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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

--------

Ngo Duy Kien

FALL DETECTION BASED ON ACCELEROMETER SENSOR

Major: Computer Science

Ha Noi 2012

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

--------

Ngo Duy Kien

FALL DETECTION BASED ON ACCELEROMETER SENSOR

Major: Computer Science

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Bui The Duy Co-Supervisor: Dr. Vu Thi Hong Nhan

Ha Noi 2012

AUTHORSHIP
I hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is of my own and has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no materials previously published or written by another person except where due reference or acknowledgement is made.

Signature:

SUPERVISORS APPROVAL
I hereby approve that the thesis in its current form is ready for committee examination as a requirement for the Bachelor of Computer Science degree at the University of Engineering and Technology.

Signature:

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I wish to express my respect and my deepest thanks to my advisers Assoc.Prof. Bui The Duy and Dr. Vu Thi Hong Nhan, University of Engineering and Technology, Viet Nam National University, Ha Noi for their enthusiastic guidance, warm encouragement and useful research experiences. I would like to gratefully thank all the teachers of University of Engineering and Technology, VNU for their invaluable knowledge which they gave to me during four academic years. I would also like to say my special thanks to my friends in K53CA class, University of Engineering and Technology, VNU, especially Tran Nguyen Le in the Behavior Recognition group for their helpful discussions. Last, but not least, my family is really the biggest motivation behind me. My parents and my brother always encourage me when I have stress and difficulty. I would like to send them my gratefulness and love.

Ha Noi, May 24th , 2012 Ngo Duy Kien

FALL DETECTION BASED ON ACCELEROMETER SENSOR Ngo Duy Kien Course: QH-2008-I/CQ, Computer Science Abstract: The percentage of elderly population is rapidly growing in recent years. Fall-related injuries are a main issue for this population. Falls account for approximately half of all admissions- related injuries. Falls cause not only broken bones and other health injuries, but also cause psychological trauma which can reduce the independence and confidence in communication. Therefore, techniques for detecting and tracking down the movement are instrumental in dealing with this problem. Elderly people often want to live at home, therefore, new technologies need to be able to support automatic fall detection, which guarantee their living independence and security. This thesis meets the challenge of different types of motions as part of a system designed to fulfill the demand for wearable device to collect data for fall and non-fall analysis. In this thesis, we present a machine learning based approach for this problem which takes the data from accelerometers as input. First, we have built a database of fall data from real people. We then propose a method to extract features from raw accelerometer data, which can be used to differentiate between fall and non-fall actions. Finally, a machine learning based classifier is used to detect fall events. Results show that falls can be distinguished from non-fall with 94% accuracy, for a total data set of 300 movements. Keyword: fall detection, accelerometer, activity of daily living

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Table of Contents

List of Figures ........................................................................................................... ix List of Table ............................................................................................................... x Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 Chapter 2 Related Work .......................................................................................... 3 2.1. Fall Detection using 3D Head Trajectory Extracted from a Signal Camera Video Sequence ...................................................................................................... 4 2.2. Fall Detection using accelerometer sensor ........................................................ 6 2.2.1 Analytical and Threshold Method ............................................................. 7 2.2.1.1. Fall detection algorithm using bi-axial gyroscope sensor .................... 7 2.2.1.2. Fall detection algorithm using tri-axial accelerometer sensor ............ 10 2.2.1 Learning Methods for fall detection......................................................... 13 2.3. Summary ....................................................................................................... 14 Chapter 3 Fall Detection Process ........................................................................... 15 3.1. Accelerometer Data collection ....................................................................... 16 3.2. Algorithm for Fall Detection .......................................................................... 18 3.2.1. Pre-noise processing data ........................................................................ 19 3.2.2. Action Segmentation ............................................................................... 20 3.2.3. Feature Extraction ................................................................................... 21 3.2.3.1. Length of the acceleration vector ...................................................... 21 3.2.3.2. The Standard Deviation .................................................................... 22 3.2.3.3. The speed of change in acceleration along the z-axis ........................ 23 3.2.3.4. The acceleration vector changes (AVC) ............................................ 23 3.2.3.5. The accelerometer inclination angles ................................................ 24 3.2.4. Forming feature vector ............................................................................ 24 3.3. Action learning .............................................................................................. 25 3.3.1. Support Vector Machine (SVM) .............................................................. 25 3.3.2. Learning .................................................................................................. 28

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3.4. Summary ....................................................................................................... 28 Chapter 4 Experimental Setup and evaluation ..................................................... 30 4.1. Experiment Setup........................................................................................... 30 4.1.1. Background of fall and non-fall action .................................................... 30 4.1.1.1. Study of fall...................................................................................... 31 4.1.1.2. The simulated-fall study ................................................................... 33 4.1.1.3. The ADL study (Activity of Daily Living) ........................................ 33 4.1.2. Data Collection ....................................................................................... 35 4.2. Performance measures ................................................................................... 37 4.3. Experimental results of the fall detection system ............................................ 38 Chapter 5 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 40 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 42 Appendix A .............................................................................................................. 45

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List of Figures
Figure 2-1: Reading trunk pitches rolocity V v and horizontal velocity Vh. These velocities were obtained without markers from the 3D trajectory of a person who brutally sits down and falls. The different action are: the person(a) stands up,(b)sits down, (c) is seated, (d)stands up again, (e)remains stand up and (f) falls ................................................................................... 5 Figure 2-2: Acceleromter Sensor ............................................................................................ 6 Figure 2-3: Reading trunk pitches and roll gyroscope ............................................................. 8 Figure 2-4: Overlapping and non-overlapping sampe Fall and ADL data................................ 8 Figure 2-5: Bi-axial gyroscope fall-detection algorithm flow chart ......................................... 9 Figure 2-6: Fall detection algorithm operation example for upper and lower fall threshold, using an artificial example signal ......................................................................................... 10 Figure 3-1: The general model cycle .................................................................................... 16 Figure 3-2: Fall annotation for a single fall ........................................................................... 17 Figure 3-3: Fall Detection Flow Chart .................................................................................. 18 Figure 3-4: Low-pas and high-pass filter algorithm ............................................................. 19 Figure 3-5: (a) Sliding window technique. (b) Overlap sliding window technique ................ 20 Figure 3-6: RSS plot of a forward fall .................................................................................. 22 Figure 3-7: Accelerometer inclination angle ......................................................................... 24 Figure 3-8: Separating hyper plane ....................................................................................... 26 Figure 4-1: The stage of fall ................................................................................................. 31 Figure 4-2: The four phases of a fall event ........................................................................... 32 Figure 4-3: Two types of non-fall(ADL) .............................................................................. 34

List of Table
Table 3.1: Sample data acquired from acceleromter ............................................................. 17 Table 4.1: Events Sequence in the test Scenario ................................................................... 35 Table 4.2: The detail of ten young volunteers ....................................................................... 36 Table 4.3: The distribution of the samples ............................................................................ 38 Table 4.4: The test result ...................................................................................................... 38

Chapter 1

Introduction

In the modern society, the percentage of elderly people is increasing rapidly. The proportion of the population aged more than 65 years old in the developed countries is projected to increase from 7.5 % in 2009 to 19.6% in 2030 (United Nations 2009).The ratio of elderly people living alone in the house is quite high. Fallrelated injury is a main issue of elderly people, both home environment and hospital which affects the overall quality of life either at home or hospital. Most of falls occur when walking, standing or sitting down, or trying to find something. People usually think that falling recognition is the most important in our lives. Fall detection has become a major health concern recently. Falls account for approximately half of all admissions which are related to injury. Falls cause not only disabling fractures and other health injuries but also traumas which can reduce the independence and confidence when communicating. Moreover, the elder people always want to live in a place which ensures the independence and safety in life. Because of this, new technologies to guarantee and assist their lives are absolutely necessary. This is a factor to promote the development of technology. However, there are many approaches that can be used to construct a fall detection systems. The first one is based on image and video system and the second one is based on accelerometer sensor. The later is our concern in this study because with the rapid advances in wireless network and tiny sensors they can be embedded
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easily in the mobile devices which can be carried anywhere. Moreover, recently, smart phone applications are being developed faster and faster. Therefore, with a phone equipped sensors, researchers have developed applications for fall detection based on accelerometer sensor. These applications are mainly developed based on the threshold algorithms, some works involve the use of machine learning techniques for the detection of fall and movement classification. This enables the elders status to be monitored anytime and anywhere and aided when necessary. In this thesis, we present our study on human fall detection. We present a machine learning based approach for this problem which takes the data from accelerometers as input. First, we have built a database of fall data from real people. We then propose a method to extract features from raw accelerometer data, which can be used to differentiate between fall and non-fall actions. Finally, a machine learning based classifier is used to detect fall events. The remaining of the thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 2 presents a detailed overview of related work in the field of fall detection. Some approaches using different types of sensor are discussed and some higher level comparison of the result is presented. Chapter 3 describes the processing of the data. This chapter is divided into several parts. First, the raw data of the sensors is explained. Then the process of filtering and the process of attribute computation. Chapter 4 we give the evaluation of the results from different experiments performed in this research. We present about building a database of fall data and explain the experimental data.

Chapter 2

Related Work

Accelerometer and gyroscopes are the two most popular methods in most of the research on fall. Threshold for acceleration, the change of velocity and angles were usually applied in some researches. By applying a simple threshold to the acceleration and using a tri-axial accelerometer worn on the chest, Lee, Nguyen, Cho (2009) detected falls with 98. Bourke and Lyons (2008) used biaxial gyroscope worn on the chest, they applied threshold to the peaks in the angular velocity, angular acceleration and the change of angle. In addition to applying threshold for fall detection, machine-learning algorithm seems to be a good method instead of threshold algorithm algorithm. One example for using machine learning is Shan (2010) and Yuan and Zhang (2006), both studies which used tri-axial accelerometer worn on the waist. They used SVM algorithm to classify various features from accelerometer sensor data. Especially, Particular interest to us is research of Lie (2009). Although their result of fall detection is lower than previously research, it may be due to the more experimental data. They apply threshold, angles and velocities. Based on this, potential fall and the activity will be detected after fall. Their methods sometimes do not lie down quickly. And these situations will be addressed by the classify accelerometer sensor on this thesis.

2.1. Fall Detection using 3D Head Trajectory Extracted from a Signal Camera Video Sequence
Falls are one of the greatest dangers for elderly people living alone. They may be unconscious after suffering the fall. Computer vision system provides an automatic solution to overcome the limitations of researchers. Some research has developed fall detection system by using the image sensor. One example is the work of Lee and Mihailidis who detect falls by using a camera mounted on the ceiling determine the specific silhouette [14]. This is a new method using 3D data of the head trajectory for monitoring the movement of the fall. The method of this research will be based on three steps: Head tracking: because of the fact that the head can be often seen in the picture and there is a large movement during a fall 3D tracking: the head is monitored with a particle filter to extract a 3D trajectory Fall Detecting: a fall is detected by using 3D velocities which are computed from the 3D trajectory of the head.

Figure 2-1: Reading trunk pitches rolocity V v and horizontal velocity Vh. These velocities were obtained without markers from the 3D trajectory of a person who brutally sits down and falls. The different action are: the person(a) stands up,(b)sits down, (c) is seated, (d)stands up again, (e)remains stand up and (f) falls This method required a set of video in various situations such falls and normal situations like sitting down or squatting. Based on the characteristics of the image sequences, the result will be showed after analyzing with OpenCV library (Intel Open Source Computer Vision Library) The result obtained in this research is quite high. However, in some cases it depends on the location and specific circumstance. Camera is not always everywhere. Moreover, using camera usually makes the user feel unnatural and lose freedom in the daily activities. It affects the privacy of individuals. Consequently, using acceleration sensor for fall detection is an effective approach to ensure personal information can be kept secure and applied in every situation.

2.2. Fall Detection using accelerometer sensor

Accelerometer usually provides the acceleration readings in direction of x, y, z axis. Accelerations are these directions are presented by Ax , Ay , Az respectively. As illustrated in Figure 2-2

Figure 2-2: Acceleromter Sensor X-axis has positive direction toward the right side of the device Y-axis has positive direction toward the top of the device Z-axis has positive direction toward the front of the device
Noury and Rumeau indicate two approaches to detect fall in their research [4].

The first place, which is the more common approach, is an analytical method and the second place is with machine learning techniques. An example for machine learning approach is the research of Mitja and Bostjan [3]. This system is a visual basic system. By using markers, they tagged different point in body of users and used it as reference points. They found that the angle and the reference points between them is very reliable data source for extracting features. With other machine-learning algorithm, Support Vector machine (SVM) was the best choice for research and followed by Random Forest. In our research for fall detection is mainly based on the machine learning techniques and some use analytical models.

2.2.1 Analytical and Threshold Method

Analytical method is based on the manual or research experience about data sets and set-up our own parameters (thresholds). There is a need for a thorough study of falls and ego stage for better understanding and results. What this study focuses on is presented in this section. With fall detection - principles and methods [4], many falls end lying on the ground, the simplest approach is to detect the lying position, from a horizontal inclination sensor. This method is very suitable for monitoring an "isolated a person", but less suitable for the detection of falls of an elder person such as the irregular sleeping hours. Therefore this method is prone to many "false positives", i.e. detection as falls of situations that are not falls. In fall detection system, we can use fall velocity, body orientation, body posture, angular acceleration, angular velocity and fall acceleration in the critical phases as the determining factors for distinguishing fall and non-falls activities (ADL and ADLS). The simplest approach to detect a fall is by detecting the lying position (GPS). This is based on the fact that most falls, but eventually not all of them, end up falling in this lying positing. Both researches of StanKovic, Noury and Fleury indicate that indirect detection of the lying posture during post-fall can be called [1], [2]. That when the foot is no longer in contact with the ground also can be another method to detect fall. 2.2.1.1. Fall detection algorithm using bi-axial gyroscope sensor A threshold-based algorithm to distinguish between Activities of Daily Living and falls is described. A threshold-based fall detection algorithm using a bi-axial gyroscope sensor is used[13]. With trunk pitch and roll gyroscope are read during separate simulatedfall and Activities of Daily Living (ADL) studies, the result will be compared through a threshold-based algorithm

. Figure 2-3: Reading trunk pitches and roll gyroscope This research focus on studying about the ADL study, Data acquisition set-up, sensor location and signal conditioning. In signal conditioning, low-pass filter would be used a second-order low-pass Butterworth 2-pass digital filter, with a cut-off frequency of 100Hz for each pitch and roll angular velocity signal. The resultant vector was derived by from taking the root sum of square of roll and pitch angular velocities.

Fall detection will apply a threshold to the Peak value of lowest fall and highest ADL from the resultant angular velocity signals. The result of recording data will result in one of two scenarios:

Figure 2-4: Overlapping and non-overlapping sampe Fall and ADL data In Figure 2-4(A) the peak values recorded ADL will not overlap with the recorded fall peak. Falls from ADL which may be distinguished by a single threshold, level of which would be placed at the lowest fall peak value.
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In Figure 2-4(B) the peak values recorded ADL will overlap with the recorded fall values. In this case applying one threshold is not sufficient to distinguish falls from ADL, so continuing to investigate additional aspects of the signals is required. There are three thresholds to determine for a fall which can be distinguished from an ADL. If the resultant angular velocity is greater than 3.1 rads/s (Fall threshold 1), the resultant angular acceleration is greater than 0.05 rads/s (Fall threshold 2) and change the result in changing trunk angle is greater than 0.59 rads (Fall threshold 3), a fall will be detected. The results indicate that falls can be distinguished from ADL with 100% accuracy for a total data set of 480 movements.

Figure 2-5: Bi-axial gyroscope fall-detection algorithm flow chart

2.2.1.2. Fall detection algorithm using tri-axial accelerometer sensor Most previous researchers and others combined the devices total acceleration from the X, Y and Z axis [10]. This is called Root Sum of Squares or RSS which is presented by the formal:
RSS x2 y2 z2

(2.4)

This is sometimes referred to as the dynamic total acceleration

RSSd RSS 9.81m / s 2

Checking the acceleration in early part of the critical phased is the simplest algorithm for fall detection. When standing upright, we will have a total acceleration (RSS) of 1G. This value will drop to 0G in free fall until finally reaching impact.
1g 9.81m / s 2

This method will use a threshold which is set based on training session. There are two thresholds to compare with data from ADLs or other non-fall activities. There are called Lower Fall Peak (LFP) and Upper Fall Peak (UFP). In training period, LFP and UFP will give the Lower Fall Threshold (LFT) and Upper Fall Threshold (UFT), respectively.

Figure 2-6: Fall detection algorithm operation example for upper and lower fall threshold, using an artificial example signal Normally, in some case, UFT usually have a better result than LFT.

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Profiling algorithm in [11] is also to measure the falling edge time and rising edge time. With the falling edge time ( t FE ) is the time when the RSS signal last goes below the LFT until it reach the UFT. The rising edge time ( t RE ) is always a subset and smaller than the falling edge time ( t FE ).A specify example, we can imagine that with t0 the value of RSS first will go below the Lower Fall Threshold (LFT) and keeps under it until t0
200ms

. The time from t0

200ms

to t0

500ms

the RSS value will increase

500ms

until the Upper Fall Threshold (UFT) reached. UFT will reach to peak in t0

t0

500 ms

t0 is the galling edge time ( t FE ) and t0

500 ms

t0

200 ms

is the rising edge time. In

addition we also check for the profile LFT + the falling edge time ( t FE ) and + the rising edge time ( t RE ).Both LFT and UFT are a prerequisite for using the falling edge time and the rising edge time. However, profiling algorithms only use LFT and UFT can be further expanded to also use the falling and rising edge time. There are some algorithms that is similar with profiling algorithm such as in [12].this algorithm use the time window to find the UFP and LFP and take the difference between UFP and LFP ( RSSUFP
LFP

). If both of them reach to their respective

threshold and LFP happens before the UFP. Fall will be flagged.
RSSUFP
LFP

tUFP t LFP with t = time of occurrences

(2.5)

Improving the result of a fall detection system is extreme important so many algorithms check the body posture to improve on the specificity. Most of these algorithms assume with many case of posture such as making a threshold similar to UFT and LFT when the body is sitting or lying or running. We will compute the Lower Sitting threshold and the Upper Sitting threshold. After achieving both LFT and UFT 10 or 15 seconds, if both Lower Sitting threshold and Upper Sitting threshold are achieved, fall will be flagged. Another way for falling detection is measuring the velocity which is computed by the formula.
RSS d dt

(2.6)

The velocity will be added in the profiling algorithm and based on the integral from the time of the start of a fall until impact.

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In addition, we can also use the fall index such as in 2.7 or make fall thresholds. Especially, we can also make use both in three different types of algorithm. First algorithm checks posture and impact. With impact, it will be based on Z2, UFT, UFTd or RSSUFP
LFP

The second algorithm uses LFT + UFT (within frame of 1 second) or threshold based on Z2 + monitoring. The third algorithm uses LFT + threshold with the velocity and UFT (within time frame of 1 second) or threshold based on Z2 + monitoring of posture. Postured will be detected 2 seconds after the impact using the vertical axis acceleration. The sitting and lying posture are usually lower than 0.4G. The result of the first algorithm when using Z2 based threshold + posture or UFT is usually 97%. The fall index will be calculated by the formula:
i

FI i
k x , y , z i 19

(( Ak )i

( Ak )i 1 ) 2

(2.7)

Where x, y, z = acceleration from the X, Y and Z axis

Z2 RSS2 RSSd 2 2G G2

(2.8)

The scalar product of two acceleration vectors can also measured for Posture to fin the angle between them. It maybe is between the current gravity vector and the reference gravity vector or the gravity and the vertical axis (Ay).
arccos referemcegravity currentgravity || referencgravity || x || currentgravity ||
arccos Ad gravity || Ay || x || gravity ||

(2.9) (2.10)

Some devices have orientation sensors or more accurate gyroscopes which then can be used instead [10]. Both formula 2.5 and 2.11 are used.
Orientation | Ax sin
z

Ay sin

Az cos

cos

(2.11)

Where x ,

= the data from the orientation sensor

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X is the front-back axis, y is the horizontal axis (left and right) and z is the vertical axis (up and down).

2.2.1 Learning Methods for fall detection

Machine learning can be broadly classified into two fields, supervised learning and unsupervised learning. In front, the machine will attempt to identify the groups of similar data from a larger dataset. Besides, it also tries to from clusters of data based on some criteria such as cost function. It has not prior knowledge of the data layers. It only tries to identify natural clusters or groups of data. With supervised learning, it learns from the test containing classified data and predicts data layers invisible. With Fall-detection system, it will be more natural when using supervised learning techniques. Without any analytical algorithm, we can still carry out an intuitive approach the development of machine learning based fall detection systems from a training period and then classification. However, It may be is necessary to establish criteria for classification. The most important in supervised learning is the quality of accurate and exhaustive of training data. Because of these reasons, in the period of training, it is important to be able to simulate how falls as close and how the real falls for other groups of users who will use the fall detection system. With some machine-learning algorithm out there, it may be cause confusing about selecting the right one for certain applications. Even thought, some research also studies about comparing the result of them to try to choose the best algorithm [18],[19] To sum up, a developer can be chosen an application method that is suitable with his (her) own discretion. An evident with fall detection system is a sensitive application. It is advised to compare and test between a numbers of algorithms to try picking the best choice. Ralhan in University of Saskachewan compared five different supervised learning methods for fall detection system [6]. Naive Bayesian classifier, Radial basis Function (RBF), C4.5 and Ripple down Rule Learner, Support Vector machine are used. Eight scenarios (four falls, three ADLS and one near fall) are used to getting data from test the algorithms against. With Nave Bayes classifier, the highest result is 97%

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and taking the least time for building model and then it was chosen as the best choice for research. In addition, Fall detection by embedding an accelerometer a method that of Ralhan in University of Saskachewan used with machine learning algorithm [5]. They used the group integrated a device with tri-axial accelerometer, a MCU device and some other peripherals with a mobile phone. One class SVM for preprocessing the signals and KFD (Kernel Fisher Discriminant) and K-NN (Nearest neighbor) was used with fall detection for precise classification. The result of research is 92.3% for a limited number of cases.

2.3. Summary
Studying and evaluating that system give us the overview about fall detection approaches. In this few years, researches in this field are developing more and more. There are many approaches for fall detection such as based on image, video etc. Besides, the rapid advances in wireless network and tiny sensor promote the development of smart phones application. However, these approaches seem to only focus on using threshold of the length of acceleration. Therefore, we propose to develop a new fall detection system with machine learning based approach for this problem.

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Chapter 3

Fall Detection Process

In the period of studying for fall detection and the installation of experiment, we found that the fall detection algorithms based on threshold still have the following limitations: They have not been built a specific training data on typical actions falls. The techniques of experimental process based on the characteristic time domain and or frequency domain were not mentioned. They have not been proper interest in these methods. In addition as mentioned in the previous chapter about the theory of fall detection. In the data collection, human undesired movement can cause large changes in intensity dramatically at that moment. It affects directly on the result obtained when comparing with the threshold. To solve the above disadvantages, we propose the method to extract feature combined building layer model for fall detection system. In particular, the model will be proposed for using extracted techniques based on the information on the time domain and the characteristic value in accelerometer sensor. The following thesis will present general model for classification

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Figure 3-1: The general model cycle The components constitute the layer model using in this thesis. This model is based on the criteria that the thesis proposed to decrease limitations of the above methods. Accelerometers data will be collected directly from the user through specific cases which described. Next part is to expand intensity and assign label for datasets. In this part, some other information of accelerometer data on the time domain will be extracted which are used in the classifying phase.

3.1. Accelerometer Data collection

In this section, we introduce first how the data collected. We collected data of falls from different directions (x, y, z axes) and different environment (Bedroom, kitchen, outdoor garden, living room) with other cases of fall. The data from activities of daily living (ADL) such as walking, jogging, sitting or standing are also be collected. This below sample data acquired from accelerometer and fall annotation for a single fall:

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Table 3.1: Sample data acquired from acceleromter

x-axis 0.459687 0.459687 0.153229 0.459687 -0.30646 0.153229 0.153229 0.153229 0.153229 -0.15323 -0.1533 0.612916 0.459687 0.459687 0.153229 y-axis 1.37906 1.532289 1.225831 1.225831 0.459687 0.459687 0.153229 -0.45969 -0.30646 -0.76614 -1.53229 1.225831 1.37906 1.532289 1.225831 z-axis 9.80665 9.346964 9.95987 9.040505 10.72602 9.500193 9.500193 10.5728 9.500193 9.193734 9.346964 9.959879 9.8066 9.346964 9.959879 time 57223591098406 57223619296739 57223677943405 57223741578404 57223799416739 57223862593408 57223921180075 57223982330075 57224039275074 57224100655074 57224161960072 57223529871740 57223591098406 57223619296739 57223677943405

Figure 3-2: Fall annotation for a single fall In getting data for fall detection system, the cell phone was put in the shirt pocket of participants. In each case of position, every participant falls 7 times in different directions and environment. To sum up, we recorded 5 examples of the behavior from 15 persons and collecting Activities of daily living for 2 or 3 minutes

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from each person with some cases such as sitting, running, lying or walking. Mitja and Igone [17] also gave some multiple activities: 3 x 15 recordings of falling, consisting of standing/ walking, falling and lying. Fall detection is one of the main goals of our project. 3 x 10 recordings of lying down, consisting of standing/walking, lying down and lying. Lying down is same as falling down, so we wanted to verify whether the classification can distinguish between the two. 3 x 10 recordings of sitting down, consisting of walking, sitting down and sitting. Sitting down may also resemble falling and is a common action .It is important for the analysis of the users behavior. 3 x10 recordings of walking. Walking is also popular and we wanted clearly examples of it to test the classification. Recognizing word using trial cutting and beam search

3.2. Algorithm for Fall Detection

Figure 3-3: Fall Detection Flow Chart Figure 3-3 describes the step of data processing and computation of attributes. It is namely pre-noise processing data, attribute computation and feature selection. Especially, Feature selection is an important prior step to any classification problem which reduces the dimensionality and thus the amount of data required for training. These attributes are later combined to create the final attribute vector which is used in the machine learning classification stage .They will be presented as follows:

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3.2.1. Pre-noise processing data

Because the data is received from sensor (usually is noisy data), so the data filter techniques have been applied. There are several techniques that perform signal filter. In this thesis, we applied a low-pass and high-pass filter. A simple low-pass filter for the time domain is a smoothing function. In other work, the signal is smoother and less dependent on short changes. We used low-pass filter to reduce the influence of sudden change on the accelerometer data. It is also possible to filter a series such that the low-frequency variations are reduced and the high-frequency variations unaffected. This type is called a high-pass filter. This is particularly important in the acceleration data. This type also allows us to remove the gravity component and take into consideration the sudden change in acceleration. The below algorithm shows the low-pass and high-pass filter that we use in this thesis. It uses a low-value filtering factor to generate a value that uses 80% of the previously filtered value and 20% of the unfiltered acceleration data. This factor was chosen empirically.

Figure 3-4: Low-pas and high-pass filter algorithm

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3.2.2. Action Segmentation

In this section, we describe the process of action segmentation. Sliding window is a common approach to solve the problems of fall recognition. We use an overlap sliding window technique for fall detection where different actions are performed continuously. The idea is to move the sliding window across the accelerometer in the accelerometer sequences and decides what action the actor is performing inside the window.

{I t
With:

w 2 t w 4

,.....I t }

W is the width of sliding window t is the index of current acceleration

Figure 3-5: (a) Sliding window technique. (b) Overlap sliding window technique When analyzing series of time, we chose a window size of 10 which is one second time interval. We decided for one-second time because some transitional activities usually last from one to five seconds.

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3.2.3. Feature Extraction

To detect fall based on accelerometer sensor with machine learning algorithm, we will use sliding window to transform stream of acceleration data into instances for machine learning. The following attributes were derived from the data within sliding window. We will against on some method to calculation: Length of the acceleration vector The Standard Deviation of the acceleration vector within the window The speed of change in acceleration between the maximum and minimum along the x, y, z axes. The maximum and the minimum acceleration along the x, y, z-axes The acceleration vector changes (AVC) The accelerometer inclination angles 3.2.3.1. Length of the acceleration vector The first computed attribute is length of the acceleration vector. It is a simple but it is very useful attribute. Moreover, it is also used further in the process of extraction the new attributes. It is not used as a separate attribute in the final vector because of the sliding window technique. Its definition is:
RSS x2 y2 z2

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Figure 3-6: RSS plot of a forward fall During static posture this attribute is constant with the value equal to the Earchs gravity (RSS = 1g). In dynamic activities the acceleration vector is changing the direction and its length. 3.2.3.2. The Standard Deviation
The Standard Deviation attribute is useful for distinguish the long lasting static activities. It can detect when the movement of the sensor its intense. With these

characteristics, based on the acceleration value, we compute the Standard Deviation of the acceleration vector. The Standard Deviation with in sliding window will be defined as follows:
n

( ai STDi
i 1

a)2

(4.1)

With N is the number of acceleration data within the window, ai is the length of the ith acceleration vector and a is the average length of the acceleration vector of the person)

22

3.2.3.3. The speed of change in acceleration along the z-axis The speed of change in acceleration along the z-axis was defined as follows:

spd z

tan

max(az ) min(az ) t (max(az ) t (min(az ))

(4.2)

For this attribute, the value of raw materials for the length of the acceleration vector is used instead of low-pass value .Max ( az ) and min ( az ) are the maximum and minimum acceleration along the z axis within the window, and t (max ( az )) and t (min ( az )) are the time stamp of the data. 3.2.3.4. The acceleration vector changes (AVC) When the person's body is static, single accelerometer response only to the gravity, producing a constant length of acceleration is 1g. In the moving accelerations produce a changing in acceleration signal and drastically change the motion. Using changes in the acceleration vector, an attribute is calculated to detect the motion accelerometer: Acceleration Vector Changes (AVC). The AVC value of this attribute increased as the acceleration (walking, going down, stand up, etc ...). This attribute take into consideration the data from the current window (ten data samples). It combines ten different length of the vector of length acceleration vector and divided the sum by the time interval (one second) of data. The AVC is computed as followed:
n

| lengthi AVC
i 1

lengthi T0

Tn

(4.3)

T0 is the time stamp for the first data sample in the window, and Tn is the time

stamp of the last data sample. The fall can be detected by using this attribute. With this attribute, the movement of people can be detected: it distinguishes static from the dynamic active. For this attribute, the value of raw materials for the length of the acceleration vector is used instead of low-pass value. The reason for this is that we are more interested in small changes in the acceleration signal and the smooth of low-pass filter.

23

3.2.3.5. The accelerometer inclination angles Other important features to be recognized as a static body posture are the orientation angles of the accelerometer. The orientation angles are calculated as the angles between the actual acceleration and each of the axes (x, y and z axes). (Figure 3-7)

Figure 3-7: Accelerometer inclination angle For instance, the angle x between the acceleration vector and the x axis (perpendicular to the ground) is computed as follows:

arccos( ax

ax
2

ay

az

(4.4)

Where the value ax , a y , az represent the actual acceleration vector. In this attributes, lower-pass filter should be used. Because of the changes of the angle is less and less variation. Without the low-pass filter, the angles were sensitive angles to each small change of the accelerometer. These angles improve the classification of activities that have different accelerometer angle inclinations.

3.2.4. Forming feature vector

In our work, feature vector is formed for each sliding window (sub-regions) in the fall data sequence and thus, each sequence is represented by a set of feature vector. The process in which feature are formed is illustrated in the following: From each input sample, we use low-pass and high-pass filter as described in section 3.2.1 Each feature is then divided into 10 non-overlapping sub-regions. 24

The value of attributes in section 3.2.3 is calculated for each sub-region. The feature vector is created by concatenating all attribute computed from subregions ( each sliding window)

3.3. Action learning

In this thesis, we make use of the famous Support Vector Machine (SVM) for action learning and recognition.

3.3.1. Support Vector Machine (SVM)

Support Vector Machine is one of the most famous machine learning techniques which has been used widely in not only Computer Vision but also in Artificial Intelligent and other fields. Especially, with classification, SVM is the tool for finding good hyperplanes for separating different classes of instance. Considering binary classification problem with L training point { xi , yi } where:

( x1, y1 ),....,( xm , ym ) X{1, 1}

and test set x1 ,....., xm

X
( xi1, xi 2 ,...xin ) R n , yi { 1, 1} which is

With a given training set D {( xi , yi ) | i 1...m}, xi

separable, we need to find a hyper plane which separates two object classes +1, -1 and predicts bets with data not in the training set. Figureillustrates a hyper plane separating two types of data objects.

25

Figure 3-8: Separating hyper plane Optimal hyper plane has the equation:
m

f ( x)

w x

b
i 1

wi xi

b 0

Satisfying constraints:
yi ( w x b) 1, i 1,..., m

Then, an object x is classified into +1 class if f(x) The distance from margin to optimal hyper plane is

0 and into 1 class otherwise.

1 . The problem here is to find w w

b) 1,

so that ||w|| has a minimum value satisfying constraints yi ( w x with the hope that the larger margin, the better classifier.

i = 1 m

This problem can be solved by solving its dual problem. Lagrangian for the primal problem is:
L( w, b, ) 1 2
m

w w
i 1

[ yi ( w xi ) 1]

(3.3.1)

where

0 is Lagrange multiplier. We can transform the primal into a dual

by simply setting to zero the derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to the primal variables, and substituting the relations so obtained back into the Lagrangian, hence removing the dependence on the primal variables:

26

L( w, b, ) w L( w, b, ) b

w
i 1 m

y i xi

yi
i 1

Then, we have:
m

w
i 1 m i i 1

yi xi 0

yi

Replace them into (3.3.1), we have:

L( w, b, ) 1 2
m

w w
i 1

[ yi ( w xi ) 1]
m m

1 m yi y j 2 i, j 1
m i i 1

xi x j
i, j 1

yi y j xi x j

xi

xj
i 1

1 m yi y j 2 i, j 1

The formula above is the dual representation of primal optimization problem. In optimization theory, solving primal problem is equivalent to solving its dual problem. Assuming * is the solution of the following dual optimization problem: Maximize
LD
i i

1 2

i i, j

yi y j
m

xi

xj

where

0, i = 1m and
i 1
m

yi
1 |I| i

0
n

Then vector of weights is w*

i 1

* i

yi xi and b

yi
I j 1

yj

xi x j

where I is set of i so that

> 0. The classification function is sgn(f(x)) where:

f ( x)
i I * i

yi

xi x

b*

27

3.3.2. Learning
In this work, we also apply grouping technique for the learning phase: Assume training example X i has N i sub-regions which are represented by N i different feature vectors. Each of these feature vectors will be labeled with the corresponding class of the sample. Therefore, with n samples of two action class (fall and non-fall), a training set D is described as:
n Ni

D
i j

{xij , yij , yij

yi }

With:

xij is the j th feature vector of the ith example

yij is the label for xij

yi is the action class of the ith example ( yi
{0,1} )

3.4. Summary
In this section, we presented an overview from data collection to feature extraction. Pre-processing data is one of the most important parts in the process of feature extraction. Especially, we also presented overlapping window technique which is usually used in classifying activity sequences or image series, etc. Based on the overlapping window techniques, the typical attribute for accelerometer vector are computed and created feature vector for classification.

28

29

Chapter 4

Experimental Setup and evaluation

This chapter presents the experiments we carry out to build a database of fall data from real people and analyze the performance of the fall detection method. In this section, we first describe how we set up our experiments, explain the choice of parameters for fall detection and finally show the result of our method in comparison with other related methods.

4.1. Experiment Setup

The following briefly presents the basic concept of fall in our daily activities and describe the process of data collection which is used in our experiments.

4.1.1. Background of fall and non-fall action

As mentioned in Chapter 2, we have presented some fall detection system that uses various approaches in the study. Their disadvantages and advantages were discussed. There is need for a precision of fall detection system that wishes train and test. Because of this, studying for falls is an important issue with the thesis.

30

4.1.1.1. Study of fall

Definition a fall

Many definitions about a fall are given. This is because fall for one specific group of users such as young people, elder people or different other groups. This thesis focuses on distinguishing fall and non-fall activities (it may be called Activity of Daily Livings or ADLs). Now as mentioned, types of fall of each group of people always are different (elderly people or childetc).

Figure 4-1: The stage of fall In our thesis, we will distinguish between two kinds of falls. The first place is falls which are caused by external factor (such as behavioral or environmental). The second place is falls that caused by internal factors (such as biology). Lying down/ Standing/ Walking Fall Forward/Backward/Left/Right Near Fall Cause of falling The normal changes of aging, like poor vision and poor hearing. They can make you more likely to fall. Diseases and physical conditions can affect your strength and balance. There are some risk factors for cause of falling. In this thesis, we divide these factors into intrinsic (biology) and extrinsic (behavioral and environmental). We use both of factors to detect falling.
31

Firstly, biological factors may be are: 1. Age 2. Medical condition such as Parkinsons disease, patients. 3. Muscle Weakness 4. Visual impairment. 5. Foot problem. Secondly, Behavioral and Environment factors are: 1. Sedentary 2. Medication intake. 3. Alcohol misuse. Beside two types of groups for falling, we also research some trends of falls. They are as follows: 1. Time 2. Climate/weather 3. Location 4. Race 5. Depression Phases of falling
There are four phases of falling: the pre-fall, the critical phases, the post-fall phase and the recovery phase

Figure 4-2: The four phases of a fall event

32

The pre-fall phase corresponding movement of daily life, sometimes with sudden movements directed towards the ground such as sitting down or bending over. These activities should not create an alarm with a fall detection system. The critical phase, corresponding to the fall, is highly short. This phase can be detected by the motion of the body toward the ground or by the shock of impact with the floor The post-fall phase is usually characterized by a real person on the ground immediately after the fall. It can be detected by a lying position or by an absence of significative motion A recovery phase may eventually occur if the person can stand alone or with the help of another person 4.1.1.2. The simulated-fall study The simulated fall study related to healthy young subjects and carrying out under the supervision. Tri-axial accelerometers signals recorded from the trunk and thigh in a fall event simulation. Each subject performed eight different kinds of fall and each type was repeated three times. The fall types used in the testing process for the current study were selected to simulated common types of fall in elderly people. The most common causes of falls are the trips, slips, and loss of balance. ONeill et al.[20]indicated that 60% of falls in older people were falling in the forward direction. Laterally directed fall also were a major pose of threat. Laterally directed fall causes the bad impact such as the potential to fracture every time it happens. Therefore, falls from all directions should be considered when validating fall detection system. We also should attempt to make mimicking the realistic falls. Thus, simulation of performance were backward falls, lateral falls right, lateral fall left and forward falls. 4.1.1.3. The ADL study (Activity of Daily Living) The second study involved older people performing ADL, in their own homes, while equipped with the same sensor configuration. Ten subjects of the elderly community, four females and six males, were monitored. They ranged in age from 60 to 80 years old. Each ADL was performed three times by each older person. The ADL were a task that could produce impacts or sudden changes in movement and result of a
33

mistake caused by a threshold-based fall detection algorithm. This below picture shows activities of daily living:

Figure 4-3: Two types of non-fall(ADL) The second study involved every activity of living from children to elderly people. Each ADL was performed three times by each person. To evaluate fall detection algorithm, Bourke, OBrien and Lyons showed some types of ADL in their research [7]: 1 Sitting down and standing up from an arm-chair 2 Sitting down and standing up from a kitchen-chair. 3 Sitting down and standing up from a toilet seat. 4 Sitting down and standing up from a low stool 5 Getting in and out of a car seat 6 Sitting down on and standing up from a bed 7 Lying down and standing up from a bed 8 Walking 5m 9 Cycling

34

4.1.2. Data Collection

With intent and purposes of the system that we want to make. We define a fall to be a sudden change of body position coming to rest on the ground, it does not include intentional change, and then is inactivity. This means that the most serious falls where user loses a balance after hitting the ground. They also lose the ability for getting help. To have database to train and test the character recognizer, we designed a number of this scenario was designed to investigate the events which can be difficult to recognize such as fall and non-fall. It includes 9 different events which are showed in Table 4.1. They are recorded in single recordings that it interspersed with short periods of walk, each record lasted from 3 to 5 minutes. An example for specific image of the event can be view in http://dis.ijs.si/confidence/iaai.html Table 4.1: Events Sequence in the test Scenario No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Description Sitting down normally on the chair Tripping, landing normally on the bed Lying down normally on the bed Falling slowly( trying to hold onto furniture),landing flat on the ground Sitting down quickly on the chair Falling when trying to stand up, landing sitting of the ground Lying down quickly on the bed Falling slowly when trying to stand up(trying to hold onto furniture), landing sitting of the ground Searching for something on the ground on all fours any lying No Yes No Yes No Yes Fall No Yes Ending position

No

35

Some types of falls were selected from a list of typical falls. As shown in the choosing on related work. Accelerometer sensor can accurately detect typical falls. Because of this, we gave a fall (such as event 2) to prove that the system can recognize .In addition, we also choose three atypical falls (event 4, 6 and 8) to test the use of information in each circumstance. A specific example that a person is not expected to lie or sit on the ground (in contrast with the bed or the chair). They are atypical in speed (event 4 and 8) and starting/ending posture (event 6 and 8). With each subject, we would repeat 2 or 3 times for each. Therefore, there were about 300 sequences of data (120 fall data and 180 ADL data) The experiments with groups of real persons are conducted. Both activities of daily living and falls are tested and training. However, the fall situation is dangerous to human body, especially to the elderly people, so we cannot test falls with elderly people, the elderly volunteers only attended with non-fall (ADL). We received data from 2 groups of subject: Ten young subjects (6 male and 4 female, age 256 years, body mass 5311.5 kg and height 16610.5 cm) Table 4.2: The detail of ten young volunteers Volunteers Age (years) Subject 1 Subject 2 Subject 3 Subject 4 Subject 5 Subject 6 Subject 7 Subject 8 Subject 9 Subject 10 22 19 33 25 28 21 25 23 22 22 Weight (kg) 53 54 58 56 63 55 59 60 50 58 Height (cm) 169 168 164 165 174 170 166 171 167 165

36

Ten elderly subjects and children (6 subjects for age 646 years, body mass 525kg, and height 1645cm,4 subjects for age 104 years old).

4.2. Performance measures

Fall detection is either positive if the detector properly recognizes a fall event or negative if it does not. The quality of fall detection cannot be evaluated from a single test; instead, it is necessary carry out from a series of test. It will include four possible. True positive (TP): fall occurs, the algorithm detects the fall True Negative (TN): a normal movement (non-fall) is performed. The algorithm does not detect a fall. Fall Positive (TP): The algorithm detect a fall, but fall does not occur Fall Negative (FN): a normal movement (non-fall) is performed. The algorithm detects a fall. Based on four situations, we proposed three criteria to evaluate the fall detection system: Sensitivity is the capability to detect a fall. It can be expressed:
Sensitivity TP TP+FN

Specificity is the capability to detect an ADL (Activity of Daily Living). It can be expressed:
Specificity TN TN FP

F measure is harmonic mean of the specificity and the precision

F measure 2

sensitivity specificity Sensitivity specificity

37

4.3. Experimental results of the fall detection system

We tried various machine learning algorithms to train classifiers for classifying

the fall and non-fall. In our experiment, 20 volunteers were selected to attend in the experiments. The detail of them was mentioned in the previous section. The

experiment was performed with the scenario in Table 4.1. From 300 samples received from the testing scenario, we conducted experiment with four categories. With these samples, we randomly selected 3/4 of samples for training and other model for testing. It was classified with libSVM function in the software of toolkit WEKA. As shown in
Table 4.3 is the detail of four categories.

Table 4.3: The distribution of the samples Category total samples samples for training 66 52 45 60 sample for test 24 18 15 20

1 2 3 4

90 70 60 80

The test results are shown in Table 4.4, and the mean ratio of accuracy rm is 92.2 percent, where:

rm

1 N

ri
i 1

N is the number of categories, ri is ratio of accuracy of ith category.

Table 4.4: The test result Category Sensitivity (%) Specificity (%) F-measure (%) 1 91.3 91.4 91.4 2 94 93.9 94.0 3 91.3 90.3 90.8 4 92.6 92.6 92,6

38

When using an accelerometer for fall detection, the machine learning based methods somewhat outperformed threshold algorithm. Considering the simplicity of these methods, threshold may be simpler than machine learning methods, but the related work shows that in some case, machine learningbased methods gave the better result because this may seem surprising, but the related work shows that thresholdbased methods were apparently able to learn the pattern of acceleration during the falling.

39

Chapter 5 Conclusion

Because our goal is to detect fall, most of the non-fall (ADL) we have obtained samples are more specific than daily activities (such as cooking, sleeping). In other words, the probability of fall-actions is higher than in everyday of life. Compare with other methods in [21]. The result of our study is more specific. The correct ratio is 94%. This thesis studies to build a standard database and typical attributes for fall events based on accelerometer sensor. We studied the fundamental knowledge about fall detection such as data feature extraction, machine learning models, support vector machine and how to combine them. This thesis has achieved the following results: Study to build a model of fall detection based on accelerometer sensor Studying and learning the typical case of falls, the data processing techniques and the characteristic of the accelerometer sensor are used. Build a special dataset for testing falls. About theory and methods, in terms of the thesis, we explore several detection techniques identify different falls including pre-processing techniques accelerometer sensor, feature extraction from raw accelerometer data and classification techniques using in signal classification problems.

40

In particular, we proposed a model to improve the accuracy of fall detection based on accelerometer sensor to ensure objectivity, the proposed model was compared with the evaluation results of other fall detection algorithms in previous studies. In the future, we will continue to improve the recognition quality with a large enough data for a fully evaluated general methods and experimental models. Especially, we also try to fix the standard signal from many different users more fully.

41

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Noury, N., Fleury, A., Rumeau, P., Bourke, A., Laighin, G., Rialle, V., & Lundy, J. 2007. Fall detection - principles and methods. In Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2007. EMBS 2007. 29th Annual International Conference of the IEEE, 1663 1666.

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Appendix A

ADL (Non-Fall)

1.

From standing position, sit down (normal speed) on chair , remain 5 seconds and

then stand up

2.

Kneel down and pick up an item

45

3.

Standing position, bend-down and pick up an item on the floor. Rise-up

4. Standing position, quickly fall down facing the floor, push up 3-5 times then rise up

5. Lie down and remain 5 seconds. Rotate 180 degree, remain 5 second , then rise up

46

6. Standing position, back to original position

7. Standing position and jump

8. Standing position and run from A to B.

9.

Lie down on the table

47

10. Climb up on the table, remain 5 second and then jump down

48

49