation is generally done by pump room mounted
eductors, Fig. I.
Even on segregated ballast tankers, operators have
found it beneficial to crude oil wash all cargo tanks on
,a rotating basis: about one third to one half of the
tanks at each discharge. The Coast Guard requires
that at least 25 percent of the tanks be washed at each
discharge.
Most of the deck mounted machines now in use
have a single nozzle. The crude oil drives the mecha-
nism and rotates the entire nozzle assembly around a
vertical axis. As it rotates in this manner, the nozzle
itself is slowly rotated around a horizontal axis. The
washing pattern creates a tight helix around the verti-
cal axis. Some of the deck-mounted machines are
mechanically programmable to selectively clean cer-
tain parts of the tanks. Figure 3 shows a typical deck
mounted machine. Bottom washing machines are
generally the twin nozzle type like those used in con-
ventional tank cleaning.
One thing that has not changed in the past 50 years
is that residual sludge and scale, albeit smaller quan-
tities, must still be "mucked" manually.
Load-on-Top Procedures. In the days before seg-
regated ballast systems, salt water ballast was loaded
into some of the cargo tanks at the discharge port to
permit maneuvering and minimum seakeeping. Dur-
ing the ballast leg of the voyage, certain cargo tanks
were cleaned with hot water to remove oil residue.
These tanks were then ballasted with water that would
be sufficiently clean to be discharged overboard at
the loading port. The tank washing residue and the
dirty ballast previously loaded were pumped over-
board at sea.
In the early 1960s, environmental concerns caused
tanker owners to rethink the way they handled tank
washings, and load-on-top became the norm for
tanker operations. In that method, rather than pump-
ing tank washings overboard, they are pumped into a
slop tank. During the ballast voyage, the water sepa-
rates itself from the oil. The clean water is decanted
from the slop tank and pumped overboard. Starting
in 1983, oil content monitors were required in these
132 PART III POWER AND CONTROL
manual steel tape with a bronze plumb bob. Less
formal measurements were made during loading and
discharge by the mate or deck hand looking into the
tank through the ullage hatch using reflected light
from a hand mirror. As late as 1990, many custody
transfer measurements were still made this way.
When tanks were pressurized with inert gas, this
became inconvenient as pressure had to be dropped
to take measurements. Industrial hygiene considera-
tions made it necessary to control sailors' exposure to
tank vapors. In the late 1970s, closed manual gauging
systems were developed. These consisted of a special
tape with an electronic interface sensor. This was
connected to a special deckstand. In operation, avalve
was opened and the sensor lowered until it indicated
it had reached the cargo. The ullage was then read
directly from the tape. These are now required by the
Coast Guard for certain dangerous chemicals.
Fixed tank gauging systems were available from the
1950S, but came into widespread use only in the 1970S
with inert gas and closed loading. These systems rely
on a float attached to a steel tape that rides up and
down on guide wires or rods in the cargo tank. The
floats are read on deck directly from numbers printed
on the tape or from a mechanical counter driven by
the movement of the tape.
Cargo control from a central location also created
a need for remote, continuous reading gauges and
level alarms. In some cases, the floatltape gauges have
been convened with a transmitter head. Other float
gauging systems that use magnetic reed switches have
also become common. Some gauging systems use
electric resistance to determine liquid level.
Probably the most revolutionary advance in tank
gauging since World War II has been the radar gauge.
Saab of Sweden saw the potential in using the prop-
erties of the vapor/cargo interface to reflect a radar
beam and applied the technology to cargo tank gaug-
ing. Alow power radar transceiver is installed in a deck
stand at the top ofeach cargo tank. The tank ullage is
then transmitted to analog or digital gauges in the
cargo control room. Radar gauging has been widely
used in U.S.-flag new construction.
Another development, which appeared in the
1980s, was pressure gauging ofcargo tanks. While this
is applicable to all tankers, it is especially appropriate
for chemical and product carriers that transport awide
range of cargoes with different specific gravities.
The principle of pressure gauging requires three
pressure transducers in each tank connected to a mi-
crocomputer in the cargo control room. One trans-
ducer is located at the bottomofthe tank, one at about
TOP ANGLE
ADJUSTMENT
MANUAL AEVEf'SE MECHANISM
WASH
HEAD
MANUAL
IlAISl
LOWER
DRIVE SH"FT__
systems. The next cargo is then loaded on top of the
residual oil.
A short ballast leg or heavy weather can have
adverse effects on load-on-top operations by imped-
ing proper separation. Some loading ports, such as
Valdez, require that all cargo tank ballast and slop tank
contents be pumped ashore. In addition, some ships
are exempt from some ofthe requirements on the basis
that they trade between specific ports and discharge
ballast only to approved facilities at those ports.
Segregated ballast was required on all new tankers
over 20,000 dwt contracted after mid-1979. It was also
required on existing tankers after 1983 where crude
oil washing was not installed. Segregated ballast, of
course, minimized the need for clean ballast in cargo
tanks.
Tank Gauging Systems. At the time of World
War II, virtually all tank gauging and sampling was
done through the ullage opening in the hatch cover.
Custody transfer measurements were taken using a

DOWNWARDS _______
Fig. 3 Deck-mounted, programmable crude oil wash machine
(Butterworth Lav-O-Matic). An impeller at the inlet drives the
wash head in accordance with the adjustments made at the
gearbox. (From W. C. Cowles, Trans. SNAME, 1980.)
the 60 percent level, and one in the deck stand (above
the highest liquid level). The upper transducer meas-
ures the tank pressure. When loading is started, the
bottom transducer measures an approximate level based
on a specific gravity provided by the chief mate. After
the second sensor is covered, the computer calculates
the actual specific gravity and from that point the
ullage measurement is extremely accurate. Tonnage
information from this program can be loaded directly
into the ship's loading computer to obtain a continu-'
ous readout of shear force and bending moment.
TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 133
MAURICE GORDON graduated from Case Institute in
1970 with a degree in mechanical engineering. Following
eight years of tanker design experience with Bethlehem
Shipbuilding, he spent two years managing maintenance
and repairs for Atlantic Richfield and El Paso Marine.
Since 1980 he has been with the Exxon Shipping Company,
largely as a project engineer for new construction. In 1984
he was given the SNAME Linnard prize as co-author of the
best annual meeting paper (on specialty product ships). He
is a life member of SNAME, a fellow of the Institute of
Marine Engineers, a member of ASME, and a registered
Professional Engineer.