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UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY TAXILA Department of Electrical Engineering Digital Communication Definitions for Objective Part

1. Define Dirac comb or ideal sampling function. What is its Fourier Transform? Dirac comb is nothing but a periodic impulse train in which the impulses are spaced by a time interval of Ts seconds. The equation for the function is given by

2. State sampling theorem. Suppose the highest-frequency component in x(t) is at frequency fm. Then the Sampling Theorem states that for fs > 2fm there is no loss of information in sampling. 3. What is aliasing? The phenomenon of a high-frequency in the spectrum of the original signal g(t) seemingly taking on the identity of a lower frequency in the spectrum of the sampled signal g(t) is called aliasing or fold over. 4. What is meant by PCM? Pulse code modulation (PCM) is a method of signal coding in which the message signal is sampled, the amplitude of each sample is rounded off to the nearest one of a finite set of discrete levels and encoded so that both time and amplitude are represented in discrete form. This allows the message to be transmitted by means of a digital waveform. 5. Define quantizing process. The conversion of analog sample of the signal into digital form is called quantizing process. 6. What are the two fold effects of quantizing process? 1. The peak-to-peak range of input sample values subdivided into a finite set of decision levels or decision thresholds 2. The output is assigned a discrete value selected from a finite set of representation levels are reconstruction values that are aligned with the treads of the staircase. 7. Define quantization error? Quantization error is the difference between the output and input values of quantizer.

8. What you mean by non-uniform quantization? Step size is not uniform. Non-uniform quantizer is characterized by a step size that increases as the separation from the origin of the transfer characteristics is increased. Non-uniform quantization is otherwise called as robust quantization 9. What is the disadvantage of uniform quantization over the non-uniform quantization? SNR decreases with decrease in input power level at the uniform quantizer but non-uniform quantization maintains a constant SNR for wide range of input power levels. This type of quantization is called as robust quantization. 10. What do you mean by companding? Define compander. The signal is compressed at the transmitter and expanded at the receiver. This is called as companding. The combination of a compressor and expander is called a compander. 11. Draw the block diagram of compander? Mention the types of companding?

12. What is PAM? PAM is the pulse amplitude modulation. In pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier consisting of a periodic train of rectangular pulses is varied in proportion to sample values of a message signal. 13.Define data Signaling Rate. Data signaling rate is defined as the rate measured in terms bits per second (b/s) at which data are transmitted. Data signaling rate Rb=I/Tb Where Tb=bit duration. 14. Define modulation rate. It is defined as the rate at which signal level is changed depending on the nature of the format used to represent the digital data. It is measured in Bauds or symbols per second. 15. State NRZ unipolar format In this format binary 0 is represent by no pulse and binary 1 is represented by the positive pulse.

16. State NRZ polar format. Binary 1 is represented by a positive pulse and binary 0 is represented by a negative pulse. 17. State NRZ bipolar format. Binary 0 is represented by no pulse and binary one is represented by the alternative positive and negative pulse. 18. State Manchester format. Binary 0: The first half bit duration negative pulse and the second half bit duration positive pulse. Binary 1: the first half bit duration positive pulse and the second half bit duration negative pulse. 19. What is an eye pattern? Eye Pattern is used to study the effect of intersymbol interference. 20. What is the width of the eye? It defines the time interval over which the received waveform can be sampled without error from intersymbol interference. 21. What is sensitivity of an eye? The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of the eye as the sampling time is varied. 22. What is margin over noise? The height of the eye opening at a specified sampling time defines the margin over noise. 23. What is Inter symbol interference? The transmitted signal will undergo dispersion and gets broadened during its transmission through the channel. So they happen to collide or overlap with the adjacent symbols in the transmission. This overlapping is called Inter Symbol Interference. 24. How eye pattern is obtained? The eye pattern is obtained by applying the received wave to the vertical deflection plates of an oscilloscope and to apply a saw tooth wave at the transmitted symbol rate to the horizontal deflection plate. 25. Properties of matched filter. The signal to noise ratio of the matched filter depends only upon the ratio of the signal energy to the PSD of white noise at the filter input 1) The output signal of a matched filter is proportional to a shifted version of the autocorrelation function of the input signal to which the filter is matched. 26. What is matched filter receiver?

A filter whose impulse response is a time reversed & delayed version of some signal j (t) then it is said to be matched to j (t) correspondingly, the optimum receiver based on the detector is referred to as the matched filter receiver. 27. What is maximum likelihood detector? Maximum likelihood detector computes the metric for each transmitted message compares them and then decides in favor of maximum. The device for implementing the decision rule i.e; set ^m = mi if In [ fx(x/mk)] is maximum for k=i is called maximumlikelihood detector and the decision rule is called maximum likelihood. 28. Define antipodal signals. Pair of sinusoidal signals that differ only in a phase shift of 180 degrees are referred to as antipodal signals. 29. State the goals of communication system design. To maximize transmission rate, R To maximize system utilization, U To minimize bit error rate, Pe To minimize required systems bandwidth, W To minimize system complexity C To minimize required power, Eb/No 30. What is information source? This is the device producing information to be communicated by means of the DCS. Information sources can be analog or discrete. 31. What is Bit stream? This is a sequence of binary digits (ones and zeros). A bit stream is often termed a baseband signal, which implies that its spectral content extends from ( or near ) dc up to some finite value, usually less than a few megahertz. 32. Define Symbol? A symbol is a group of k bits considered as a unit. 33. What is a unit impulse function? The impulse function is an abstraction-an infinitely large amplitude pulse, with zero pulse width, and unity weight (area under the pulse), concentrated at the point where its argument is zero.

34. Define Energy Spectral Density. Energy spectral density describes the signal energy per unit bandwidth measured in joules/hertz. If Then, ESD is

or

36. Define Power Spectral Density? The power spectral density (PSD) function Gx(f ) of the periodic signal x(t) is a real, even, and nonnegative function of frequency distribution of the x(t) in that gives the power of the frequency domain. PSD is represented as:

37. What is autocorrelation and state the autocorrelation of an energy signal. Autocorrelation refers to matching of a signal with a delayed version of itself. The autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal x(t) is defined as

38. State the properties of autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal. The autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal has the following properties:

39. What is autocorrelation and state the autocorrelation of a periodic power signal. Autocorrelation refers to matching of a signal with a delayed version of itself. The autocorrelation function of a real-valued power signal x(t) is defined as

40. State the properties of autocorrelation function of a real-valued power signal. The autocorrelation function of a real-valued power signal has the following properties:

41. Define strict sense stationary and wide sense stationary. A random process X(t) is said to be stationary in the strict sense if none of its statistics are affected by a shift in the time origin. A random process is said to be wide sense stationary if two of its statistics, its mean and autocorrelation function, do not vary with a shift in the time origin. 42. What is white noise and what are some of its characteristics? White noise is a random signal (or process) with a flat power spectral density. In other words, the signal contains equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any center frequency.

43. What is equalization? In passing through any channel, an audio signal will "spread" from its original qualities. The goal of equalization is to correct, or make equal, the frequency response of a signal. In the broad sense, the name equalization refers to any signal processing or filtering technique that is designed to eliminate or reduce ISI. 44. Explain how QPSK differs from PSK in term of transmission bandwidth and bit information it carries? For a given bit rate 1/Tb, a QPSK wave requires half the transmission bandwidth of the corresponding binary PSK wave. Equivalently for a given transmission bandwidth, a QPSK wave carries twice as many bits of information as the corresponding binary PSK wave. 45. Give the signal space characterization of QPSK. 2-bit information 00 01 11 10 Phase of QPSK ( radians) /4 3/4 5/4 7/4 Coordinates message points Si1 E/2 -E/2 -E/2 E/2 Si2 -E/2 -E/2 E/2 E/2

46. Define QPSK. QPSK is Quadriphase shift keying. In QPSK the phase of the carrier takes on one of the four equally spaced values Such as /4 , 3 /4, 5 /4 and7 /4. 47. Give the two basic operation of DPSK transmitter. 1. Differential encoding of the input binary wave 2. Phase shift keying hence, the name differential phase shift keying

48. What is the minimum tone spacing for noncoherently detected and coherently detected orthogonal FSK signaling?

Noncoherent orthogonal FSK: Coherent orthogonal FSK:

f1 f2 = 1 / T f1 f2 = 1 / ( 2 T)

Definitions for Subjective Part


SOME OTHER STUFF for EXAM (you need to remember this for Subjective part)

Error probability for binary signaling


Probability of bit error for coherent detection of binary PSK (BPSK)

Probability of bit error for coherent detection of differentially encoded binary PSK (DPSK)

Probability of bit error for differentially coherent detection of differentially encoded binary PSK (DBPSK)

Probability of bit error for coherent detection of binary orthogonal FSK

Probability of bit error for non-coherent detection of binary orthogonal FSK

Error probability for M-ary signaling (M > 2)


Probability of symbol error for coherent detection of M-PSK

Probability of symbol error for coherent detection of orthogonal M-FSK

Probability of symbol error for non-coherent detection of orthogonal M-FSK

Probability of symbol error for coherent detection of M-PAM

Relationship between PE(M) and PB for M-ary signaling (k = log2M)


For M-PSK, M-PAM

For orthogonal M-FSK

Pulse shaping
Baseband ideal Nyquist Filter

Where T is the symbol duration. Baseband Raised cosine Filter (RC)

Where T is the symbol duration and 0 1 is the roll-off factor. NOTE: Most of the objective part will come from above mentioned definitions. For the subjective part some help is provided but most will come from the chapters of the book. Course includes chapter 1 through chapter 4 only omitting section 2.9. Best will be to try all problems provided at the end of each chapter.

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