Sampletasktype6

Questions15 SamplePassage6hassixsectionsAF. ChoosethecorrectheadingforsectionsADandFfromthelistofheadingsbelow. Writethecorrectnumberiixinboxes15onyouranswersheet.

ListofHeadings i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix Theprobableeffectsofthenewinternationaltradeagreement Theenvironmentalimpactofmodernfarming Farmingandsoilerosion Theeffectsofgovernmentpolicyinrichcountries Governmentsandmanagementoftheenvironment Theeffectsofgovernmentpolicyinpoorcountries Farmingandfoodoutput Theeffectsofgovernmentpolicyonfoodoutput Thenewprospectsforworldtrade

1 2 3 4

SectionA SectionB SectionC SectionD

Example SectionE vi

SectionF

Sampletasktype6

SectionA
Theroleofgovernmentsinenvironmentalmanagementisdifficultbutinescapable.Sometimes, thestatetriestomanagetheresourcesitowns,anddoessobadly.Often,however, governmentsactinanevenmoreharmfulway.Theyactuallysubsidisetheexploitationand consumptionofnaturalresources.Awholerangeofpolicies,fromfarmpricesupportto protectionforcoalmining,doenvironmentaldamageand(often)makenoeconomicsense. Scrappingthemoffersatwofoldbonus:acleanerenvironmentandamoreefficienteconomy. Growthandenvironmentalismcanactuallygohandinhand,ifpoliticianshavethecourageto confrontthevestedinterestthatsubsidiescreate.

SectionB
Noactivityaffectsmoreoftheearth'ssurfacethanfarming. Itshapesathirdoftheplanet'sland area,notcountingAntarctica,andtheproportionisrising.Worldfoodoutputperheadhasrisen by4percentbetweenthe1970sand1980smainlyasaresultofincreasesinyieldsfromland alreadyincultivation,butalsobecausemorelandhasbeenbroughtundertheplough.Higher yieldshavebeenachievedbyincreasedirrigation,bettercropbreeding,andadoublinginthe useofpesticidesandchemicalfertilisersinthe1970sand1980s.

SectionC
Alltheseactivitiesmayhavedamagingenvironmentalimpacts.Forexample,landclearingfor agricultureisthelargestsinglecauseofdeforestationchemicalfertilisersandpesticidesmay contaminatewatersuppliesmoreintensivefarmingandtheabandonmentoffallowperiodstend toexacerbatesoilerosionandthespreadofmonocultureanduseofhighyieldingvarietiesof cropshavebeenaccompaniedbythedisappearanceofoldvarietiesoffoodplantswhichmight haveprovidedsomeinsuranceagainstpestsordiseasesinfuture.Soilerosionthreatensthe productivityoflandinbothrichandpoorcountries.TheUnitedStates,wherethemostcareful measurementshavebeendone,discoveredin1982thataboutonefifthofitsfarmlandwas losingtopsoilataratelikelytodiminishthesoil'sproductivity.Thecountrysubsequently embarkeduponaprogramtoconvert11percentofitscroppedlandtomeadoworforest. TopsoilinIndiaandChinaisvanishingmuchfasterthaninAmerica.

SectionD
Governmentpolicieshavefrequentlycompoundedtheenvironmentaldamagethatfarmingcan cause.Intherichcountries,subsidiesforgrowingcropsandpricesupportsforfarmoutput driveupthepriceofland.Theannualvalueofthesesubsidiesisimmense:about$250billion, ormorethanallWorldBanklendinginthe1980s.Toincreasetheoutputofcropsperacre,a farmer'seasiestoptionistousemoreofthemostreadilyavailableinputs:fertilisersand pesticides.FertiliserusedoubledinDenmarkintheperiod19601985andincreasedinThe Netherlandsby150percent.Thequantityofpesticidesappliedhasrisentoo:by69percentin 19751984inDenmark,forexample,withariseof115percentinthefrequencyofapplication inthethreeyearsfrom1981. Inthelate1980sandearly1990ssomeeffortsweremadetoreducefarmsubsidies.Themost dramaticexamplewasthatofNewZealand,whichscrappedmostfarmsupportin1984.A studyoftheenvironmentaleffects,conductedin1993,foundthattheendoffertilisersubsidies hadbeenfollowedbyafallinfertiliseruse(afallcompoundedbythedeclineinworld commodityprices,whichcutfarmincomes).Theremovalofsubsidiesalsostoppedland clearingandoverstocking,whichinthepasthadbeentheprincipalcausesoferosion.Farms begantodiversify.Theonekindofsubsidywhoseremovalappearedtohavebeenbadforthe environmentwasthesubsidytomanagesoilerosion.

Sampletasktype6

Inlessenlightenedcountries,andintheEuropeanUnion,thetrendhasbeentoreducerather thaneliminatesubsidies,andtointroducenewpaymentstoencouragefarmerstotreattheir landinenvironmentallyfriendlierways,ortoleaveitfallow.Itmaysoundstrangebutsuch paymentsneedtobehigherthantheexistingincentivesforfarmerstogrowfoodcrops. Farmers,however,dislikebeingpaidtodonothing.Inseveralcountriestheyhavebecome interestedinthepossibilityofusingfuelproducedfromcropresidueseitherasareplacement forpetrol(asethanol)orasfuelforpowerstations(asbiomass).Suchfuelsproducefarless carbondioxidethancoaloroil,andabsorbcarbondioxideastheygrow.Theyaretherefore lesslikelytocontributetothegreenhouseeffect.Buttheyarerarelycompetitivewithfossilfuels unlesssubsidisedandgrowingthemdoesnolessenvironmentalharmthanothercrops.

SectionE
Inpoorcountries,governmentsaggravateothersortsofdamage.Subsidiesforpesticidesand artificialfertilisersencouragefarmerstousegreaterquantitiesthanareneededtogetthe highesteconomiccropyield.AstudybytheInternationalRiceResearchInstituteofpesticide usebyfarmersinSouthEastAsiafoundthat,withpestresistantvarietiesofrice,even moderateapplicationsofpesticidefrequentlycostfarmersmorethantheysaved.Suchwaste putsfarmersonachemicaltreadmill:bugsandweedsbecomeresistanttopoisons,sonext year'spoisonsmustbemorelethal.Onecostistohumanhealth.Everyyearsome10,000 peoplediefrompesticidepoisoning,almostalloftheminthedevelopingcountries,andanother 400,000becomeseriouslyill.Asforartificialfertilisers,theiruseworldwideincreasedby40per centperunitoffarmedlandbetweenthemid1970sandlate1980s,mostlyinthedeveloping countries.Overuseoffertilisersmaycausefarmerstostoprotatingcropsorleavingtheirland fallow.That,inturn,maymakesoilerosionworse.

SectionF
AresultoftheUruguayRoundofworldtradenegotiationsislikelytobeareductionof36per centintheaveragelevelsoffarmsubsidiespaidbytherichcountriesin19861990.Someof theworld'sfoodproductionwillmovefromWesternEuropetoregionswheresubsidiesare lowerornonexistent,suchastheformercommunistcountriesandpartsofthedeveloping world.Someenvironmentalistsworryaboutthisoutcome.Itwillundoubtedlymeanmore pressuretoconvertnaturalhabitatintofarmland.Butitwillalsohavemanydesirable environmentaleffects.Theintensityoffarmingintherichworldshoulddecline,andtheuseof chemicalinputswilldiminish.Cropsaremorelikelytobegrownintheenvironmentstowhich theyarenaturallysuited.Andmorefarmersinpoorcountrieswillhavethemoneyandthe incentivetomanagetheirlandinwaysthataresustainableinthelongrun.Thatisimportant. Tofeedanincreasinglyhungryworld,farmersneedeveryincentivetousetheirsoilandwater effectivelyandefficiently.