Development of sustainable landfill practices and engineering landfill technology

Final report to the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (Grant reference GR/L 16149)

W Powrie A P Hudson R P Beaven

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ

February, 2000

Note: the format of this report is specified by EPSRC. The main body of the text is limited in length to six pages of typescript. Further details may be found in the papers listed in Appendix B, copies of which are available on request from Professor W Powrie.

Research Grant Title: Development of sustainable landfill practices and engineered landfill technology (GR/L 16149) Investigators and Institutions: W Powrie, A P Hudson, R P Beaven, C J Banks, D Montagnani and T W Tanton, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southampton; and J P Robinson, Queen Mary and Westfield College. Project carried out with additional funding from and in collaboration with Cleanaway Ltd. Summary: In recent years, the driving principle of landfill management has been to prevent saturation of the waste to minimize the likelihood of leachate leaking into the surrounding ground. This has resulted in very slow rates of waste degradation, with projected stabilization times of the order of hundreds of years. Degradation could in principle be accelerated by circulating fluids through the waste in a controlled manner, and operating the landfill as an engineered wet bioreactor. This approach is more consistent with the aims of a sustainable waste management policy than the entombment approach, which leaves landfilled wastes in a potentially polluting state for many generations. One of the main uncertainties concerning the practicality of operating a landfill as a controlled bioreactor is the hydraulic conductivity of the waste, because this governs the ease with which fluids may be introduced into and extracted from the landfill. The aim of the research described in this report was to develop an understanding of the factors controlling the hydraulic conductivity of landfilled wastes, in the context of the design and operation of a landfill as an engineered flushing bioreactor. The research consisted of three components: large scale experiments on samples of wastes, carried out at Cleanaway Ltds Pitsea landfill site in a purposebuilt compression cell; laboratory studies to investigate (a) the impact of leachate/liquid recirculation on waste degradation rates, (b) moisture content suction relationships for certain types of waste, and (c) the feasibility of monitoring changes in geotechnical and hydraulic properties, settlement and gas generation rates in samples of wastes during leachate/liquid recirculation under constant applied stress; and the development of simple models to enable the application of the results of the experimental work to the sustainable operation of landfills. A key factual output of the research has been the quantification of relationships between the drainable porosity and vertical stress, and between hydraulic conductivity and vertical stress, for samples of processed, unprocessed and aged household waste. On the basis of these data, and using simple analytical models developed to enable their application to problems in landfill operation, the following conclusions can be made. At depth, most wastes are likely to be approaching saturation even if they are free to drain under gravity. Although some differences in hydraulic conductivity between processed, unprocessed and aged household wastes were apparent, these are generally insignificant in comparison with the orders of magnitude change in hydraulic conductivity that results from waste compression. On unloading, very little of the deformation due to loading was recovered, and the hydraulic conductivity remained substantially unchanged. Thus the hydraulic conductivity of a waste is governed by the maximum equivalent vertical stress to which the waste has been subjected, so that the stress history or the density of the waste must be considered when assessing its hydrogeological and geotechnical properties. During compression, waste develops a layered structure. This results in a degree of anisotropy of hydraulic conductivity (expressed as the ratio Kh/Kv) that increases with increasing applied stress. Provided that the dependence of hydraulic conductivity on vertical stress and stress history is taken into account, calculations suggest that vertical infiltration rates comparable with achieving stabilization of the waste within a timescale of one generation can be achieved. Precompaction of the waste to densities greater than 0.9 1.1 t/m3, or placement of loose waste unsaturated to a depth in excess of about 40 m prior to saturation, would both prevent the required infiltration rate from being realised. Analyses of pumped vertical wells using a stress dependent hydraulic conductivity suggest that there will be little increase in flowrate for increases in drawdown in excess of about 33% of the initial saturated depth. Preliminary tests have demonstrated the importance of the interaction between gassing and leachate flow in terms of the pore volume available for liquid flow, and suggest that changes in gas production rate could affect the apparent leachate level measured in the field. This is a subject requiring further research. EPSRC grant and duration 231,226 over 36 months plus project studentship For further information please contact Professor W Powrie, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Southampton SO17 1BJ (tel. 023 80593214; fax 023 80677519; e-mail wp@soton.ac.uk)

1. BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES 1.1 Background In recent years, the driving principle of landfill management has been to prevent saturation of the waste to minimize the likelihood of leachate leaking into the surrounding ground. This has resulted in very slow rates of waste degradation, with projected stabilization times of the order of hundreds of years (e.g. Knox, 1990). Degradation could in principle be accelerated by circulating fluids through the waste in a controlled manner, and operating the landfill as an engineered wet bioreactor. This concept, which is espoused by Waste Management Paper 26B (DoE, 1995), offers significant economic and environmental benefits and is more consistent with the aims of a sustainable waste management policy than the entombment approach, which leaves landfilled wastes in a potentially polluting state for many generations. One of the main uncertainties concerning the practicality of operating a landfill as a controlled bioreactor is the hydraulic conductivity of the waste, because this governs the ease with which fluids may be introduced into and extracted from the landfill. This was the issue addressed by the research described in this report. 1.2 Aims and objectives The aim of the research was to develop an understanding of the factors controlling the hydraulic conductivity of landfilled wastes, in the context of the design and operation of a landfill as an engineered flushing bioreactor. As stated in the original case for support, these included the effects of waste composition, overburden pressure, microbial activity, degradation and two phase flow (gassing). However, a budget reduction of 100,000 from the 329,927 initially requested necessitated a reduction in the scope of the research. In the light of guidance received from the Waste and Pollution Management Programme Management Committee, the work on the effect of waste composition was deleted from the programme, and the work on the effects of waste degradation and gassing (two-phase flow) scaled down considerably. The objectives of the proposed research were revised from those given in the original case for support. The revised objectives were to quantify the effects of overburden pressure on the mechanical and hydraulic properties of different types of waste, and to carry out a preliminary assessment of the effects of microbial activity on the mechanical and hydraulic properties of wastes in the context of the operation of a landfill as an engineered wet bioreactor, as stated in a letter from Professor W Powrie (UoS) to Dr M Partridge (EPSRC) dated 18 April 1996. 2. PROGRAMME MANAGEMENT In addition to the EPSRC grant, the project was funded by a donation of 150,000 from Cleanaway Ltd under the Landfill Tax Credit Scheme. The research may conveniently be divided into three components: large scale experiments on samples of wastes, carried out at Cleanaway Ltds Pitsea landfill site in a purposebuilt compression cell; laboratory studies to investigate (a) the impact of leachate/liquid recirculation on waste degradation rates, (b) moisture content suction relationships for certain types of waste, and (c) the feasibility of monitoring changes in geotechnical and hydraulic properties, settlement and gas generation rates in samples of wastes during leachate/liquid recirculation under constant applied stress; and the development of simple models to enable the application of the results of the experimental work to the sustainable operation of landfills. The work using the Pitsea compression cell was carried out by Andrew Hudson, a Research Assistant funded by the EPSRC grant, under the supervision of Dr R P Beaven (Senior Research Fellow funded from the grant) and Professor W Powrie (Principal Investigator). The laboratory studies were carried out by (a) Daniele Montagnani, an EPSRC-funded project research student associated with this grant (supervised by Dr C J Banks); (b) Mansoor Imam, a research student funded by the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science and the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Southampton (supervised by Dr D J Richards); and (c) Lewis Parker, a research student at QMW (supervised by Professor J K White and Dr J P Robinson). The development of models for the application of the results to sustainable landfill practice was carried out by Professor W Powrie and Dr R P Beaven. The project was overseen by a steering group comprising: Professor W Powrie, University of Southampton; Dr R P Beaven, University of Southampton; Dr C J Banks, University of Southampton; Dr J P Robinson, QMW; Dr L de Rome, ETSU (for EPSRC); and Mr M J Dyer, Cleanaway Ltd.

Additional input and advice was provided on an ad hoc basis by Professors T W Tanton and J B Joseph. Early dissemination of the results has been achieved by means of papers published in the Sardinia International Landfill Conference, 1999 and the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers special issue on Landfill Engineering (October 1999); an article in Waste Management, (November 1998); presentations at seminars at the Nottingham Trent University (September 1998), University College London (January 1999), the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE), London (November 1999), the ICE South Wales Geotechnical Group, Swansea (November 1999), the University of Southampton (December 1999), and WRc leachate management workshops; and Dr Beaven and Professor Powries membership of the Institution of Wastes Management Working Group on Sustainable Landfill, which published its report in Spring 1999 A full list of papers and reports published to date is given in Appendix B. 3. DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH 3.1 The Pitsea compression cell: modifications, waste testing and new experimental techniques Most of the experimental research was carried out using the Pitsea compression cell. This is a purpose built apparatus for determining the hydrogeological and geotechnical properties of 2 m dia. samples of waste at stresses up to 600 kPa (Figure 1). The cell was originally used in research sponsored by the Waste Technical Division of the Department of the Environment and Cleanaway Ltd. To enhance the testing capabilities and improve the quality of the data, a number of major modifications were made to the cell and new testing protocols were developed as part of this research. New techniques for analysing experimental data from the Pitsea compression cell have also been developed, and applied to the results of both this research and earlier tests (Section 3.1). Two new wastes were tested in the Pitsea compression cell. Waste AG2 was a 20 year old (predominantly household) waste excavated from a landfill (Table 1). Waste DN1 was household waste that had been processed using the DANO technique (Table 2); it was selected as an example of a processed waste that had previously been used in field scale research in the Mid-Auchencarroch landfill (Wingfield-Hayes et al, 1997). Initially, it had been hoped that at least one other waste type would have been tested in the Pitsea compression cell. However, it was decided during the course of the research to investigate the properties of the wastes in unloading as well as loading, which increased considerably the duration of the testing programme for each waste. Data from earlier tests on crude household waste (DM2 and DM3 -Table 3), pulverised waste (PV1 and PV2 -Table 4) and an aged waste (AG1 -Table 5) were re-analysed and used together with the new results to develop theories and models concerning sustainable landfill (Section 3.3). 3.1.1 Building Enclosure An improved working environment and more controlled test conditions have been created by the construction of an enclosure to the building (Figure 2). This was financed by a contribution from Cleanaway Ltd through the landfill tax credit system. 3.1.2 Modifications to allow horizontal hydraulic conductivity to be measured To measure horizontal hydraulic conductivity in the compression cell, it was necessary to induce horizontal flow across the samples. This required the addition of eleven inlet ports and eleven diametrically opposite outlet ports to the compression cell wall. Extra piezometer monitoring ports were also added. To monitor the individual flow rates through each of the inlet ports, eleven small header tanks were constructed and mounted on the header tank scaffold tower (Figure 3). Inflatable seals were added around the perimeter of the top platen to prevent leakage through the clearance gap against the cylinder wall. 3.1.3 Modifications to monitor effects of degradation The construction of landfill gas collection facilities on the Pitsea compression cell and the provision of a sensitive load cell weighing system has allowed a preliminary assessment to be m ade of the effect of gas on the hydrogeological properties of waste, in particular on the drainable porosity and hydraulic conductivity. The displacement of gas from the waste by liquid flow was measured for a range of flow rates in upward, downward and horizontal flow. 3.1.4 Measurement of differential waste compression within the cell Load is applied to the upper surface of waste samples in the compression cell through a hydraulically operated platen. Sidewall friction between the cylinder walls and the waste causes a reduction with depth in the vertical

stress transmitted to the waste. This may result in differential compression of the sample, and hence a variation in hydrogeological properties with depth. A magnetic ring extensometer has been successfully installed and used to measure the pattern of waste compression within the cell (Figures 4 & 5). 3.1.5 Load Cells Accurate measurement of the weight of samples is necessary for density calculations, and for monitoring water and gas content. The existing equipment was unsatisfactory and had to be replaced. 3.1.6 Data interpretation and analysis of results from Pitsea compression cell A correction for the effect of sidewall friction has been developed (Powrie and Beaven, 1999), and data are now reported as functions of the average transmitted vertical stress. As direct measurement of the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of waste samples is not possible owing to the geometry of the compression cell, the USGS three dimensional groundwater flow model MODFLOW (in combination with Groundwater Vistas) was used to model the flow regime (e.g. Figure 6). Measured flow rates and leachate pressure heads within the waste were matched with computer analyses to obtain the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of samples at different vertical stresses (Hudson, Beaven and Powrie, 1999). 3.2 Laboratory based tests 3.2.1 Unsaturated suction curve characterisation Waste moisture characteristic curves were determined for samples of Dano processed waste using a filter paper contact method (ASTM D5298-92). 3.2.2 Effect of flushing rate on waste degradation The benefits of leachate treatment, either within or external to the landfill, and the effect of leachate recirculation or flushing rate on optimizing waste degradation were assessed in 1-litre, 21 day batch laboratory experiments on the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW). The initial biological methane potential (BMP) was used as a benchmark against which to assess the degradation of the waste. The effects of hydraulic retention time (experimental range 80 to 240 hours) and flushing medium (tap water, aerobically treated leachate and anaerobically treated leachate) on degradation were assessed by monitoring the change in total and volatile solids, the organic content (TOC, TON, VFA) of the flushing liquor and the quantity and composition of gas production. Larger scale experiments, to confirm the findings of the batch experiments, were carried out in 30-litre static bed upflow lysimeters packed with OFMSW and inert pore rings, which increased the porosity of the waste material allowing shorter hydraulic retention times (Figure 7). 3.2.3 Effect of degradation on properties of degrading solid waste A prototype laboratory scale anaerobic refuse digester has been built to measure the effects of waste degradation on the physical and hydrogeological properties of refuse whilst subjected to vertical effective stresses typical of those encountered in a landfill (Figure 8). The reactor chamber is an acrylic cylinder, 476mm in diameter and 900mm high providing a capacity of 160 litres. The chamber is placed within an Eland Engineering T413/2 loading frame, where it is subjected to a constant vertical stress while liquid is circulated through the waste. Instrumentation is incorporated to measure the following: pore water pressures and leachate recirculation rates reactor chamber temperature influent/effluent leachate chemistry gas production and composition waste density and settlement hydraulic conductivity drainable porosity The successful functioning of the cell and monitoring systems, and the feasibility of assessing the effects of degradation in this way, have been demonstrated using a 20 year old sample of waste (AG2). 3.3 Development and application of models for flow in landfills To start applying the results of the research to landfill operations, a number of analytical and numerical flow models taking into account the variation of hydraulic conductivity with effective stress have been developed: one dimensional vertical flow or infiltration was modelled using a finite difference method, with density and hydraulic conductivity dependent on the effective stress (Powrie and Beaven, 1999), closed form analytical solutions were d erived relating the discharge from a well to the drawdown in unconfined and confined aquifers where the hydraulic conductivity depends on the effective stress (Figure 9: Powrie and Beaven, 1999), and

the USGS three dimensional ground water flow model MODFLOW was modified to incorporate hydraulic conductivities that vary with effective stress. The model was verified against the simpler analytical and finite difference solutions above. It was then used to simulate more complex leachate flow problems, including the performance of a grid of leachate injection and abstraction wells (Figure 10: Beaven and Powrie, 1999).

4. MAJOR RESULTS AND FINDINGS 4.1 Waste density and water content Figure 11 shows the dry density as a function of effective stress for the different wastes tested. The sample with the highest dry density was the 20 year old aged waste excavated from a landfill site. This is consistent with the large proportion of soil type material (represented by the <10mm fine category in Tables 1 and 5) in the 20 year old wastes (AG2 and AG1). The material with the lowest dry density was the pulverised waste (PV1 and PV2), as the processing removed all material retained on a 50 mm screen prior to the waste being pulverised (Table 4). The initial water content of the crude and processed household wastes was considerably lower than the water content at field capacity at low effective stresses and low densities. For example, household waste (DM3) had an initial water content of 51% compared with a water content at field capacity of 101% at an average effective stress of 34 kPa. This indicates that the material had capacity to absorb water without producing free draining leachate. However, as the effective stress and waste density increases, both the water content at field capacity (Figure 12) and the ability of the waste to absorb water decrease. An indication of the likely bulk density of wastes at different stresses may be obtained by combining the data of dry density and water content at field capacity. Figure 13 shows data for household waste DM3. The probable density range is indicated by the shaded area: the upper limit corresponds to the water content at field capacity and the lower limit to the original (as deposited) water content. 4.2 Drainable porosity Drainable porosity is a measure of the volume of water that will drain from a fully saturated material under the influence of gravity. All samples tested showed a very rapid reduction in drainable porosity with increasing stress, from 10-15% at an effective stress of 50 kPa to less than 2% at stresses above about 150 kPa (Figure 14). Preliminary assessments have indicated that the production of landfill gas, as a consequence of waste degradation from within the saturated zone, can result in leachate being dis placed from some of the pores otherwise occupied by leachate in fully saturated conditions. For example, following the saturation of waste DN1 at an applied stress of 40 kPa and the measurement of a drainable porosity of 15%, gas production within the sample reduced the volume of leachate held in drainable pores to approximately 3.7% over a period of 12 days (Figure 15). Gas production over this period averaged 568 l/day, equivalent to approximately 50 m3/t.a. This is 2 3 times the maximum production rate (of 20 m /t.a) achieved in the Brogborough landfill accelerated degradation field scale trials (Knox, 1996) and indicates that gas production could have a significant effect on leachate levels in gassing sites. The flow of leachate through waste containing a mixture of leachate and gas in drainable voids resulted in the displacement of gas from these pores. This occurred during upward, downward and horizontal flushing. Figure 16 shows the effect of upward flushing through waste DN1 at an applied stress of 40 kPa with a range of flow rates from 8x10-4 m/s to 4x10-3 m/s. Higher flushing rates resulted in more landfill gas being displaced from drainable voids. 4.3 Hydraulic conductivity All wastes tested exhibited a very rapid reduction in vertical hydraulic conductivity with increasing effective stress (Figure 17). At low effective stresses all wastes had relatively high hydraulic conductivities, comparable with sands. However, at high effective stresses hydraulic conductivities reduced to values more comp arable with silty clays. Although there were some differences in hydraulic conductivity between the various wastes tested, these were insignificant compared with the effect of an increase in effective stress (Powrie and Beaven, 1999). An anisotropy in hydraulic conductivity was measured for sample AG2, with the ratio Kh/Kv increasing from 2 at a vertical effective stress of 40 kPa to approximately 5 at a stress of 600 kPa (Figure 18). The Dano waste (DN1) appears to exhibit a greater degree of anisotropy, with a ratio of Kh/Kv between 8 and 10 at 40-87 kPa. 4.4 Properties on unloading The effect of reducing effective stress on the physical and hydrogeological properties of wastes AG2 and DN1 was investigated because of its potential significance in the context of landfill operations (see section 5). The constrained modulus (one-dimensional stiffness) of both wastes was considerably greater during unloading than during increases in applied load (Tables 6 & 7). In waste DN1, readings from the magnetic extensometer indicated small movements in the waste as a result of reductions in effective stress either from a reduction in the applied

load, or from increases in the pore water pressure. However, no significant changes in drainable porosity or hydraulic conductivity were detected when the effective stress was reduced. The implication of this is that fluid flow in landfills will be predominantly controlled by the maximum previous effective stress to which the waste has been subjected. Any loading process, such as placement of the waste in an unsaturated state or dewatering by pumping from a vertical well, will probably cause an irreversible reduction in hydraulic conductivity. 4.5 Waste particle density and effective stress theory The results of the tests undert aken in the compression cell suggest that the waste particles undergo significant changes in density as the overburden stress is increased (Table 8). This is in contrast to some of the theories used in conventional soil mechanics, in which the particles are assumed to be incompressible. On the basis of the data in Table 8 for raw household refuse at 120 kPa and above, the effective stress for calculations of volume change would be ' = - A.u w, where A lies in the range 0.19 to 0.57 (Powrie, Beaven and Harkness, 1999). In general terms, the applicability of the principle of effective stress to landfilled wastes remains a subject requiring further research. 4.6 Unsaturated waste characteristics Figure 19 shows the relationship between suction and water content for the Dano processed waste at an average bulk density of 700 kg/m3. These data will be essential to any future modelling of flow in the unsaturated zone. 4.7 Effect of flushing rate on waste degradation The batch scale experiments on the degradation of OFMSW showed that solids destruction increased as the flushing rate increased and HRT reduced (Figure 20). The greatest amount of solid destruction were achieved with a tap water flush, and the lowest with anaerobically treated leachate. The formation of volatile fatty acid (VFA) was stimulated by higher flushing rates and is a reflection of the greater solids destruction. Gas production from the batch reactors depended on the available soluble substrate concentration, and is shown for the various recirculation systems in Figure 21 (a-d). Gas production in reactors operating at reduced flushing rates (HRTs of 240 and 504 hours) was impeded due to the inhibition of substrate hydrolysis as a result of an accumulation of VFA and/or a lowered pH. Gas production was also impeded in reactors operating at high flushing rates with deionised water, due to the washing out of essential ions and poor buffering. The larger scale experiments generally confirmed the findings of the smaller experiments. A summary of typical results is given in Table 9, which indicates a substantial increase in degradation on flushing with tap water, although there was no additional benefit from increasing the flushing rate to give a hydraulic retention time of less than 4 days. Flushing with untreated leachate significantly reduced the amount of solids destruction. The work has increased our understanding of how the flushing medium influences degradation, and has shown quite clearly the beneficial effects of VFA removal in a leachate recirculation system. 5. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS FOR ENGINEERING PRACTICE 5.1 Maximum vertical infiltration rates through landfills A key constraint on the viability of the flushing bioreactor as a sustainable landfill is the rate at which flushing can take place. A one dimensional flow model incorporating empirical relations between waste density and effective stress (e.g. Figure 13) and hydraulic conductivity and effective stress (e.g. Figure 17) was developed to examine maximum infiltration rates through landfills of various depths with different initial waste densities (Powrie and Beaven, 1999). These flow rates were related to the minimum required to flush the pollution load from landfills over a 30 year period, which is consistent with the definition of a sustainable landfill as one that is approaching equilibrium with the surrounding environment within a period of one generation from cessation of landfilling activities (e.g. IWM, 1999). Greater flushing rates are achieved through saturated than unsaturated waste. Landfill depths would need to be less than approximately 20 m to achieve the necessary flushing rates through unsaturated wastes and less than approximately 40 m through saturated waste, if it is assumed that hydraulic conductivity is governed by the effective stresses applied during placement of the waste in an unsaturated state. If the waste is placed saturated, there is virtually no limit on landfill depth to achieve the required flushing rate (Figure 22). Pre-compaction of waste at the tipping face can also affect possible flushing rates (Figure 23): in general waste should not be compacted to densities greater than between 0.9 and 1.1 t/m3. 5.2 Flow to a pumped leachate well Flowrate-drawdown curves for pumped wells in confined and unconfined aquifers whose hydraulic conductivity varies with effective stress are shown in Figure 24. The unconfined aquifer analysis (Figure 24b) is more representative of field conditions at many landfills. The specific capacity (i.e. the flow rate per unit drawdown) decreases with increasing drawdown. The flowrate increases with drawdown, but there is little increase in flowrate

for increases in drawdown in excess of about 33% of the initial saturated depth. This is an important result that has significant operational implications for the pumping of leachate from wells on landfills. 5.3 Leachate flushing using a well field MODFLOW was used to investigate the feasibility of using vertical wells to flush waste horizontally in a 30 metre deep landfill with a 20 metre confined saturated zone. With a grid spacing of 20 metres, the model (Figure 25) calculated a steady state pumping and injection rate of 4.3 m3/day based on a fixed hydraulic conductivity profile related to the stress distribution in unsaturated waste. This pumping rate is theoretically sufficient to flush and remove contaminants from all areas of the waste between the wells in approximately 30 years. The flow or flushing rate at the top of the saturated layer is approximately 20 times the rate at the bottom (Figure 26). If Kh is increased relative to Kv (Figure 18) then the pumping rate is increased and the ratio of the flowrates at the top and bottom is reduced to 8. Nevertheless, flushing strategies involving vertical wells will probably require the targeting by discrete well response zones of different horizons in the waste. 6. PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS Relationships between the drainable porosity and vertical stress have been quantified for a number of wastes. At depth, most wastes are likely to be approaching saturation even if free to drain under gravity. Relationships between hydraulic conductivity and vertical stress in first compression have also been determined. Although some differences in hydraulic conductivity between processed, unprocessed and aged household wastes were apparent, these are generally insignificant in comparison with the orders of magnitude change in hydraulic conductivity that results from waste compression. On unloading, very little of the deformation caused by loading was recovered, and the hydraulic conductivity and drainable porosity remained substantially unchanged. This suggests that the hydraulic conductivity of a waste is governed by the maximum equivalent vertical stress to which the waste has been subjected, so that the stress history or the density of the waste must be considered when assessing its hydrogeological and geotechnical properties. During compression, waste develops a layered structure which results in an anisotropy of hydraulic conductivity. The degree of anisotropy, expressed as the ratio K /Kv, increases with increasing applied h stress. Provided that the dependence of hydraulic conductivity on vertical stress and stress history is taken into account, calculations suggest that vertical infiltration rates comparable with achieving stabilization of the waste within a timescale of one generation can be achieved. Precompaction of the waste to densities greater than 0.9 - 1.1 t/m3, or placement of loose waste unsaturated to a depth in excess of about 40 m prior to saturation, would both prevent the required infiltration rate from being achieved. Analyses of pumped vertical wells using a stress dependent hydraulic conductivity suggest that there will be little increase in flowrate for increases in drawdown in excess of about 33% of the initial saturated depth. If arrays of vertical wells are used for horizontal flushing, the tendency for preferential flow through the upper saturated layers will need to be addressed. Preliminary tests have demonstrated the potential importance of the interaction between gassing and leachate flow in terms of the pore volume available for liquid flow, and suggest that changes in gas production rate could affect the apparent leachate level measured in the field. This is a subject requiring further research. 7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research summarized in this report was carried out with the support of the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), with an additional financial contribution from Cleanaway Ltd.

Figure 1

Pitsea compression cell prior to modifications

Figure 2

New enclosure to Pitsea compression cell

Figure 3

Configuration of horizontal hydraulic conductivity tests

Piezometer tubes inserted in sample at various positions

Header tanks

Piezometric head

New Seals
Supply Tank

Top platen

Top platen outlets (isolated)

Gravel layer Flow Inlet Ports

Outlets

Waste Sample

To measuring cylinder

Inlet Valves Isolated ports Gravel layer Seal Bottom platen outlets (isolated)

Cylinder

Figure 4 Magnet and extensometer method of measuring sample movement

Pointer fixed to framework Graduated tape Water & gas tight seal Unclamped to allow platen movement Part of strengthening framework 12 holes through top platen with flanged extension tubes 3 way valve mounted on top for either: * Outflow to reservoir tank * Outflow to gas collection tank * Inflow from header tanks * Isolated Plastic tube - 3m long Bottom of tube sealed and resting on bottom platen

Valve stems

Fabricated retaining rings for seals

Inflatable seals(3 off)

Top Platen - Dia 1990mm Connected to hydraulic rams for application of load to waste

Clearance Gap (5mm nominal) Gravel layer - for water distribution or removal Waste cylinder (ID2000mm) - fixed position Waste sample - forced downwards by applied load

Dividing Ring - 1400mm dia x 150mm deep Creates an inner and outer core in the sample for assessing preferential flow paths

Extensometer - lowered into tube. Magnet position indicated with buzzer and warning light

Magnet & plate Sample movement causes magnet to slide on tube

Figure 5 Magnet displacement in waste DN1 between 0 and 87kPa illustrating uniform compression

800 Downnrd displacement relative to position at 0kPa (mm)

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Elevation above base of waste (mm) - end of 87kPa Magnet positions end of 40kPa Magnet positions Uniform compression (40kPa) Uniform compression (87kPa)

Figure 6 Typical MODFLOW simulation to determine Kh

West Cross-Section along Row 29 East

Top Gravel layer

470 490

Constant head squares simulating outflow through the upper platen.

7 60 0 65 630

Inlet Port constant head cells

590

530

570

550 530 510

Bottom Gravel layer

0 1 6

490 470

510

510
550

570

No flow squares (light grey) denoting outside wall of cylinder

530

510

59 0

Pressure head contours (cm AD): asymmetry reflecting lower hydraulic conductivity at the top of the waste

Outlet Port constant head cells

Constant head squares simulating outflow through the bottom platen. Model calibrated against measured input and output flow rates and head

Figure 7

Process diagram for ... dan's work

10

Figure 8

Anaerobic consolidation reactor

11

Figure 9 Ideal (a) confined and (b) unconfined aquifer analyses of flow to a well where K=f(')
a) Confined rw

r0

1
Confining layer

D (=20m)

H (=20m) hw
Flow to well

D (=10m)

b) Unconfined

(1+)D (=30m)

1
H, D (=20m) hw
Flow to well

In both analyses ln(ro /rw)=8 and the unit weight of saturated and unsaturated waste = 11 kN/m3

Figure 10
Elevation
West

MODFLOW grid design to simulate operation of injection and abstraction wells

East Layer Numbers

10m

No flow boundary cells

2

20m

11

21

Plan
5 5 10 15

Columns
20 25 30 35

Constant head boundary cells (at each corner of the grid) represent head in 1/4 of either pumped or injection well

10

Well 2

Well 3

15

20.2m

Rows

20

25

Well 1

Well 4

30 35

20.2m

12

Figure 11 1 0.9 0.8 Dry density (t/m3) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Dry density vs effective stress

100

200

300

400

500

Average effective stress (kPa) Household waste DM3 Household waste DM2 Processed waste PV1 Processed waste PV2 Dano waste DN1 Aged waste AG1 Aged waste AG2

Figure 12

Water content at field capacity of crude household waste vs effective stress

110 100 90 WCdry(%) 80 70 60 50 40 0 100 200 300 Av. Stress (kPa) 400

Absorptive Capacity (between lines)

Household waste 3 at Field Capacity

Original Water Content

13

Figure 13
1.2 1.1 1 0.9 Density (t/m3) 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0

Average density of Household Waste vs effective stress

sat = 0.6691.( ') 0.0899

Bulk density range of unsaturated wastes

FC = 0.448.(') 0.1563

= 0.236.(') 0.248

dry = 0.1554.( ') 0.248

100

200

300

400

500

600

Av. vertical stress in waste (kPa) Dry density of DM2 and DM3 Saturated density Density at Field Capacity Density at original water content Power (Density at Field Capacity) Power (Density at original water content)

Figure 14 25

Average drainable porosity vs effective stress

20 Drainable porosity (%)

15

10

0 0 100 200 300 Average effective stress (kPa) Household waste DM2 Aged waste AG1 400 500

Household waste DM3 Processed waste PV2 Dano waste DN1

Processed waste PV1 Aged waste AG2

14

Figure 15
800

Effect of waste degradation and landfill gas production on the proportion of leachate occupying drainable porosity voids
7000

Leachate occupied
700

drainable porosity = 0%

Leachate flushing event at Q=1.5 l/s

6000

600

Leachate flushing Leachate occupied drainable porosity = 5%

Accumulated gas volume (litres)

event at Q=1.5 l/s

5000

Volume of gas in waste (litres)

500

Leachate flushing
400

4000

event at Q=1.5 l/s

3000

300

Leachate occupied drainable porosity =10%

200 2000

100

Leachate occupied drainable porosity = 15%

1000

0 0 2 4 6 Time(days) Volume of gas in waste (based on load cell readings and volume of leachate displaced) Volume of gas vented to atmosphere by sample 8 10 12

Figure 16
16

Effect of leachate movement on leachate and gas occupation of drainable voids in waste DN1 at 40 kPa: upward flushing

14

Leachate occupied drainable voids (%)

12

Increasing time of flushing

10

Increasing time
6

of flushing

Increasing time
4

of flushing

0 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003 0.0035 0.004 0.0045

Average linear flow velocity based on liquid filled voids (m/s) Leachate occupied drainable voids Drainable porosity (100% leachate saturation)

15

Figure 17
1.E-03

Hydraulic conductivity vs stress

1.E-04 Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)

K (m/s) = 10(') -3.1 (approx best fit line)

1.E-05

1.E-06

1.E-07

K (m/s) = 80(') -3.63

(approx fit based on worst case hydraulic conductivity)

1.E-08

1.E-09 10.0

100.0 Av. vertical stress (kPa)

DM3 DN1 PV1 Series2 AG1 Series4 AG2

1000.0

Figure 18

Anisotropy in hydraulic conductivity

5 4
Kh / Kv

3 2 1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Applied Stress (kPa)

16

Figure 19

Dano waste moisture characteristic curve

100000

Suction (kPa)

10000

1000 0 10 20 30 Moisture content (w) % Dry Weight basis 40 50 60

Figure 20

OFMSW total solids destruction in 1 litre anaerobic digestion vessels operating variable hydraulic retention times and flushing with different liquors, operated over a 21 day time period.

60.00

50.00

Solids destruction (%)

40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00 0 100 200 300 Hydraulic Retention Time (hrs) tap water aerobic treatment anaerobic treatment de-ionized water 400 500 600

17

Figure 21

a)
6000

Cumulative bi ogas production for anaerobic bioreactors with hydraulic retention time of a) 80 hrs; b) 120 hrs; c) 240 hrs; and 504 hrs. Flush liquors: tap water; de-ionized water; leachate after secondary anaerobic treatment; leachate after secondary aerobic treatment b)
6000

5000 5000

biogas produced (ml)

4000 4000

3000

biogas (ml) 100.00 200.00 300.00 time (hrs) Anaerobic Secondary Treatment Deionized Water Flush Aerobic Secondary Treatment Tap Water Flush 400.00 500.00 600.00

3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0.00

0 0.00

100.00

200.00

300.00 time (hrs)

400.00

500.00

600.00

Anaerobic Secondary Treatment

Deionized Water Flush

Aerobic Secondary Treatment

Tap Water Flush

c)
4500 4000

d)
3500

3000

3500
2500

3000

biogas (ml)

2000

biogas (ml)

2500

2000

1500

1500
1000

1000
500

500
0

0 0.00

0.00

100.00

200.00

300.00 time (hrs)

400.00

500.00

600.00

100.00

200.00

300.00 time (hrs)

400.00

500.00

600.00
Anaerobic Secondary Treatment

Deionized Water Flush

Aerobic Secondary Treatment

Tap Water Flush

Anaerobic Secondary Treatment

Deionized Water Flush

Aerobic Secondary Treatment

Tap Water Flush

Figure 22
1000

Maximum vertical infiltration rate against landfill depth

Max. Infiltration rate (m/a)

100

10

0.1 0 10 20 30 Landfill depth (m) 40 50 60

Variable K Constant K based on stress at base of landfill Minimum required flushing rate

19

Figure 23

Infiltration rate for a) K=2.1(')-2.71 (best fit line on Fig. 15 for waste DM3); and b) K=17(')-3.26 (worst case line on Fig. 15 for waste DM3) against landfill depth for various precompacted waste densities 10 1 0.1 0.01

a)
Max. infiltration rate (m/d)

0.001 0.0001 0 10 20 30 Landfill depth (m) Min. flushing rate 0.9 Mg/m3 No pre-compaction 1.0 Mg/m3 0.5 Mg/m3 1.1 Mg/m3 0.75 Mg/m3 1.2 Mg/m3 40 50 60

b)
Max. infiltration rate (m/d)

10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0 10 20 30 Landfill depth (m) Min. flushing rate 0.9 Mg/m3 No pre-compaction 1.0 Mg/m3 0.5 Mg/m3 1.1 Mg/m3 0.75 Mg/m3 1.2 Mg/m3 40 50 60

All waste densities at a water content (WCdry ) of 51.5% (assumed WC of waste as deposited)

20

Figure 24

Relationship between discharge rate and drawdown for approximate ideal (a) confined and (b) unconfined aquifer analyses in which the hydraulic conductivity varies with drawdown according to K=2.1(')-2.71 (best fit line on Fig. 15 for waste DM3).

a)

3.5E-04 3.0E-04

Flowrate (m3/s)

2.5E-04 2.0E-04 1.5E-04 1.0E-04 5.0E-05 0.0E+00 0 2 Variable K 4 6 8 10

Drawdown (m) Constant K ( 4.09x10-6 m/s)

b) 7.0E-04 6.0E-04 Flowrate (m3/s) 5.0E-04 4.0E-04 3.0E-04 2.0E-04 1.0E-04 0.0E+00 0 Variable K 5 10 Drawdown (m) 15 20

Constant K (4.09x10-6 m/s)

21

Figure 25

Head distribution for injection wells and abstraction wells on parallel grid, with hydraulic conductivity based on unsaturated stress distribution.

Figure 26

Variation of well discharge / injection rate with depth

Flow rate per linear metre of well (m 3/day) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

10 12 14 16 Depth (m) 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Pumped / Injection well: Kh=Kv Pumped / Injection well: Kh=2-5Kv Average pumped/ injection rate = 68.1 m3 /day per well Average pumped/ injection rate = 4.3 m3/day per well

22

Table 1. Size and category analysis of waste AG2 Size mm -120+80 -80+40 -40+20 -20+10 -10 Total Weight % 3.1 11.1 11.3 6.5 68.0 100.0 Pa/Cd 5.7 2.6 0.9 PF 4.5 7.5 9.6 4.1 2.3 Dp 4.7 3.1 4.9 5.2 1.4 Tx 1.5 5.5 4.0 1.1 Mc 21.2 24.1 29.7 12.4 7.5 Mnc 0.3 15.7 26.7 58.8 8.6 Gl 3.4 7.4 15.5 2.2 Fe 55.8 30.6 10.3 4.1 6.6 nFe 0.4 0.1 Soil 12.0 4.0 5.0 1.4 <10

Water content (WCwet) of refuse = 40.1%

100 68. 0 See Table 5 for key to waste categories

Table 2. Size and category analysis of waste DN1 Size mm Weight % Pa/Cd PF +165 9.1 70.7 10.1 -165+80 39.4 62.1 12.3 -80+40 16.4 49.0 9.8 -40+20 8.2 36.2 5.8 -20+10 2.1 16.7 -10 24.7 Total 100.0 42.3 7.9 Water content (WCwet) of refuse = 32.5% Dp 5.1 8.9 5.8 4.2 5.3 Tx 9.1 4.5 3.2 2.1 8.3 3.5 Mc 6.6 11.7 4.9 4.9 Mnc 0.1 5.6 6.1 25.0 2.0 Gl Fe nFe Soil <10 3.0 1.5 0.5 0.6 3.4 0.9 0.7 7.1 3.7 1.8 2.3 26.2 1.3 0.9 12.4 33.3 16.7 100 4.5 2.2 0.8 2.0 24.7 See Table 5 for key to waste categories

Table 3 Size and category analysis of waste DM3 Size mm Weight % Pa/Cd PF +160 39.0 62.7 4.0 -160+80 26.4 35.4 6.8 -80+40 15.2 30.2 6.3 -40+20 10.0 1.8 0.7 -20+10 4.5 6.0 0.2 -10 4.9 Total 100.0 39.8 4.4 Water content (WCwet) of refuse = 34% Dp 7.1 7.5 8.4 3.4 1.5 6.4 Tx 10.5 4.4 1.3 0.8 5.5 Mc 14.0 18.5 5.3 4.2 5.6 11.8 Mnc 1.3 5.0 10.9 5.6 2.4 Gl Put Fe nFe <10 0.8 0.7 7.0 9.3 7.7 2.1 9.2 25.8 5.4 3.2 21.6 44.2 1.1 1.2 27.8 52.9 0.5 100.0 7.0 13.2 3.2 1.2 4.9 See Table 5 for key to waste categories

Table 4. Size and category analysis of waste PV1 & PV2 Size mm Weight % Pa/Cd PF +160 7.7 29.2 28.6 -160+80 34.1 40.2 12.0 -80+40 34.4 56.2 5.3 -40+20 13.3 76.9 1.2 -20+10 5.2 65.4 0.5 -10 5.2 Total 100.0 49.0 8.3 Water content (WCwet) of refuse = 28.8% Dp 8.7 12.0 7.0 2.9 4.6 7.8 Tx 29.0 3.6 6.5 0.2 5.7 Mc 4.1 6.8 3.6 4.3 2.8 4.6 Mnc 1.6 1.4 6.9 1.1 Gl Put Fe nFe <10 0.3 0.3 23.4 1.7 15.0 2.1 2.8 6.8 5.3 1.0 6.9 9.2 2.8 0.9 100 1.3 6.5 9.0 1.6 5.2 See Table 5 for key to waste categories

23

Table 5. Size and category analysis of waste AG1 Size mm Weight % Pa/Cd PF +160 6.3 7.0 16.7 -160+80 10.8 26.7 8.8 -80+40 16.7 33.0 3.6 -40+20 18.1 19.9 1.4 -20+10 14.2 9.0 0.8 -10 33.9 Total 100.0 13.7 3.0 Water content (WCwet) of refuse = 41.6% Key Pa/Cd PF DP Tx Dp 2.2 5.6 3.6 2.1 0.7 1.8 Tx 4.2 3.7 0.8 0.0 0.8 Mc 45.2 32.9 9.8 5.9 3.1 9.5 Mnc 7.6 46 2.5 5.7 2.5 Gl 0.5 8.8 12.3 16.1 10.6 7.5 Put 2.9 1.3 24.0 50.3 69.9 23.3 Fe 13.9 12.2 8.4 1.8 3.9 nFe 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.1 <10 100 33.9

Paper and card Plastic Film Dense plastics Textiles

Mc Mnc Gl Put

Miscellaneous combustibles Misc non combustibles Glass Putrescibles

Fe nFe <10

Ferrous metal Non ferrous metal Material <10mm size

Table 6. The constrained modulus of waste AG2 Stage Applied load increment Average stress increment Increase in effective stress v kPa 34 32.3 55.5 115.5 213.5 -72 -128 -88 Average effective stress in stage1 v(av) kPa 17 50.2 94.1 179.6 344 414 314 206 Thickness of waste at start of stage t mm 2329 1945 1778 1623 1480 1,372 1,356 1382 Compression of waste during stage mm 292 127 124 131.4 103.6 -3.7 -6.0 -6.1 Constrained modulus = v.t/ Mo kPa 271 495 796 1426 3050 26,702 29353 19,936

kPa kPa 1 0-40 0-34 2 40-87 34-66.3 3 87-165 66.3-121.8 4 165-322 121.8-237.3 5 322-603 237.3-450.8 R1 603-322 451-378 R2 322-165 378-250 R3 165-87 250-162 1 Includes self weight of sample

Table 7. The constrained modulus of waste DN1 Stage Applied load increment Average stress increment Increase in effective stress v kPa 32.3 -32.3 32.3 36.3 -68.6 Average effective stress in stage1 v(av) kPa 16.2 16.2 16.2 50.5 34.3 Thickness of waste at start of stage t mm 2239 1715 1742 1627 1437 Compression of waste during stage mm 524 -27 36 182 -35 Constrained modulus = v.t/ Mo kPa 138 2,025 1,563 325 2,817

kPa kPa 1a 0-40 0-32.3 R1 40-0 32.3-0 1b 0-40 0-32.3 2 40-87 32.3-68.6 R2 87-0 68.6-0 1 Includes self weight of sample

24

Table 8 Variation in particle density, particle compressibility and waste compressibility with applied stress Average stress at end of stage, kPa Average particle density, t/m3 Average particle compressibility, MPa-1 Overall compressibility of waste, MPa-1 a) Raw household waste DM3 Average stress at end of stage, kPa Average particle density, t/m3 Average particle compressibility, MPa-1 Overall compressibility of waste, MPa-1 b) Pulverized household waste PV1 Average stress at end of stage, kPa Average particle density, t/m3 Average particle compressibility, MPa-1 Overall compressibility of waste, MPa-1 c) Aged household waste AG1 34 0.88 7.45 65 0.97 5.38* 3.75 120 1.02 1.62 3.76 241 1.17 1.85 2.30 463 1.30 0.81 1.07

35 0.59 7.29

68 0.68 6.60* 6.18

127 0.72 1.65 4.12

253 0.78 1.11 1.45

486 0.93 1.22* 0.87

35 1.64 7.38

67 1.62 -0.67* 3.85

123 1.64 0.36 2.91

239 1.69 0.49 1.57

458 1.86 0.73* 0.66

* It is not possible for the average compressibility of the particles to be greater than the overall compressibility of the waste, and unlikely that it is negative. These values must therefore be in error to some extent.

Table 9

Summary of total solids and total volatile solids destroyed in 30 litre SBAFB (Static Bed Anaerobic Flushing Bioreactor) system.

Substrate: 60 : 40 mixed paper : food waste Reactor mode of operation HRT 24 hrs - untreated leachate HRT 24 hrs - clean tap water HRT 48 hrs - clean tap water HRT 96 hrs - clean tap water HRT - hydraulic retention time TS - total solids

BMP: 0.546 m3 CH4 / Kg TS destroyed % TS destroyed % TVS destroyed 6.49 3.92 43.92 42.58 41.68 40.55 45.59 47.43 BMP - biological methane potential TVS - total volatile solids

25

APPENDIX A References ASTM D 5298-92 Standard test method for measurement of soil potential (suction) using filter paper Committee D-18 on soil and rock. Approved September 15 1992, Published November 1992, Designated as D 5298-92 DoE (1994) National Household Waste Analysis Project - Phase 2 Volume 1 Report on composition and weight data Report No CWM 082/94 produced for the Waste Technical Division of the Department of the Environment under Research Contract PECD 7/10/288 by Warren Spring Laboratory and Aspinwall & Co. DoE (1995) Landfill design construction and operational practice Waste Management Paper 26B. HMSO, London 289pp Knox, K. (1990) The relationship between leachate and gas Proc. of the International conference on Landfill Gas: Energy and Environment. ISBN 0-7058-1628-1. Knox, K. (1996) A review of the Brogborough and Landfill 2000 test cells monitoring data. Final report for the Environment Agency R&D Technical Report P231. 113pp. Wingfield-Hayes, C., Fleming, G. and Gronow, J. (1997) Field trials of waste manipulation techniques: the Mid-Auchencarroch experimental landfill Proc. 6th International Sardinia Landfill Symposium. S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy. Vol I pp 311-322. October 1997

APPENDIX B Publications arising directly from this research Beaven, R.P. (1997). Hydraulic and Engineering Properties of Household Waste Proceedings of the IBC conference on "Designing and Managing Sustainable Landfill". 26-27 February. Scientific Societies Lecture Theatre. London Beaven, R.P. (1997). Is accelerated stabilisation achievable? Paper presented at the IWM 1997 annual conference - Torbay 10 June. Beaven, R.P. (2000). The hydrogeological and geotechnical properties of household waste in relation to sustainable landfilling PhD Dissertation, University of London. Beaven, R.P. and Powrie, W. (1996). Determination of the Hydrogeological and Geotechnical Properties of Refuse in relation to Sustainable Landfilling. Paper presented at the Nineteenth International Madison Waste Conference, September 25-26, 1996, Department of Engineering Professional Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison. USA. Beaven, R.P. and Powrie, W. (1999) Analysis of waste flushing and flow to wells using MODFLOW and an effective stress dependent hydraulic conductivity Proceedings Sardinia 99, Seventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy; 4-8 October 1999. Vol II pp 33-41. Hudson, A.P., Beaven, R.P. and Powrie, W. (1999) Measurement of the hydraulic conductivity of household waste in a large scale compression cell Proceedings Sardinia 99, Seventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy; 4-8 October 1999. Vol III pp 461-468. IWM (1999) The role and operation of the flushing bioreactor Report of the Institute of Wastes Management Sustainable Landfill Working Group. Pub. IWM Business Services Ltd.

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Knox, K. (1996) A review of the Brogborough and Landfill 2000 test cells monitoring data. Final report for the Environment Agency Technical Report P231 Parker, L.P., White, J.K. and Powrie, W (1999) The measurement of the geotechnical and hydrogeological properties of degrading solid waste Proceedings Sardinia 99, Seventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy; 4-8 October 1999. Vol III pp 469-478. Powrie, W. and Beaven, R.P. (1998) Hydraulic conductivity of waste - current research and implications for leachate management Waste Management November 1998 pp22-23. Powrie, W. and Beaven, R.P. (1999) The hydraulic properties of household waste and implications for landfills Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Geotechnical Engineering, Vol 137, Oct 1999, pp235247. Powrie, W., Beaven, R.P. and Harkness. (1999). Applicability of soil mechanics principles to household waste Proceedings Sardinia 99, Seventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy; 4-8 October 1999. Vol III, pp429-436. Powrie, W., Richards, D. and Beaven, R.P. (1998). Compression of waste and implications for practice. Proc of the Symposium on Geotechnical Engineering of landfills. pp 3-18. Held at Nottingham Trent University 24 September 1998 by the East Midlands Geotechnical Group of the ICE. Ed. Dixon, N. et al; Pub. Thomas Telford Ltd. ISBN 0 7277 2708 7. Walker, A.N., Beaven, R.P. and Powrie, W. (1997). Overcoming problems in the development of a high rate flushing bioreactor Proc. 6th International Sardinia Landfill Symposium. S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Italy. Vol I pp 397-408. October 1997. Walker, A.N., Beaven, R.P. and Powrie, W. (1998). A conceptual design for sustainable landfill Proceedings of the 18th annual IAH groundwater seminar, Portlaoise, Ireland; April 1998. pp1-13.

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