Robert Toye Chemistry 10 Period 1 Mr.

1/7/12

Chemistry Midterm Review Guide

Atomic Concept Unit 1-Models of the Atom J.J. Thompson -Made the plum pudding model -This model shows electrons embedded in a positive sphere

Rutherford -Ran the gold foil experiment -He shot alpha particles or positive particles directly at a gold atom -Some of the alpha particles passed through but some bounced back -He came to two conclusions: -The atom is made of mostly empty space -There is a small dense positive region of the atom called the nucleus Bohr -Made a model in which he found that electrons move in circular paths called orbits

Quantum Mechanical Model -Atoms have orbitals Orbital- region where it is most probable to find an electron Electrons do not have fixed paths Subatomic Particles Proton -Charge-Positive

-Location- Nucleus -Mass- 1 amu Neutron -Charge- No charge -Location-nucleus -Mass- 1 amu Electron -Charge- Negative -Location- Surrounding nucleus -Mass- 1/1836 amu (no mass) Isotopes - Atoms of the same element that have different mass -Different mass is due to change in number of electrons -All isotopes of the same element have the same atomic number therefore same number of protons Ground State -When all the electrons are in their lowest available energy level Excited State When electrons absorb energy from their surroundings, they jump to 9 levels higher than their normal energy level. Bright Line Spectra -Electrons can move energy levels -When electrons gain energy they go up in energy levels excited state -When electrons turn to original energy level- ground state- the atom emits Energy in the form of light -Light is in the form of lines called bright line spectra Each element has its own bright light spectra Atomic Mass -Shown on periodic table

-Weighted average of all the isotopes of a given element Extra Notes The number of protons must be equal to the number of electrons in an atom so the charges cancel out Electron configuration- arrangement of the electrons in their respective energy levels Valance electrons- electron at the outermost shell The number of electrons in the excited state must be the as the number of electrons in the ground state Cation- Atom with positive charge (+). Anion- Atom with negative charge (-). Atomic number = number of protons Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons Nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons therefore contains all of the atoms Mass All atoms have the same number of protons and electrons making them neutral Therefore the atomic number tells the number of protons and electrons Unit 2- The Periodic Table -The modern periodic table is arranged in increasing atomic number Periods

-Horizontal rows in the periodic table -Period number corresponds to the number of energy levels that electrons occupy Groups

-Vertical columns

-All elements in the same group have similar chemical properties and same number of valance electrons

Metals - left side of the periodic table - Most metallic elements are in lower left hand corner - Properties include: - Solid except mercury-liquid - Malleable- can be hammered into thin sheets - Ductile- can be drawn and pulled into wires - Have luster- shine - Good conductors of heat and electricity - lose electrons and form positive ions - Transition metals- groups 3-12 in periodic table Metalloids - Elements along the staircase in the periodic table - metallic and nonmetallic characteristics Nonmetals - Right side of the periodic table - Properties include: - Most are gases or solids except bromine- liquid - Not malleable or ductile - Lack luster - Poor conductors of heat and electricity - gain electrons and become negative ions Ions - Atoms with a charge - Charge comes from the gain or loss of electrons - Number of protons does not change Atomic Radius - Increases from top to bottom in group - Decreases from left to right in period Ionization Energy - Amount of energy needed to remove an electron from its valence shell - Increases from left to right - Decreases from top to bottom Electronegativity - Ability to attract electrons - Increases from left to right - Decreases from top to bottom Groups in the Periodic Table - Group 1- alkali metals

Strongest metals Highly explosive Oxidation state of +1 - Group 2- alkali earth metals Second strongest metals Oxidation state of +2 Group 3-12- Transition metals They react from valance shell and the shell next to it. Group 14-15- Metalloids Act as metals as well as nonmetals Dark stair case in periodic table Group 14- Carbon Family Each has a valance electron of 4 Usually non-metals Group 15- Nitrogen family Non-Metals Each has a valance electron of 5 Group 16- Oxygen Family Non-metals Valance electron of 6 Group 17- Halogen 5 Strongest non-metals Highest electronegativity value Valance electron of 7 Group 18 or 0- Noble gases Nonatomic gases Each has 8 valance electrons except helium Chemistry of Groups From top to bottom 1. Metallic character increases

2. Atomic radii increases 3. Ionization energy and electronegativity value decreases All elements in the same group will have similar chemical properties. Chemistry of Periods From left to right 1. 2. 3. 4. Extra Notes Mass number- neutrons + protons Atomic number increases Ionization and electronegativity increases Metallic character and atomic radii decreases Non-metallic character increases

Unit 3- Chemical Bonding

Bonding - combining two or more elements to form a compound - An absorption of energy -Attraction force that exists between atoms or ions

Aim of chemical bonding To achieve noble gas configuration or octet (8 valance electrons) Compounds - Two or more elements chemically combined - can be broken down by chemical means Bonding involves the valence electrons of atoms- atoms want to get eight valence electrons in order to be stable- octet rule. Ionic bonds Electrostatic forces that hold ionic compounds together Atoms held together by a cation donating an electron to an anion Both atoms want to attain octets Transfer of electrons - Metal and a nonmetal Metallic bonds Valence electrons of metals modeled as a sea of electrons

Metals are closely bonded cations Free floating electrons attracted to the positively charged metallic cations

Covalent bond Between two nonmetals Electrons are shared between atoms form molecular compounds 3 types are nonpolar, polar, and coordinate Role of Energy bonds Energy is involved in joining and breaking of bonds and rearrangement of the existing

Joining of bonds Energy will be released This condition is called exothermic reaction Breaking of bonds -Energy is absorbed -This condition is called endothermic reaction. Polar Covalent Bond -Even distribution of electrons -Its asymmetrical Nonpolar Covalent Bond -Mostly diatomic molecules -Its symmetrical Coordinate Covalent -Involves polyatomic ions Diatomic molecule Molecule consisting of two atoms Group of elements that exist naturally in diatomic form Writing Formulas of Compounds 1. First identify the types of elements in the compound - Are they a metal and a nonmetal?? - Is there a polyatomic ion in the compound?? - Are they two nonmetals??

Naming Compounds 1. First identify the types of elements in the compound Are they a metal and a nonmetal?? Is there a polyatomic ion in the compound?? Are they two nonmetals?? Extra Notes Lower to difference in electronegativity the lower the polarity Higher the difference in electronegativity the higher the polarity Ionic Bonding- nonmetal and metal Covalent Bonding- 2 nonmetals Organic compounds are generally formed by covalent bonding. Unit 4- Moles and Stoichiometry

Moles -The S.I. unit for measuring the amount of substance -1 mole= avogradros number= 6.02 x 1023 particles -Used to count particles or ions or atoms or molecules. -1 mole of an atom= gram atomic mass -1 mole of a compound= gram formula mass (gfm) -Or gram molecular mass -Or Molar Mass Finding the GFM 1. You must have the correct chemical formula 2. 2. Add the masses of all of the elements - the masses are in the periodic table- round them off to the tenth(1 decimal place) 3. Express in grams

Percent Composition Percent Composition - percent by mass of each element in a compound

% mass of element = mass of element x 100 mass of compound Empirical Formula -Lowest whole number ratio of elements in a compound -Can sometimes be the same as the molecular formula Balancing Chemical Equations must use coefficients to balance formulas you can never change the subscripts of a chemical equation Steps to Balance Chemical Equations 1. Write all of the elements that are present on each side 2. Based on the subscripts, write the amount of each element present 3. Add coefficients to make the numbers equal each other

Types of chemical reactions 1. combination- 8 Fe + S8 8 FeS 2. decomposition- 2 H2O 2 H2 + O2 3. single-replacement- Zn + 2 HCl ZnCl2 + H2 4. double-replacement- NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s) 5. combustion- CH4 + 1.5O2 => CO + 2H2O

Extra Notes Subscript- number at the lower key case that tells the number of atoms present in a formula. CO2 carbon dioxide- same empirical and molecular formula