CE4001 HYDROLOGY

UNIT I HYDROMETROLOGY Definition and scope - Hydrologic cycle Natural Disasters Hydrometrology -Meteorologic measurements. What is Hydrometeorology?
Hydrometeorology is the science that studies the cycle of water. It is intimately related to the meteorology, hydrology and climatology sciences. The hydrometeorology studies the processes of the hydrological cycle that occur in the atmosphere (evaporation, condensation and precipitation) and in the ground (rainfall interception, infiltration and surface runoff) and their interactions. he hydrometeorology science studies the behaviour of hydrologic elements, such as rivers, ponds and dams.

This science aims to understand the hydrometeorologic phenomena. It is also its realm, to develop tools for water management and for the observation and prediction of hydrometeorologic phenomena and to develop models to help in the early detection and warning of floods.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE:

The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the EarthAtmosphere system. At its core, the water cycle is the motion of the water from the ground to the atmosphere and back again. Of the many processes involved in the hydrologic cycle, the most important are...

evaporation transpiration condensation precipitation runoff

Evaporation
Evaporation is the change of state in a substance from a liquid to a gas.

In meteorology, the substance we are concerned about the most is water.

For evaporation to take place, energy is required. The energy can come

from any source: the sun, the atmosphere, the earth, or objects on the earth such as humans.

 Everyone has experienced evaporation personally. When the body heats

up due to the air temperature or through exercise, the body sweats, secreting water onto the skin. Transpiration
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from plants through stomata.

Stomata are small openings found on the underside of leaves that are connected to vascular plant tissues.
In most plants, transpiration is a passive process largely controlled by

the humidity of the atmosphere and the moisture content of the soil.
Of the transpired water passing through a plant only 1% is used in the

growth process of the plant. The remaining 99% is passed into the atmosphere. Precipitation:

Types of precipitation 1.Convectional Convectional precipitation results from the heating of the earth's surface that causes air to rise rapidly. As the air rises, it cools and moisture condenses into clouds and precipitation. This type of precipitation is common in the prairie provinces 2.Frontal Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge( front) of a warm air mass meets a cool air mass. The warmer air mass is forced up over the

cool air. As it rises the warm air cools, moisture in the air condenses, clouds and precipitation result 3. orographic of the ocean is forced to rise by large mountains. As the air rises it cools, moisture in the air condenses and clouds and precipitation result on the windward side of the mountain while the leeward side receives very little. Orographic precipitation results when warm moist air

*** NATURAL DISASTERS: WHAT IS DISASTER?

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Disaster is a sudden, calamitous event bringing great damage, loss, and destruction and devastation to life and property.

The damage caused by disasters is immeasurable and varies with the geographical location, climate and the type of the earth surface/degree of exposure. This influences the mental, socio-economic, political and

cultural state of the affected area. Generally, disaster has the following effects in the concerned areas, 1. It completely disrupts the normal day to day life 2. It negatively influences the emergency systems 3. Normal needs and processes like food, shelter, health, etc. are affected and deteriorate depending on the intensity and strictness of the disaster. It may also be termed as a serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources. Thus, a disaster may have the following main features:

Unpredictability Unfamiliarity Speed Urgency Uncertainty Threat

TYPES OF DISASTER:
1.Earthquake 2.Flood 3.Bushfires 4.Draught

5.vocono 6.Tsunami 7.Tornado

EARTHQUAKE
What causes Earthquakes?
when tension is released from the rocks in the Earth's crust and upper mantle. This tension is due to friction between large 'plates' floating on magma on the Earth's surface. when the rocks in the earth's crust bend and break. This causes shock waves to travel on the earth's surface, resulting in widespread destruction.

Plate Tectonics The earth is made up of four main layers.

The outermost layer being the crust, mantle, The inner core. The crust is made up of hard rock, mainly granite. The mantle is mainly molten lava on which the crust is floating. The core is mostly iron, with the outer core being liquid and the inner being solid. The mantle is continually moving; this is called convection. It is also believed that the earth is divided into more than a dozen plates, which are floating on the mantle. This theory is called plate tectonics . The plates often rub together, pull apart, collide or dive under one another. These movements cause earthquakes and also volcanoes.

Where do Earthquakes occur?

Earthquakes usually occur in places where two plates meet, called faults. Earthquakes are mostly generated deep within the earth's crust, when the pressure between two plates is too great for them to be held in place. The underground rocks then snap, sending shock waves out in all directions. These are called seismic waves. The underground origin of an earthquake is called the focus. The point at which an earthquake originates on the surface is called the epicentre.

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CYCLONE

What is a Cyclone?
Cyclones are huge revolving storms caused by winds blowing around a central area of low atmospheric pressure. In the northern hemisphere, cyclones are called hurricanes or typhoons and their winds blow in an anti-clockwise circle. In the southern hemisphere, these tropical storms are known as cyclones, whose winds blow in a clockwise circle.

How do Cyclones occur?

Cyclones develop over warm seas near the Equator. Air heated by the sun rises very quickly, which creates areas of very low pressure. As the warm air rises, it becomes loaded with moisture which condenses into massive thunderclouds. Cool air rushes in to fill the void that is left, but because of the constant turning of the Earth on its axis, the air is bent inwards and then spirals upwards with great force. The swirling winds rotate faster and faster, forming a huge circle which can be up to 2,000 km across. At the centre of the storm is a calm, cloudless area called the eye, where there is no rain, and the winds are fairly light.

As the cyclone builds up it begins to move. It is sustained by a steady flow of warm, moist air. The strongest winds and heaviest rains are found in the towering clouds which merge into a wall about 20-30 km from the storm centre. Winds around the eye can reach speeds of up to 200 km/h, and a fully developed cyclone pumps out about two million tonnes of air per second. This results in more rain being released in a day than falls in a year in a city like London.

When and where do Cyclones occur?

Cyclones begin in tropical regions, such as northern Australia, South-East Asia and many Pacific islands. They sometimes drift into the temperate coastal areas, threatening more heavily populated regions to the South. Northern Australia has about four or five tropical cyclones every year during the summertime wet season. For a cyclone to develop, the sea surface must have a temperature of at least 26C.

The tropics (in green)

Why do Cyclones occur?

When warm air rises from the seas and condenses into clouds, massive amounts of heat are released. The result of this mixture of heat and moisture is often a collection of thunderstorms, from which a tropical storm can develop. The trigger for most Atlantic hurricanes is an easterly wave, a band of low pressure moving westwards, which may have begun as an African thunderstorm. Vigorous

thunderstorms and high winds combine to create a cluster of thunderstorms which can become the seedling for a tropical storm. Typhoons in the Far East and Cyclones in the Indian Ocean often develop from a thunderstorm in the equatorial trough. During the hurricane season, the Coriolis effect of the Earth's rotation starts the winds in the thunderstorm spinning in a circular motion.

Cyclone Danger
Cyclones create several dangers for people living around tropical areas. The most destructive force of a cyclone comes from the fierce winds. These winds are strong enough to easily topple fences, sheds, trees, power poles and caravans, while hurling helpless people through the air. Many people are killed when the cyclone's winds cause buildings to collapse and houses to completely blow away. A cyclone typically churns up the sea, causing giant waves and surges of water known as storm surges. The water of a storm surge rushes inland with deadly power, flooding low-lying coastal areas. The rains from cyclones are also heavy enough to cause serious flooding, especially along river areas.

Storm surge damage

Long after a cyclone has passed, road and rail transport can still be blocked by floodwaters. Safe lighting of homes and proper refrigeration of food may be impossible because of failing power supplies. Water often becomes contaminated from dead animals or rotting food, and people are threatened with diseases like gastroenteritis.

Major cyclone *** *** ***

Bungaladesh

139000 peoples died

T SUNAMI
What is a Tsunami?
A tsunami is often misnamed a tidal wave, but in fact a tsunami is not just one wave but usually a series of seven or eight, that have nothing to do with the tide. In the

open ocean, tsunamis are only about one metre high, but as they approach shallower waters and the shore, they grow to heights as high as eighty-five meters.

What causes a Tsunami? The most common causes of tsunamis are volcanoes, earthquakes and earthslides - mostly undersea.
Volcanoes that have been erupting continuously for a long time have empty magma chambers. The roof then collapses forming a crater somtimes upto one kilometre in diameter. Water gushes into this crater in a very short amount of time, causing a tsunami. Earthquake originated tsunamis occur when portions of the Earth's crust on either side of a fault jolt past each other. For a tsunami to occur however, there must be some kind of vertical movement along the fault. This vertical movement must be capable of displacing huge amounts of water, thus causing waves. Tsunamis can also be caused by land sliding in to the sea with such great force that it creates a wave. Similar to the effect of throwing a pebble into a puddle of water.

Where do Tsunamis occur?

Most tsunamis occur in the Pacific ocean as it is located on a plate mostly made of water. The Pacific ocean is also surrounded by the Ring of Fire, a highly active volcano and earthquake zone. The Ring of Fire circles the ocean from Alaska down to the west coasts of North and South America and up along the east coast of Asia, taking in parts of China, Japan and Russia. Tsunamis can only occur in coastal regions; islands are the main targets.

VOLCONO
Why do Volcanoes occur?
Volcanoes occur when the Earth's plates pull apart causing magma to rise to the surface. Volcanoes can also occur over hotspots and where one plate dives beneath another, forcing magma to rise to the surface. Plates diving under one another is known as subduction.

Where do Volcanoes occur?

Volcanoes usually occur on the edges of plates, similar to where earthquakes occur. A lot of volcanoes occur in the area around the edge of the Pacific ocean called the Pacific Ring of Fire. Volcanoes can also occur in the middle of plates, in hotspots. One such hotspot has formed the Hawaiian islands chain. As the earth rotated, it passed over the hotspot and new islands were formed. Mt St Helens

(Natural Disasters - Volcanoes)

1985 COLUMBIA-23000 PEOPLES DIED

TORNADOS

What is a Tornado?
A tornado is a violent whirling wind, accompanied by a funnel-shaped cloud extending down from a cumulonimbus cloud. Commonly known as a twister, a tornado has an average width of a few hundred metres, but can be anywhere from a few metres to a kilometre wide where it touches the ground. It can move over land for distances ranging from short hops to many kilometres, causing great damage wherever it descends.

How do Tornadoes occur?

Tornadoes form when two masses of different temperatures and humidity meet. If the lower layers of the atmosphere are unstable, a strong upward movement of warmer air is formed. This starts to spiral as it rises, and intensifies. Only a small percentage of these systems develop into the narrow, violent funnels of tornadoes.

The violent, tornado

twisting

funnel

of

Where and when do Tornadoes occur?

Tornadoes are probably the most spectacular type of storm, but are certainly one of the most violent. Fortunately, however, they are restricted in their range. Although they occur in some form on all continents, it is the U.S.A. where they most frequently cause disaster. Tornadoes usually form during cloudy, stormy weather and descend from severe thunderstorms as rapidly-spinning white funnels of cloud.

A tornado descended from a cumulonimbus cloud Tornadoes in the U.S.A. form most frequently during the 'tornado season' in early Spring. The season shifts during later months with increasing latitude. The number of funnels observed each year can vary greatly in any given region. Texas and the

southern states of the U.S.A. are visited by hundreds of tornadoes a year. Because they are so common in this area, the midwestern and south central U.S.A. has been nicknamed 'tornado alley'.

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FLOOD
What causes Floods?
Flooded areas of land usually start off as very dry land. Floods are caused by heavy rains that pour to much water into rivers and other waterways. Making these natural channels unable to carry all the water. Rising water flows over or breaks the banks to the waterways causing the surrounding land to be flooded. Different causes of floods can come from masses of snow melting of tidal waves.

Where do Floods occur?

The type of land that is prone to flooding are broad and flat usually situated on the banks of a river or main waterway. Rivers that flood are regarded in three different stages. They are:ONE:- Water comes off the mountains, eroding the beds and banks of the river as it flows. TWO:- This type river travels through broad valleys which slows the current of the river down. If the current is slow it will transport less material down the river. THREE:- Flood-plain stage. Little if not any erosion takes place most of the material tha tis carried in the current is suspended and deposited to the form a flood plain. *** *** ***

DROUGHT
What causes Drought?
Droughts are caused by lack of rain over a long period of time. If rain does occur it usually isn't enough for the ground to absorb before it is evaporated again. Plants and animals need water to survive, so if there is not enough water they will eventually die from thirst and dehydration. Water is one of the main ingredients in the food chain, for example: If a plant dies from lack of water then the animal that eats that plant will also die, the cycle will then continue to die out. Most droughts tend to occur during summer, as the weather is hot and water is quickly evaporated. Droughts can last for years in most extreme cases. These types of droughts effect outback properties and can devastate crops and livestock.

However, many crops are effected. If a farmer has lost his crop due to drought then he will get no money to pay for the next seasonal crop.

Where do Droughts occur?

Droughts usually occur in hot dry areas of land. In most cases the area is dry because there is very minimal rainfall. The rain that does fall will be quickly absorbed into the ground or blown away by the dry air flow that moves along the ground. Therefore the land is very dry and not many things can live there.

NATURAL DISASTER BUSHFIRES

What causes Bushfires?

There are many different conditions that can trigger a bushfire, including dry weather, high temperatures and flammable vegetation. In remote bushland areas lightning is the most common igniter.

Where do Bushfires occur?

Australia is a popular area for bushfires due to its high temperatures, dry climate and weather patterns. If there is an area of bush near a town or city, arsonists and negligent people are the greatest starters of fires.

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HYDRO METROLOGY

Meteorological Measurements, Units, and Conversions

Fundamental Units Quantity Length Mass Time Electrical Current Temperature Name of Abbreviat unit Meter Kilogram Second Ampere Kelvin M Kg S A K ion

Derived Units Quantity Force Pressure Energy Power Symbol SI Units unit newton N kg m s-2 N m-2 = pascal joule watt Pa J W kg m-1 s2 kg m2 s-2 J s-1 = kg m2 s-3 Name of

Meteorological Instruments

Meteorological Measurements are made to characterize the climate of that location and to supply meteorological information related to hydrologic processes. Meteorological data are especially important on hydrologic research because the climate and weather of an area exert a reflective influence on most hydrologic processes. Precipitation is directly related to river runoff forecasting and is obviously a key component for any hydrologic modeling. Wind speed and wind direction are at least partial determinants of rain or snow distribution over a watershed, and temperature data are vital to parameters such as soil freezing or snow melt. The hydrologic regime is so intimately related to climactic factors that almost every hydrologic study has a meteorological aspect. The key meteorological parameters necessary for hydrologic study are: Precipitation - includes any moisture falling from the atmosphere in liquid or frozen form. Collected by rain gages, both non-recording, which retains the total precipitation between observations and recording which gives time of precipitation so intensities can be computed and transmitting rain gage sites for sending data to a central station for analysis.

Air Temperature- is commonly measured because of its importance to evaporation, transpiration, soil conditions and snowmelt. Humidity - of the air near the surface has a definite influence on the rate of evaporation from lakes and on evapotranspiration from land areas. Wind - Hydrologically, wind influences the magnitude of evapotranspiration and windspeed and direction influence rain gage catch and snowfall drift. Anemometers are designed to measure windspeed and direction. Solar Radiation - It provides the energy that drives regional and global hydrologic cycles. Radiation is the most important factor in the evaporation and transpiration processes. Pyranometers and Net Radiometers are used to measure solar radiation. Evaporation - Rate of evaporation or potential evapotranspiration is dependent on the temperature of the evaporating surface and the wind flow over the water surface and is one of the hydrologic processes most influenced by climactic conditions. It can be measured by lysimeters but is best measured by the Type A Evaporation Pan. Barometric Pressure - This is required for the potential evapotranspiration and dew points. Water level in a confined aquifer will be affected by barometric pressure. Soil Temperature- measurement indicate the sensible heat stored in the soil and are important to hydrologic investigations as soil freezing can drastically reduce infiltration rates of soil causing significant change in runoff in a watershed. Infiltration - Movement of water through the soil which indicates the water retention capacity or saturation thus predicting surface water run off. Infiltration ring tests are a common predictor of infiltration. Top

The Measurements Atmospheric CO2; Wind Speed; Wind Direction; Wind Gusts; Solar Radiation; Air Relative Humidity (RH); Air Temperature; Roof Temperature;

Roof Albedo; Rain Rates;