1. INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication is social interaction through messages.

Fiske (1992) Communication is the simultaneous sharing and creating of meaning through human symbolic interaction. Dimbleby (2000). The word communication comes from the Latin word communicare which means to make common or to share. Hence it is a search for common meaning. According to Carey (1993) it is a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired and transformed. It is a basic sequence which begins with a source, from which a message is passed to a transmitter where it is encoded into a signal, which is subject to noise on its way to a receiver, where it is decoded and then passed on to a destination. Adler and Rodman add that it is a process of human beings responding to the symbolic behaviour of other persons. Human animals do communicate but in this context the focus is humans who can interact verbally and non-verbally. Process a process is a series of activities whose end is easily determined from the beginning. It is not discreet, i.e. it does not just contain individual acts that are unrelated. It is not like pictures in a photo album but like a motion picture. Symbolic - symbols are used to represent things, processes, ideas or events in ways that make communication possible. The most symbolic feature of symbols is their arbitrary nature. This feature is easiest to see when we observe people who do not follow linguistic conventions (children and immigrants). Communication competence It is the ability to take part in effective communication that is characterized by skills and understandings that enable communication partners to exchange messages successfully. For Adler and Rodman it involves achieving one s goals in a manner that, ideally, maintains or enhances the relationship in which it occurs. H Hence there is no ideal way to communicate. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETENT COMMUNICATION

Competence is situational it is a mistake to think that communication competence is a trait one either possesses or lacks. Competence is relational Communication is transactional, something we do with others, not to others, behaviour that is competent in one relationship isn t necessarily competent in others. Competence can be learned communication is a set of skills that anyone can learn. As children grow, their ability to communicate effectively develops. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETENT COMMUNICATORS Possess a wide range of behaviours Have the ability to choose the most appropriate behaviour Possess skill at performing behaviours Empathy/Perspective taking Cognitive complexity Self monitoring Commitment to the relationship COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION Although there is no exhaustive list of the components of communication, eight of the most basic elements are worth examining in detail SOURCE is the creator of the message. Because communication usually involves more than one person, more than one source of communication can exist at one time. A receiver can also function as a source. The communication source performs four roles. He/she determines the meaning of what is to be communicated, encodes the meaning into a message, sends the message and perceives and reacts to a listener s response to the message. The source has to bring into play his communication skills, knowledge, attitudes, and socio-cultural background that make him or her, a unique individual. MESSAGE is the stimulus that is produced by the source. It comprises words, grammar, and organisation of thoughts, physical appearance, body movement, voice, personality aspects, the self concept and personal style. The environment and noise can also shape the message. Any stimulus that affects a receiver is a message form the source, regardless of whether the source intended to send it. Again each message is unique. Even if the same message were to be created over and over again, it would differ in each instance because messages cannot be repeated or received in exactly the same way or in the same context. CODE a code is a systematic arrangement of symbols used to create meanings in the mind of another person or persons. Syntax (rules of arrangement in language) and Grammar (rules of function in

language) result in the systematic arrangement that becomes a code. Words, phrases and sentences become symbols that are used to evoke images, thoughts and ideas in the mind of others. There are two types of codes, verbal codes and non-verbal codes. Verbal codes consist of symbols and their grammatical arrangement. All languages are codes. Non-verbal codes consist of all symbols that are not words. Encoding is the act/process of putting/translating an idea or thought into a code. INTERFERENCE Noise refers to any interference in the encoding and decoding processes that reduces message clarity. Interference can be external and physical e.g. noise caused by a slammed door, the blasting of a stereo, unpleasant environment, a smoke filled room, a room too hot, cold, a speech impediment or clothing. Interference can also be internal and psychological e.g. thoughts in a person s mind. A person who speaks in a loud voice to get someone s attention may create both physical and psychological interference. If the receiver perceives the loudness as anger, the loud voice creates not only a distraction but also a distortion of interpretation. If the receiver responds accordingly, the sender may be quite surprised. Essentially, interference is anything that reduces or distorts the clarity, accuracy, meaning, understanding or intention of a message. CHANNEL A channel is the means/route by which messages flow between sources and receivers. The usual communication channels are light waves and sound waves, which allow us to see and hear one another. When two people talk face to face, light and sound waves in the air serve as the channel. We also receive communication by smelling, touching and tasting. All five senses therefore contribute as channels to communication. RECEIVER A receiver analyses and interprets messages, in effect translating them into meaning. This process is called decoding i.e. the process of translating a message into the thoughts or feelings that were communicated. It is the process of assigning meaning to the idea or thought in a code. A receiver is also a source. As one listens to another s message they react with body movements, facial expressions and even silence and the person sending the initial message receives the information conveyed by the physical reactions. Like the source, the receiver also has several roles: to receive (hear, see, touch, smell or taste) the message, to attend to the message, to interpret and analyse the message; to store and recall the message and to respond to the source, message, channel, environment and noise. FEEDBACK refers to the response to a message that a receiver sends back to a source. Feedback enables a sender to determine whether the communication has been received and understood as intended. Feedback is a natural extension of effective receiving. Thus, feedback serves as a kind of control mechanism in the communication process. Unfortunately we too often fail to monitor our own communication, and more important, others reactions to it, so we are often not heard or are misunderstood. Feedback helps us to learn about ourselves, adjust to others and assess ourselves. *EXPERIMENT ENVIRONMENT Also referred to as the atmosphere. It is the psychological and physical surroundings in which communication occurs. The environment encompasses the attitudes, feelings, perceptions, relationships of the communicators as well as the characteristics of the location in which communication

takes place e.g. the size, colour, arrangement, decoration and temperature of the room. The environment affects the nature and quality of the communication. It is easier to carry out an intimate conversation in a private, quiet and comfortable setting than in a public, noisy and uncomfortable setting. Both effective and ineffective communications are, in part, products of their environments. Effective communication can occur anywhere and under most circumstances but pleasing and comfortable environments are more likely to produce positive exchanges. CONTEXT The broad circumstances or situation in which communication occurs is called the context. Communication does not occur in a vacuum but in formal and informal settings. The number of people, the type of communication and the situation in which the communication occurs all lend themselves to the context. Contexts also influence environment and vice versa and also help to determine the type of communication that would be used.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION IS A PROCESS Communication is considered a process because it involves a series of actions that has no beginning or end and is constantly changing. It is not an object that you can hold to examine or dissect. It is an activity in which you participate. It also involves variables that can never be duplicated. The interrelationships among people, environments, skills, attitudes, status, experiences and feelings all determine communication at any given moment. No two relationships are developed in the same way and like the weather, some relationships are cool and others warm. Communication is both ever-changing and capable of effecting change. Furthermore, the communication and the changes it produces might not have a clearly identifiable beginning or end. If you understand that communication is a process, you will be able to see how events and relationships constantly change and yet also have continuity. COMMUNICATION IS A SYSTEM In simple terms a system is a combination of parts interdependently acting to form a whole. If your supervisor has had a fight at home, that event may affect his relationship with the workers and he may be irritable and snap at you and others. The communication process is a system and occurs only when the necessary components interact. If components of communication malfunction or are absent, communication is prevented or ineffective. COMMUNICATION IS BOTH INTERACTIONAL AND TRANSACTIONAL The interactional and transactional aspects of communication are closely related and should be considered together. Interaction is an exchange of communication in which communicators take turns sending and receiving messages. Each message is a separate action, like throwing a ball or in a telephone conversation. Even though there is a reaction to each message being sent, the reaction and message are not simultaneous.

Most face-to-face communication does not occur as a series of distinctly separate actions. Thus the term transaction is used to extend the concept of interaction to include simultaneous actions. Persons involved in transaction engage in sending (encoding) and receiving (decoding) messages at the same time. This does not necessarily mean that they are talking at the same time. For instance, a handshake or teachers communicating with students. COMMUNICATION IS CONTEXTUAL COMMUNICATION IS DYNAMIC COMMUNICATION CAN BE INTENTIONAL OR UNINTENTIONAL When one person communicates with another, he or she intends that specific messages with specific purposes and meanings be received. Communication can occur, however, regardless of whether it is intended. Intentional communication is a message that is purposely sent to a specific receiver. Unintentional communication is a message that is not intended to be sent or was not intended for the individual who received it. On the basis of intent or lack of intent four possible communication situations can occur. a) Intentional Communicator and Intentional Receiver both are willing parties to the exchange. b) Unintentional Communicator and Intentional Receiver occurs when someone reads more into a communication act than was intended by the source. c) Intentional Communicator and Unintentional Receiver here the source intends to send a message but the receiver is not consciously or intentionally receiving it. d) Unintentional Communicator and Unintentional Receiver can occur without anyone intentionally sending or receiving a message. It is usually non-verbal. The clothing a person wears might not be worn to communicate any specific message, and perhaps persons observing the clothing might not intentionally or consciously receive any message through it, but they do see it. Thus, communication occurs even though neither the person nor the observer has any intention of communicating. MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION Communication is a cure-all/will solve all problems Quantity means quality/more communication is always better Meaning is in the Words we use, not in people We have a natural ability to communicate Communication is reversible Communication always requires complete understanding Communication is always a good thing

Communication is simple WHY STUDY COMMUNICATION -Studying communication can improve the way you see yourself because of the relationship between thought (intrapersonal communication) and interaction with others (interpersonal communication) we learn how to relate to others and gain self-confidence. -Studying communication can improve the way others see you impression management

-Studying communication can increase what you know about human relationships at all levels; social, economic and political. -Studying communication can teach you important life-skills critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, public speaking and conflict resolution. -Studying communication can help you exercise your constitutionally guaranteed freedom of speech.

LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION Types of communication are usually distinguished by the number of people involved, by the purpose of the communication and by the degree of formality in which it occurs. Each type of communication involves appropriate verbal and non-verbal behaviours. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION refers to the process of understanding information within oneself. It is the process of understanding and sharing meaning within the self. There are many things we must learn through our own experiences and learn in no other way. Intrapersonal communication also occurs anytime we evaluate our attempt to understand the interaction that occurs between us and anything that communicates a message to us. We are involved in intrapersonal communication as we receive, attend to, interpret and analyse, store and recall, or respond in some fashion to any message. All messages we create/receive first occur within us. Hence communication between two people is far more complex than it appears on the surface. Intrapersonal communication also includes diverse internal activities like thinking, problem solving, stress, conflict resolution, planning, evaluation and relationship development. Intrapersonal communication may occur without the presence of any other type of communication, but all the other types of communication cannot occur without it. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION Is the personal process of co-coordinating meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening. Like intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication occurs for a variety of reasons; to solve problems, resolve conflicts, share information, to improve perception of yourself or to fulfill social needs. Dyadic and Small group communication are two subsets of interpersonal communication. Social scientists call a two person interaction a dyad. It includes interviews with an employer or teacher; talks

with a parent, spouse or child. Observations from a variety of settings ranging from playgrounds, train depots and shopping malls reveal that most communication is dyadic in nature. Even communication within larger groups (classrooms, parties and families) consists of multiple, often shifting dyadic encounters. SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION Is the interaction of a small group of people to achieve an interdependent goal. In small group communication every person can participate actively with the other members. Small groups are a common fixture of everyday life. Your family is a group, so is the athletics team, a collection of fellow workers or a group of students working on a class project. Small groups possess characteristics that are not present in a dyad. For example, two or more members can form a coalition to defend their position against other members, whereas in a dyad the members face each other on their own, without support from others. In a group the majority of members can pressure a minority to conform, either consciously or unconsciously but in a dyad no such pressure exists. With their greater size, groups also have the ability to be more creative than dyads. Finally, communication in groups is affected strongly by the type of leader who is in a position of authority. PUBLIC COMMUNICATION Public communication occurs when a group becomes too large for all members to contribute. One characteristic of public communication is an unequal amount of speaking. One or more people are likely to deliver their remarks to the remaining members who act as an audience. This leads to a second characteristic of public settings: limited verbal feedback. The audience isn t able to talk back in a two-way conversation as occurs in a dyad or small group. This doesn t mean feedback is totally absent; audiences have a chance to ask questions and to offer brief comments. Public speakers usually have a greater chance to plan and structure their remarks than do communicators in smaller settings. Public communication most often informs or persuades, but it can also entertain, introduce, announce, welcome or pay tribute. MASS COMMUNICATION Consists of messages transmitted to large, widespread audiences via electronic and print media: newspapers, magazines, television, radio etc. Mediated communication is any form of communication that employs electronic means. Mass communication varies from interpersonal, small group and public varieties in several ways; a) Mass messages are aimed at a large audience without any personal contact between sender and receivers. b) Most of the messages sent via mass communication channels are developed, or at least financed by large organizations. In this sense, mass communication is far less personal and more of a product than the other types examined so far. c) Mass communication is almost always controlled by many gatekeepers who determine what messages will be delivered to consumers, how they will be constructed and when they will be delivered.

Sponsors, editors, producers, reporters and executives all have the power to influence mass messages in ways that don t affect most other types. ADVANTAGE Multiplier effect DISADVANTAGE - little or no feedback MODELS OF COMMUNICATION One way to understand more about what it means to communicate is to look at some models that describe what happens when two or more people interact. A model is a simulation of reality. The aim of individual models is not to ignore complexity or to explain it away but rather to give order and coherence. LINEAR/ TRANSMISSION MODEL Also known as the action (inoculation model). Until 50 years ago, researchers viewed communication as something that one person does to another. In this linear communication model by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, communication is like giving an injection: a sender encodes ideas and feelings into some sort of message and then conveys them by means of a channel (speech, writing, etc) into a receiver, who decodes the message. It is also very much like a basketball being thrown around. The ball cannot be thrown back until it is caught. The linear model also introduces the concept of noise a term used by social scientists to describe any forces that interfere with effective communication. Weaknesses- Shannon and Weaver highlight three main barriers, the technical, semantic and effectiveness problems. They differentiate into the following; -No provision for feedback no shared meaning -Views communication as unidirectional and mechanistic -The central role of the medium was ignored -The linear model was also faulted for not revealing anything about how audiences influence speakers. -The model seems to depict a public speaking model. -The model localises noise -Meaning is not always contained in a message, rather its interpretation. -There is more to communicate than messages. Phatic function INTERACTIONAL MODEL Was put forward by Schramm and Osgood. This model addresses most of the weaknesses of the linear model. There is a provision for feedback, communication becomes a two way process where interactants take turns to send and receive the messages.

Noise can occur at every stage of the communication process. Three types of noise can disrupt communication, external, psychological and physiological. 1) External (physical) Includes factors outside the receiver that make it difficult to hear as well as many other kinds of distractions. 2) Physiological noise involves biological factors in the receiver or sender that interfere with accurate reception: illness, fatigue etc 3) Psychological noise refers to forces within a communicator that interfere with the ability to express or understand a message accurately. The interactional model also shows that communicators often occupy different environments fields of experience that help them understand others behavior. In communication terminology, environment refers not only to a physical location but also to the personal experiences and cultural backgrounds that participants bring to a conversation. The sender might belong to one ethnic group and the receiver to another, rich/poor, passionate about subject/indifferent to it, long and eventful life/young and inexperienced. Differing environments make understanding others challenging but certainly not impossible. Hard work in communicating bridges the gap that separates environments that are different. Recognizing that challenges arise from dissimilar environments is important. Differing environments make understanding others challenging but certainly not impossible. Hard work in communicating bridges the gap that separates environments that are different. Recognizing that challenges arise from dissimilar environments is important. Weaknesses -The sender still assumes a dominant position -importance of the medium ignored -Assumes turn-taking in communication which is not always the case. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL Propounded by Barnlund and involves simultaneous sending and receiving. Rather than act exclusively as senders or receivers at any given time, the transaction model has communicators doing both at the same time. Sending and receiving are no longer separate activities and they do not occur one at a time. In this case there are many balls being thrown and received at the same time. Even without the ball some productive activity occurs, off the ball movement/running around in anticipation of a pass. Communication is fluid, not static it is difficult to isolate a single discreet act of communication from the events that precede and follow it. We reiterate that communication is relational, not individual Communication isn t something we do to others, rather, it is something we do with them. Weaknesses

-Assumes equality between communication partners which is not always the case. -It encourages discussion/negotiation and not action -Mass communication is unidirectional -It is chaotic (the whole idea of people being simultaneous senders and receivers means anarchy) CONSTRUCTIVIST MODEL The first three are mechanistic models that are limited in that they simply show the direction of communication movement. In the constructivist model the focus shifts to what occurs in the minds of the communicators: interpreting meaning. The constructivist model posits that receivers create their own reality in their minds. The sender s words are symbols to be interpreted and the receiver constructs his or her own meaning. However the receiver may misinterpret the sender s message. The only way to reach agreement about the message is by discussing what the sender intended and what the receiver interpreted. This is called negotiating meaning. In this model communication is no longer an injection or ball. It becomes more confusing under this model, but in reality communication isn t as easy as the earlier models claim. Under the best of communication circumstances the two people involved learn to manage meaning by negotiating what each believes the message to be. GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY Offers the most complete description of communication from a process point of view and originated from the work of biologist L.von Bertalanffy. The General Systems Theory describes a system as a whole which consists of several interrelated subsystems. A system may be clearly distinguished from its environment but maintains important relationships with it in that it receives inputs from the environment and provides outputs to the environment. This view presents communication as a circular, rather than linear, process and shows that the system is open, rather than closed. Systems are goal-oriented and self maintaining and operate, through feedback, within margins which set the norms for their proper functioning. Feedback derives from output, since the latter shows conditions of the system input, in turn, reflects system reaction to output. Basic to the operation of the system is the need to maintain itself in a state of balance. This necessitates control and self-regulation. The general Systems Theory places more emphasis on the mutual relationships between the constituent parts of the system in general than on information flow and information channels ASSESSMENT Approaches viewing communication as a technical process flowing between interrelated parts of a system or between systems do not tell the full story of the complex and multi-faceted nature of human communication all communication is not geared to efficiency, nor is all communication concerned with the transmission and exchange of information. The technical view oversimplifies the process of communication, a shortcoming deriving from the assumption that the same general principles apply to all things called SYSTEMS.

This detached view fails to inform us about real life. Its concern for the maintenance of balance supports the status quo of systems, regardless of the human consequences that their operation may have. The most important sources of malfunctioning in a system is precisely the actions of human beings as human beings. This is most clearly shown in interpersonal communication which enables participants to express their individuality and to [participate in an exchange of opinions with their partners. The systemic view disregards the distinctive human nature of communication and depicts communicating human beings as simply processing units. COMMUNICATION BARRIERS The list of possible areas of miscommunication is endless hence it is important to familiarize with the most likely causes of communication breakdown. That knowledge will prove useful when you are called upon to solve communication problems, especially those concerned with socio-economic development. Tichapondwa (2004) highlights the following barriers to communication in the environment. a) Power differences these can be a barrier to communication. If the people at the top disseminate ideas without going through community leaders, who are themselves already knowledgeable, it is most likely they will use their influence to discourage people from accepting change. b) Negative timing in communicating the message can prevent its conveyance. For example, experts obsessed with the urgency of particular development issues may want to pressurize the people into adopting the ideas rather too fast. The chances of resistance are high. c) The immediacy of the message people who live in a given cultural setting, and are used to handling problems in certain ways will resist the imposition of an idea they consider poorer than theirs. In other words, the message may not have an immediate appeal. d) The language issue Language can prevent communication at two levels. Firstly, for the not-so literate community, the use of English to convey ideas from external sources can very easily meet with incomprehension. At the second level, even when communication is carried out in familiar language, much will depend on diction and how ideas are communicated. Language which creates the impression that the encoder knows it all, begets resistance. This is especially true when the tone is patronizing. e) Lack of interest on the part of the receiver easily leads to the blockage of communication. When a receiver is convinced that what he is reading about or what he is listening to is cheap propaganda, he will close his mind to the message. This is often true in situations where the encoder has little credibility in the eyes of the receiver. 1. Lack of planning 2. Organisational structure 3. Size of the organisation 4. Semantic distortion or poorly expressed messages

More communication barriers in organizations 1. Information overload 2. Message complexity 3. Differing status 4. Lack of trust 5. Inadequate communication structures 6. Incorrect choice of medium 7. Closed communication climate 8. Unethical communication 9. Inefficient communication 10. Physical distractions 2. COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS CORPORATE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS Organisations are social collectives, or groups of people, in which activities are co-ordinated to achieve both individual and collective goals. Organizations exist because people s lives have become sufficiently complex that they must co-operate with one another. The vast majority of us actually can do very little; we are constantly at the mercy of electricians, bakers, tertiary institutions and landlords. The study of organizational communication involves understanding how the context of the organization influences communication processes and how the symbolic nature of communication differentiates it from other forms of organizational behaviour. Hence ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION refers to the ways in which groups of people both maintain structure and order through their symbolic interactions and allow individual actors the freedom to accomplish their goals. This is because communication is not just interaction, it is also a process through which we make sense out of our experiences, a complex system through which we manage meanings that ultimately create and maintain organizational structures. This concept is known as STRUCTURATION, the process of forming and maintaining structures through verbal and non-verbal communication, which establishes norms and rules governing members behaviours.

The point is, communication among members is what creates organizational rules and operating procedures in the first place, and once they are established communication tends to keep the rules and procedures in place.

Parsons (1963) provides a functional classification system of organizational types based on the primary purposes for organizing and developing organizations within society. He identifies four primary functions that organizations are constructed to perform. 1) Economic production orientation manufactures products and offer services for consumers. These are self sufficient and profit oriented. 2) Political goals generate and distribute power and control within society; legislative bodies, government offices, local government, police, military. 3) Integration goals help to mediate and resolve discord among members of society; legal offices, court system, public interest groups. 4) Pattern maintenance goals organizations promoting cultural and educational development and regularity with society. They teach individuals how to participate effectively in society (family, schools and religious organizations promote pattern maintenance.) because they help preserve society by reducing health problems and help the ill to return to their normal functioning within society, health care organizations are oriented towards pattern maintenance. ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES The patterns of relations and practices created through the co-ordinated activities of organizational members can be conceptualized as the organizational structure (McPhee and Poole 2001). Most members of the organizations know what their jobs are, how they are related to other jobs, who the boss is and who has what organizational power. Communication practices often depend on knowledge of these facts. Ideally, organizational structures allow productivity and achievement of high quality outcomes. PRODUCTIVITY entails the ratio of input to output, as material and human resource expended to achieve individual and organizational output decline, productivity increases. QUALITY deals with levels of performance outcome measured in ability to meet or exceed customer or other stakeholder expectations. Organizational structure can take a wide variety of forms depending on the goals and co-coordinating activities of organizational members. Harrison (1994) classifies organizations structured under two broad types: 1) BUREAUCRACY - The word has come to symbolize red-tape, inefficiency and insensitivity. In reality it is a term coined in the 1940s by Max Weber, a German sociologist and describes organizational

structures characterized by a division of labour, rigid hierarchy of authority and downward communication that enforces formalized rules and procedures for behaviour. Division of labour refers to how a given amount of work is divided among the available human resources. Bureaucratic structures assume that work can best be accomplished if employees are assigned to a limited number of specialized tasks. By breaking down complex tasks into specialized activities, worker productivity can be increased. Division of labour works best when the organization has clear lines of authority, or a chain of command. In bureaucratic structures jobs are arranged in a clearly defined hierarchy of formal organizational authority based on the office held and the expertise of individual office holders. Hierarchies help to direct interpersonal relationships between organization members toward the accomplishment of organizational tasks. Managers (i.e. superiors) are responsible for making decisions and directing activities to accomplish primary organizational goals. One hallmark of bureaucratic structures is an emphasis on downward communication which occurs whenever superiors initiate messages to subordinates. Downward communication focuses on enforcing formalized rules and procedures to guide behaviour and accomplish tasks. Although the presence of bureaucracy is undeniable, bureaucratic structures are often criticized for stifling workers through their rigid hierarchies and rules, overemphasizing organizational goals and limited participation in decision making. 2) PARTICIPATORY ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES Participatory organizations are structured to value workplace democracy. Workplace democracy is a system of governance which truly values individual goals and feelings (e.g. equitable remuneration, the pursuit of enriching work, and the right to express oneself) as well as typical organizational objectives (e.g. effectiveness and efficiency) and actively fosters the connection between those two sets of concerns by encouraging individual contributions to important organizational choices (Cheney 1995). Democratic organizations can be classified in two groups which promote the participation of diverse voices in open dialogue; a) PARTICIPATION PROGRAMS IN EXISTING BUREAUCRATIC STRUCTURES within existing bureaucratic structures small groups are often used to promote employee participation in decision making. Quality circles and Self-managed work teams illustrate this approach to workplace democracy. QUALITY CIRCLE a small group of employees that meets regularly on company time to recommend improvements to products and work procedures. Companies can have quality circles to improve worker safety, create new products, save production costs, improve current products and improve the quality of the work environment (Barker 1999). SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMS These are also called autonomous work groups. These are groups of workers who are given the freedom to manage their own work. For example, an automobile assembly team may be responsible for assembling a car from start to finish as is done at Volvo and Nissan plants. Workers are free to select their own team leaders and sometimes to hire and fire their own members. Members of self-managed work teams are often cross-trained so that each member can perform several tasks competently. This arrangement gives the team tremendous flexibility to use workers skills most efficiently.

Alternative organizations also represent participatory structures. Cheney (1995) defined alternative organizations as employing organizations that define themselves at least somewhat in opposition to the mainstream and are established and maintained with the principle of worker control. 3) CO-OPERATIVE a business that is owned and democratically controlled by its users. By the very nature of their organizational structure, co-operatives have greater formal or legal rights to individual participation. 4) FEMINIST ORGANISATIONS Ferree and Martin (1995) defined feminist organizations as those that embrace collectivist decision-making (i.e. decisions made by the group), member empowerment and a political agenda of ending women s oppression. Thousands of organizations including rape and abuse crisis centers, women s health clinics, women s bookstores, churches, restaurants and theatre groups operate form a feminist standpoint. These organizations are usually staffed by and for women. Harrison (1994) describes co-operatives and feminist organizations as created by individuals who seek to construct economic and political alternatives to traditional bureaucratic organisation. Alternative organizations have flattened structures with few hierarchical levels. A large number of employees are placed at the same level and their jobs are not ranked as being above or below other jobs in the organisation. The short chain of command allows a relatively rapid movement of messages throughout the organisation. By the very nature of their structure alternative organizations promote horizontal communication among people and provide space for employees to have an important voice in organizational decision making. INTERNAL ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION It is the symbolic interaction that occurs within organizations and among organisation members. Regardless of our organizational role, position or level of authority, the quality of our organizational experience is based in part on the quality of internal communication. Our discussion of internal communication focuses on communication networks and socialization process. COMMUNICATIO NETWORKS Are patterns of relationships through which information flows in an organisation. Stohl (1995) describes communication networks as capturing the tapestry of relationships the complex web of affiliations among individuals and organizations as they are woven through the collaborative threads of communication. Communication networks emerge in organizations based on FORMAL and INFORMAL communication. Formal communication consists of messages that follow prescribed channels of communication throughout the organisation. Organisational charts are visual depictions of formal communication networks that are very common. Organizational charts provide clear guidelines of who is responsible for a given task and which employees are responsible for others performance. Organizational charts demonstrate that communication can flow in several directions.

1) DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION also known as directive communication. It occurs whenever superiors initiate messages to subordinates. Ideally it should include such things as job instructions, job rationale, policy and procedures, performance feedbacks and motivational appeals. ADVANTAGES -emphasises organizational goals -ideal when dealing with inexperienced subordinate staff -time saving DISADVANTAGES -overload -distortion and omission of information especially if channel is too long -message complexity -rigid hierarchy and rules stifle workers -limited participation in decision making for subordinates 2) UPWARD COMMUNICATION occurs when messages flow from subordinates to superiors. Effective decision making depends on timely, accurate and complete information travelling upward from subordinates. An open door policy and suggestion boxes advance upward communication. ADVANTAGES -boosts morale among employees - open door policy builds trust -distrustful and scheming members can be converted into productive employees -information exchange is made easier -problems are easily discussed. -solutions can be found for recurring conflicts DISADVANTAGES -less accurate as it comes from many sources -victimisation (those of low status are cautious)

-downward overload may destroy upward feedback 3) M e ssages between members of an organisation with equal power are labeled HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION. It refers to inter-departmental liaison in a given organization. It is communication between different individuals and departments on the same organizational level. Horizontal communication is important to organizational success when used to co-ordinate tasks, solve problems, share information and resolve conflict. It receives much more attention in participatory organisation structures. Specifically, lateral communication occurs among co-workers -during staff meetings -during informative presentations -during shift changes In short, lateral communication s purpose is to keep organizational personnel informed of all current practices, policies and procedures. ADVANTAGES CREATES A UNIFIED VISION AND DIRECTION Vision is critical in any organisation and incorporating departments in its formulation is key. Once the vision is created, keep one another accountable to seeing the vision upheld and maintained. Set up checks and balances between the departments to prevent people from slackening or cutting corners GENERATES ACCURATE FEEDBACK status concerns do not constrain departments from giving accurate feedback. Horizontal communication bridges the gap between departments and allows for more accurate feedback. No pulling punches or dictating. IMPORTANT IN IMPLEMENTING CHANGE When policy or procedure changes occur departments need to be on the same page with the same outcome in mind. DISADVANTAGES TERRITORIALITY often occurs when members of an organisation control task related activity within a defined and fixed jurisdictional area and as a result regard others involvement in that area as territorial encroachment. Departments value their turf and strive to protect it. This problem may be compounded through interdepartmental rivalries arising from win/lose competition for rewards and resources. RIVALRY occurs when the different levels of an organisation fail to co-operate with one another. SPECIALISATION occurs when procedures or vocabulary used by departments varies. Departments lacking uniformity (INTERGRATION) harbor communication difficulties.

LACK OF MOTIVATION lateral communication often fails because organisation members are unwilling to expend the additional effort that it requires. Lateral communication may require contact with people in units that are well removed from our own and the channels and rules of interaction may be unclear. We do not really know these people. The need to communicate with them makes us uneasy or takes too much time, so we avoid or ignore it. DIAGONAL COMMUNICATION Occurs between people who are at different levels of authority and who serve under different commands PREVALENCE: This type of communication is common in tactical situations requiring the quick transfer of information or advice, in hostage situations or cases of civil unrest. Diagonal communication is usually verbal and thus is conducted by telephone or radio. RELEVANCE: Although vertical and horizontal communication continue to be important, these terms no longer adequately capture communication needs and flows in most modern organizations. The concept of diagonal communication was introduced to capture new communication challenges associated with new organization forms, such as matrix and project-based organizations. Quality circles and selfmanaged work teams operate this way in existing bureaucracies. ADVANTAGES IT IS A MOST DIRECT METHOD OF COMMUNICATION IT IS A MOST SELECTIVE METHOD OF COMMUNICATION IT IS ONE OF THE FASTEST METHODS IN CRITICAL SITUATIONS, IT WOULD SEEM THE MOST ESSENTIAL AND LOGICAL TYPE OF COMMUNICATION DISADVANTAGES IT CAN DESTROY LINES OF AUTHORITY AND FORMAL CHAINS OF COMMAND IT CAN LEAVE IMMEDIATE SUPERIORS UNINFORMED OF WHAT THEIR SUBORDINATES ARE DOING IT CAN LEAD TO CONFLICTING ORDERS AND HENCE FURTHER CONFUSION IT IS USUALLY VERBAL, AND THUS IS UNTRACEABLE IF THINGS GO WRONG Informal communication is generally considered to be any interaction that does not generally follow the formal structure of the organisation but emerges out of natural social interaction among organisation member s. Informal messages do not follow official lines and the concept of Emergent Organisational Networks reveals the informal, naturally occurring patterns of communication relationships in organizations. Informal networks often develop through accidents of spatial arrangement, similarity of personalities or compatibilities of personal skill. Additionally, Conrad and Poole (1998) argue, Formal communication networks allow people to handle predictable, routine

situations but they are inefficient means of meeting unanticipated communication needs, for managing crises, for dealing with complex or detailed problems, showing personal information or exchanging information rapidly. To summarise, organizational members create emergent networks because insufficient opportunities exist for formal communication and because formal communication networks fail to do the job. People refer to informal interactions as grapevine communication. Information introduced into the grapevine travels quickly because messages are uninhibited by structural constraints. Although we publicly tend to discredit grapevine, research has consistently shown it to be amazingly accurate. Cauldron, (1998) puts the accuracy figure in organizational settings at 78 90%. Many companies now realize it is not a time waster but can do even more than formal communication to build organizational success. Managers who listen carefully to informal communication discover it is a useful source of information about employee attitudes and concerns. Some managers actually leak new ideas or proposals to the grapevine to test worker response. Businesses have also been known to leak secret information in hopes that a competitor would react and waste both time and money. The types of rumours that can be spread through grapevine communication can be classified into two groups, SPONTANEOUS spread by people who are stressed or in an untrustworthy environment PREMEDITATED spread within a highly competitive environment A second classification is by function 1.) Wish fulfillment 2.) Anxiety 3.) Wedge drivers 4.) Home stretchers These types of rumours can also be spread through other types of informal networks structures e.g. single strand chain, the cluster chain, the probability chain and the gossip chain ADVANTAGES -Creates a social bond where none existed People like to talk. Helps build teamwork and corporate identity. -The grapevine fills a gap that is left when the official information is missing, especially in chaotic or changing times. Even in organizations where management is proactive about communication practices and keeping employees informed, the grapevine helps to fill in the blanks. -Ensures faster communication

-The grapevine in many ways helps keep people honest. It can dissuade people from engaging behavior that they don t want others to know about. This, though, is a two edged sword. On the one hand people will think twice about taking what they know is the wrong course of action. On the other hand they may also think twice about taking a necessary risk and doing the right thing, fearful that appearances may give rise to rumours. DISADVANTAGES -Much of the information that gets spread through the grapevine is not verified and is often impossible to verify. -We give credence to a rumour because it seems to match what we think about the situation or person the rumour is about -Grapevine communication is often used to spread more than rumours i.e. gossip. Rumours affect organizations or groups of people while gossip pertains to more personal matters. -Reputations, careers and lives can be destroyed very rapidly. DIFFERENTIATION ORGANISATIONS ARE DIVIDED INTO SECTIONS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE FUNCTIONS TO BE FULFILLED BY EACH DEPARTMENT INTEGRATION ATTEMPTS TO UNIFY THE DIFFERENTIATED STRUCTURAL LEVELS The quality of collaboration between departments ensures organizational success. The attempt to integrate departments is aimed at either preventing or dealing with conflict. 3. NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION Non Verbal Communication (NVC) NVC includes all behaviours, attributes, or objects that communicate messages that have social meaning. NVC includes tone of voice, facial expressions, posture, gestures and appearance, all of which are used to communicate messages. NVC supplements words, such as when tone of voice, volume, or facial expressions adds emphasis to the meaning of a word. Unfortunately NVC can also change the intended meaning of a message or make it confusing or unclear. NVC can be intentional or unintentional, serving a variety of functions. Research indicates that in most situations, we spend more of our time communicating non-verbally than verbally and that our non-verbal messages carry more meaning than our verbal messages. In a normal two-person conversation 60 to 93% of communicative meaning is transmitted through non verbal behaviours. CHARACTERISTICS 1.) NVC occurs constantly 2.) NVC depends on the context

3.) NVC is more believable than verbal communication 4.) NVC is a primary means of expression 5.) NVC is related to culture 6.) NVC is ambiguous 7.) NVC is primarily relational WHY STUDY NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION 1.) Carries most of the meaning of a message, particularly feelings and attitudes towards others. 2.) It is a frequent source of misunderstanding 3.) It is not governed by a set of universal rules 4.) It is not a language 5.) It is multi-channeled, complicated and ever-changing 6.) It is context and culture-bound 7.) It is more likely than verbal communication to be spontaneous and unintentional 8.) It is powerful and more believable than verbal communication 9.) It is learned (not always consciously) 10.) It is critical in relationship initiation, development and termination CATEGORIES OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION 1. Kinesics the term was first used by Ray Birdwhistell in 1952, an anthropologist studying how people communicate through facial expression, eye movement, gesture, posture, stance and movement. Posture refers to the way we stand, sit or walk. It takes two dimensions, IMMEDIACY (degree of closeness you feel to another). RELAXATION (demonstrates openness or willingness to communicate). Echo-posture occurs when one copies the posture of another he or she likes. Facial expressions are configurations of the face that can reflect, augment, contradict, or beunrelated to a speaker s vocal delivery. Facial expressions are windows to our emotions. According to Cicero, The face is the image of the soul. Researchers have found that our faces show six different basic emotions clearly from a rather early age; anger, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise and disgust. The human face is however said to produce more than a thousand different expressions. Emotions often occur in many combinations (e.g. joy tinged with sorrow, surprise combined with fear.) we make judgements on others

in regard to facial expressions and even about personality e.g. tendency to be friendly or unfriendly, harsh or kind based on facial expressions. The UPPER FACE best expresses emotions of happiness, sadness and surprise. The LOWER FACE best expresses happiness, surprise, friendliness and co-operation. For gestures a distinction can be made between RESTRAINED CULTURES and ANIMATED CULTURES. The latter rely heavily on gestures to communicate while the latter are more composed when relaying messages. The earlier feel the latter lack restraint and manners while the latter feel the earlier lack emotion, life or interest. Illustrators used to show something, e.g. pointing in the direction of something. Effect displays- involve facial expressions that show happiness and sadness through smiling and frowning Adaptors- gestures which show internal feelings Regulators- are gestures that control speaking (via eyes or hands) ALL THESE ARE ACCOMPANIED BY WORDS

Emblems

2. Haptics touching is referred to as either tactile communication or HAPTICS. Reach out and touch someone is a slogan once used by a national phone company it is one of the most primitive yet sensitive ways of relating to others. It is significant in encouragement, expressing tenderness, showing emotional support (pat on the shoulder). The kind and amount of touch that are appropriate vary according to the individuals, their relationship and the situation. Categories include 1. Functional professional 2. Social-polite 3. Friendship-warmth 4. Loveintimacy 5. Sexual arousal. According to Nancy Henly men have access to women s bodies, but women do not have the same access to men s bodies. This, according to her, may be a man s way of exerting power because touch represents an invasion of private space. Can be with or without permission. The message communicated by touch depends on how, who, when, and where you have been touched. Touch can be of oneself (licking, holding or scratching)or of another. There are TOUCH CULTURES and NON TOUCH CULTURES(Islam). Holding hands, kissing, hugging, handshakes and a pat on the back all communicate clear

messages. Physical intimacy offers signs of showing that you love someone e.g. kissing. Touch avoidance is a possible signifier that someone has been abused before. 3. Oculesics is the study of eye behavior or eye movement. Eye behavior is the first and primary characteristic that people notice. During interactions people spend about 45% of the time looking at each other s eyes through eye behavior we establish relationships with othersas it conveys a variety of important messages. We notice a speaker s eye contact, share mutual glances with friends and feel uncomfortable when others stare at us. Dale Leathers, a communication scholar, classifies 6 important communication functions of eyes; They (a) influence attitude change and persuasion (b)indicate degree of attentiveness, interest and arousal (c) express emotions (d) regulate interaction (e) indicate power and status (f) form impressions in others. 4. Proxemics The study of the use of space and of distance between individuals when they are communicating. Edward T Hall s four distance zones explain this use of space; a. Zone 1 Intimate Space (0-1,5 feet) this zone is most personal, open to those who are well acquainted unless closeness is physically forced upon us e.g. crowded train or elevator. b. Zone 2 Personal Space (1,5-4 feet) for close friends and relatives. Intrusion leads to feelings of discomfort and violation. c. Zone 3 Social Space (4-12 feet) professional conversations and group interactions e.g. meetings. d. Zone 4 Public Space (12 feet plus) The actual Everyone is surrounded by a physical bubble of space. The bubble contracts and contrasts depending on one s cultural background and emotional state. Space is divided into three; body (area we regard as our own), home (physical area one regards as his home, be it in a room or an office) and neutral space, (where someone claims the right to own a certain territory which is not his or hers legally, seat in a kombi. ) There are four territory zones observed by ;

a. Primary Territory refers to an area that is associated with one who has exclusive use of it. It may be a restricted/no go area e.g. office or bedroom. b. Secondary Territory occupants have no legal/binding right to occupancy but may feel some degree of ownership. E.g. Students and seating places in a lecture. c. Public Territory area available to all, but for a given time, e.g. parking space or booking in internet caf

d. Interaction Territory space provided by others when they are interacting. (You walk around a group rather than through it as they are talking, so as not to disturb.

5. Chronemics Time perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait and willingness to listen. Monochronic cultures (m-time) see time as a commodity that can be controlled, that needs to be saved and not wasted. Time is perceived as linear. Polychromic cultures (p-time) do not schedule their time, There is no hurry in Africa. Establishing and maintaining a relationship is more important than time. Time is circular, just like the seasons. 6. Olfactics the study of smell is important in our society. Much is spent on perfumes, deodorants, air spray and soap. It is likely that when smells are pleasant, we feel better about ourselves. Americans, according to peter Abraham, have the most smell aversive culture in the world. We base many of our perceptions on smell, for example, when food smells good to us, we assume that it will taste good as well. . . However many cultures consider natural odours to be normal, a person s smell is an extension of that person. 7. Paralanguage vocal fillers (pitch, vocal force, speech rate, quality and pauses 8. Environment 9. Somatotype- is comprised of a combination of height, weight and masculinity. 10. Artifacts these are personal adornments or possessions that communicate information about us. Such things as cars, sunglasses, clothing, hair, body piercing and tattoos can all communicate our age, gender, status, role, class, importance, personality and relationships with others. Effective communicators learn to adapt their use of artifacts to specific situations and not to judge others by appearance alone. It is important to use artifacts consistent with and which reinforce our intended message. If a certain artifact is not reinforced by other things then we risk being judgemental or wrong in our assessment. 11. Silence 12. Graphics? ? ? FUNCTIONS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION NVC adds life to our exchanges by complementing, repeating, regulating and substituting for our words. We even use it to deceive others. COMPLEMENTING completes, describes or accents a verbal message. A person needs help immediately, so he yells as loudly as he can. REPEATING expresses a message identical to the verbal one, for emphasis too. A person says yes and nods his head up and down. Giving street directions.

REGULATING Controls flow of communication. A person shakes his head up and down as a way of communicating I am interested in what you are saying, implying tell me more. SUBSTITUTING Replaces a verbal message with non-verbal signs to exchange thoughts. Occurs where verbal communication is impossible, undesirable or inappropriate. Two people use hand signals to communicate because it is too loud and noisy to hear each other s voices. DECEIVING Non ver bal cues that purposely disguise or mislead to create a false impression. Doctor examining a patient diagnoses a serious problem, but the doctor s facial expressions remain neutral so as not to alarm the patient. ACCENTING/EMPHASIS Use of non verbal cues to strengthen your message. It is used to escalate or tune down verbal messages. Hugging a friend and telling him that you really care about him is a stronger statement than using either words or bodily movement. MODERATING CONTRADICTION Occurs when your verbal and non verbal messages conflict. This often occurs accidentally. It also occurs intentionally in humour or sarcasm. A child angry at a teacher/parent, I am fine. SENDING UNCOMFORTABLE MESSAGES Dislike may be shown by frowning while insults maybe shown by tongue-clicking. *Complementation differs from repetition in that it goes beyond duplication of the message in two channels. It is also not a substitution of one channel for another. The verbal and non verbal codes add meaning to each other and expand on either message alone. DIFFERENCES SINGLE VERSUS MULTIPLE CHANNELS Most verbal messages words, sentences and paragraphs reach us one at a time. In fact, it is physically impossible to speak more than one word at a time. But at the same moment simultaneous Non Verbal messages can be sent at any given time; facial expression, posture, gesture, clothing and distance. DISCREET VERSUS CONTINUOUS Verbal messages are digital, like a clock. They come in discreet or separate items. Verbal messages form messages with clear beginnings and endings. It is possible to see verbal communication by seeing if one is speaking or writing. On the other hand Non Verbal Communication is endless and continuous. Non verbal messages are analogical. CONSCIOUS VERSUS UNCONSCIOUS Whereas we usually think about what we want to say before speaking or writing, most Non Verbal messages aren t deliberate. There are so many Non Verbal channels that it is impossible to think about and control all of them. Our slumping shoulders might

contradict our smiles; our sweating palms might cancel out all the self-confidence of our firm handshakes. THE TYPE OF CONTENT FOR WHICH THEY ARE BEST SUITED Non verbal messages are best for expressing emotions. Verbal messages can provide messages with no emotion, to explain, argue, and tell a story. It can be self reflexive, or talk about itself. It can distinguish tense (past, present and future). It can discuss absent things or make reference to the negative of something. NVC and Impression Management SELF-CONCEPT a set of relatively stable perceptions that each of us holds about ourselves SELF-ESTEEM our evaluations of self-worth FACEi - the socially approved and presented identity of an individual Impression management is the creation of a positive image of oneself in order to influence the perceptions of others. According to Goffman (1994) it is the control (or lack of control) of the communication of information through a performance. You have engaged in Impression Management all your life. You were rewarded for it when you engaged in it and punished when you deviated from it. Impression Management has many forms but most fall into two major categories. SELF ENHANCEMENT efforts to boost your own image OTHER ENHANCEMENT efforts to make a target person feel good in your presence. To better understand Impression Management, we have to know more about self. Our PERCEIVED SELF is a reflection of our self concept. This self is the person that we believe ourselves to be at any given moment of self-examination. There are many aspects of our perceived self that we keep private because we don t wish to tell others e.g. regarding appearance, we might see ourselves as inept in social settings with people we do not know well, or we might see ourselves as smarter than everyone else. We might see ourselves as being too fat even though everyone else sees us as too thin. Our PRESENTING SELF is the public image or the way we want to appear to others. Most of us seek to create an image that is socially acceptable, i.e. nice person, good student, articulate, hardworking, friendly, ambitious, truthful, loyal friend, likeable, competent and so o. when presenting characteristics of the self males and females were similar in the following characteristics; able, active, proud and responsible. Males listed wild, strong, smart, brave, capable and rough whereas females more commonly presented qualities of bright, funny, independent, sensible and warm. HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE YOUR PRESENTING SELF/ Specific tasks when presenting the self to others is referred to as facework. FACEWORK is a term that was first used by Erving Goffman, a sociologist, to describe the verbal and non-verbal ways we act to maintain our own presenting image and the images of others. Goffman says that each of us creates various roles or characters that we want others to believe about us. He suggests that we maintain face

by putting on a FRONT when we wish to impress others. The front consists of our choice of behaviours and what we communicate when we are around others that we want to impress. How do you behave and communicate differently when at school, home, library, work, out on a first date, a job interview and so on when you want to impress someone? We also use facework enhancements to induce moods and reactions in others. Among the most commonly used and most important of these is the use of flattery. Flattery is a way of building another person s self-concept, but it is also a way to help promote a positive image for us. Flattery may involve heaping praise on other people even if they don t deserve it, expressing agreement with their views, showing a high degree of interest in them (hanging on their every word), doing small favours for them, asking for their advice and feedback, and expressing liking for them, either verbally or non-verbally. Hence all these types of behaviours can work, can cause the other person to experience, in almost all situations, positive reactions to us. Thus through impression management, we can attempt to build a positive self image and thereby strengthen our self concept. In Goffman s theory individuals are viewed as actors and interaction is seen as a performance shaped by the context and situation and constructed to provide others with impressions consistent with the desired goals of the actor. In performing, actors monitor their act or performance and Goffman stresses two kinds of monitors; HIGH SELF MONITORS individuals who are highly aware of their impression management behaviours. LOW SELF MONITORS individuals who communicate with others with little attention to the responses to their messages. (Unaware of impression management s importance). PRINCIPLES 1. We strive to construct multiple identities In the course of a single day most people play a variety of roles; respectful student, joking friend, helpful worker, stern neighbour etc. we even vary roles with the same person (to our parents we can act as responsible adults and then helpless children). The ability to construct multiple identities is one element of communication competence 2. Identity management is collaborative As we perform like actors trying to create a front, our audience is made up of other actors who are trying to create their own characters. Collaboration does not mean the same thing as agreement or coercion in this case. Virtually all conversations provide an arena in which communicators construct their identities in response to the behavior of others. 3. Identity management can be conscious or unconscious we can express disgust with someone s cooking only when they are present (with bad intent of course). Facial mimicry operates in the same way. 4. People differ in their degree of identity management Goffman has already stressed low and high self monitors.

WHY ENGAGE IN IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT 1. Growing up consists of developing a set of manners for various occasions 2. Social rules govern our behavior in a variety of settings 3. To accomplish personal goals 4. To achieve social needs like affection, inclusion and control HOW DO WE MANAGE IMPRESSIONS Face to face impression management In face to face interaction, communicators can manage their front in three ways; manner, appearance and setting. Manner consists of a communicator s words and non verbal actions. Because you have to speak and act, the question isn t whether or not your manner sends messages but rather, whether or not these messages will be intentional. Appearance the personal items people use to shape an image. Clothing is key on and off a job. A white lab coat or an officer s uniform transmits messages. Some dressers accent their sexuality, others hide it. Clothing can say I am an athlete or I am wealthy. Hair too. Setting choice of setting can manage impressions. Setting relates to physical items we use to influence how others view us. (Artifacts, cars, colours). Barnlund s Six People Theory

HIERARCHY OF SELF CONCEPT General self concept Self esteem self image

Psychological self concept Social self concept Physical self concept Intelligence sc Communicative sc Leadership sc Appearance sc Athletic sc The GENERAL SELF CONCEPT consists of a set of beliefs we hold about ourselves. They are well established and relatively hard to change or modify. The further down the hierarchy the more specific and the more susceptible to change the elements become. At the lowest level they actually change from situation to situation and time to time. Communication affects our self-concept and our self-concept affects how and what we communicate.

John Kinch (19630 illustrates the relationship between self-concept and communication. Our selfconcept is based on our communication with others. (P)= our perception of how others see us and affects our self concept (S). Our self-concept affects how we behave (B). Our behavior is directly related to how others react to our behavior (A). N.B. The actual responses of others relate to our perceptions of others responses (P) and so we have a full circle. P A B P= perception of others response S=self-concept B=behavior A=actual responses to others Politeness Theory - We have an interest in Positive face (the desire to be liked and respected) and Negative face (the desire to be free from constraint and imposition). Positive face is threatened when we let someone know we disapprove their behavior or them, while Negative face is threatened when we order other people to do things or when we ask people to give up freedoms they would normally hold. Generally people try to support both the Positive and Negative face of others because they do not want the other person to feel embarrassed. When we witness one person causing another to lose face, we feel embarrassed for the second person and we may take action against the first. POLITENESS, then, is comprised of our efforts to save face for others. 4. CONFLICT Conflict is a dynamic subject matter that comprises of both positive and negative attributes within its curriculum arena. Most conflicts arise from communication of what one wants, needs and values to others. In most cases it is driven by the need for change. But what is it? CALVIN AND BRUMWELL (4th edition) A process in which two or more members in a family believe that their desires are incompatible with those of others. HOCKER AND WILMOT (1992) define it from a communication perspective as an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources and interference from other parties from achieving their goals. S

GOLEMBIEWSKI (2001) an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement or dissonance within or between social entities. DYER a violation of expectation. LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH (1985) a state of disagreement between opposing groups of opposing ideas or principles. CHIRAMBAGUWA (2010) it expresses the deficit between a key goal and reality. Conflict differs in source, intensity, direction and level. Overt conflicts are visible while covert conflicts are invisible. VALUE CONFLICT where individuals value their beliefs and argue along those lines and are reluctant to change. CONTENT CONFLICT-people argue on the subject under discussion. It is easy to solve if personalities are not offended. DATA CONFLICTSTRUCTURAL CONFLICTRELATIONSHIP CONFLICT Conflict falls into two categories, personal and social which can be further sub divided into four levels INTRAPERSONAL Conflict can be between what you are saying and your actions. Northcroft and Neale (1990; 270) divide intrapersonal goal conflict into 3 types. Approach-Approach occurs when one is forced to choose between two equally attractive choices. Approach-Avoidance is when having to choose an option with both good and bad outcomes. Avoidance-Avoidance occurs when two equally unattractive choices both with negative effects are in consideration. INTERPERSONAL failure to communicate effectively or differences in perceptions. INTRAGROUP There are three essential elements in a group a) Members see themselves as belonging b) They have a shared purpose c) Accepting responsibility to work with others in a group Therefore, when any one of these elements starts to disintegrate and become corrupted conflict arises, since what is necessary to one in a group may be the opposite of the other. INTERGROUP Any group will always try to undermine the other, gain power and improve its image. Intergroup conflict arises from different policies, group loyalties and competition of resources to be

used since some groups may feel that they are more superior to others. Such conflict is influenced by the zeal to jealously guard and promote the brand of the company hence power, control and, conflict. SOURCES OF CONFLICT Conflict emanates from three main sources which can be categorized into three main groups; Communication factors, structural factors and personal factors. 1.) Failure to respect other people s values, beliefs, cultures, religion, ethics and privacy. 2.) Resistance to the effecting of change. 3.) Different parties affiliation. 4.) Remuneration, allowances and salary increments. 5.) Scramble for leadership in any organization. POWER STRUGGLE. 6.) Leadership styles. 7.) Difference in goals. 8.) Personality conflicts. 9.) Unrealistic expectati ons. 10.) Different rates of rela tional growth. 11.) Overlapping responsibilities 12.) Delegation of duties 13.) Task interdependence EFFEC TS OF CONFLICT Conflict varies in its speed of emergence and in the degree of its predictability. J.E. Goldthorpe (3rd edition) pg34 says, Some view conflict not as abnormal and transitory, but as permanent and even necessary. Therefore most scholars have categorized conflict into two views, traditional and contemporary. Conflict is usually associated with the following behaviours; Heated emotions, shouting, uncontrolled arguing, swearing, In your face behaviour, red faces, clenched fists, hot temper, intolerance and frustration. Although these behaviours are associated with conflict in some relationships they do not necessarily have to be present in all of them. You manage conflict by engaging in it productively. PRODUCTIVE CONFLICT is based on issues rather than on the participants personalities. It CAN and SHOULD be

conducted without any of these behaviours. Fu rthermore, when behaviours such as those listed are present, the real purpose of conflict is weakene d considerably. This is because the focus of the conflict turns to individual variables and away from actual issues. A focus on issues is the key to competent conflict management. Traditional/Dysfunctional/Classical views conflict as unnecessary and harmful and as a sign of something wrong in an organization. Conflict is deemed disruptive and preventing performance by creating a state of disorder. It also views conflict as being caused by management errors in designating its management system. Conflict implies the organization is not designed or structured correctly or adequately. The task of the management in this view is to resolve conflict. ZEROLISE CONFLICT. Downward communication is also prevalent. The dysfunctional school values order, stability and represses all conflict. Proposed remedies -increased use of central power -further elaboration of responsibilities, job description and authority -separating conflicting members -avoidance Contemporary/Functional/Productive views conflict as unavoidable and necessary though much of it can harm an organisation s activities. Some conflicts can make an organization more effective if resolved properly. Therefore the task of the management is to manage the levels of conflict. Conflict is seen as a vital tool. The key to organizational success is not in structure, clarity and order but in creativity, responsiveness and adaptability. CONSTRUCTIVE SIDE 1.) Conflict brings the problem clearly out in the open for discussion, therefore people will begin to discuss in order for them to establish a common ground. The GPA was a result of election conflict, leading to national healing, economic recovery and national unity. 2.) Creates an opportunity to search for improved approaches that lead to better results. 3.) It creates a room for new ideas and creativity. 4.) It creates a tolerant society where groups can be able to state their goals and perhaps achieve them. 5.) It prevents hostilities and resentments from fostering. 6.) Removes dissociating elements from within a society and reestablishes unity.

7.) Helps to clear organizational ambiguities. *This is only possible if it is properly diagnosed and resolved in a manner which seeks to address and accommodate most and not all perceptions or views. DESTRUCTIVE SIDE 1.) According to Sandra Cheary (2008; 45) Conflict leads to increased negative regard for one s opponents. 2.) It wastes energy which could have been better spent in other important areas. 3.) It creates setbacks i.e. in a company when a manager has a conflict with any subordinates he may deliberately facilitate the firing of the subordinate thus replacing the other subordinate which becomes costly and time consuming. 4.) Builds distrust. 5.) Motivational levels of employers and employees may be reduced. PHASES OF CONFLICT 1.) Prelude to conflict 2.) Triggering event 3.) Initiation phase one makes it known to the other 4.) Differentiation phase issues raised and reasons for conflict pursued 5.) Integration phase/Resolution CONFLICT DEVELOPMENT CYCLE 1. Latent stage wherever we have two people there is potential for conflict. 2. Conflict emergence stage there is usually a triggering event that sets off the conflict that we knew would always arise. 3. Conflict escalation stage 4. Hurt in/S climax

5. De-escalation stage 6. Dispute settlement 7. Post conflict/Peace Building Stage

For Conrad and Poole (2001) conflicts move in five phases; Latent, Perceived, Felt, Overt and Aftermath. ADDRESSING CONFLICT The key to resolving conflict is to acknowledge the other party. Resolving conflict is a process, not a static procedure. It requires flexibility and constant evaluation to be truly productive and effective. According to Thomas and Kilmann (1976) about five approaches maybe employed to addressing conflict 1.) Accommodation 2.) Avoidance 3.) Collaboration 4.) Compromise 5.) Competition 6.) Smoothing persuading one party to give in. 7.) Majority rule 8.) Postponing 9.) Collective bargaining

CONFLICT OUTCOMES We may think of managing conflict as bargaining, negotiating, debating or arguing. Conflict produces the following outcomes; 1.) Win Win regarded as the best. Both parties benefit and mutual understanding between parties is crucial. This process requires effective listening, use of body language and asking questions for clarification. It is quite difficult to achieve but it motivates the contending parties. 2.) Win Lose in this case one with authority overrides the weaker party. It is effective for a short time but causes great dissension in future. 3.) Lose Lose 4.) A voidance running away 5.) P ostponing CONFLICT HURTS PEOPLE IN AT LEAST EIGHT WAYS Social. Cultural. Material. Spiritual. Ecological. Political. Humanitarian. Psychological.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN HANDLING CONFLICT High context and low context cultures manage conflict quite differently. High context cultures are those in which communication is indirect, relies heavily on non-verbal systems and gives a great deal of meaning to the relationships between communicators e.g. Japanese, Afro-American and Latin America. Low context cultures use more explicit language, are more direct in their meanings and stress goals and outcomes more than relationships e.g. Germany, Sweden and England. Conflict managers in high context cultures are more likely to emphasise harmonious relations than personal goals. They will also attempt to maintain face. Low context cultures manage conflict more directly by being more confrontational and more goal-oriented and have less concern about saving face. CONCLUSION On an interesting note, the term conflict sounds highly controversial. Neo-Marxists maintain that, the conflict of today is the normality of tomorrow. What is a problem today will be a resolution tomorrow. In other words, these scholars say conflict does not exist, if it does then it lives in the mind of those that feel threatened when meetings occur in the workplace. In a nutshe ll conflict is inevitable in an organization therefore it is imperative that we work together to resolve it when it comes into motion and that we understand our differences, desires, goals, priorities and ethics.

5. COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) is human to human communication using networked computer environments to facilitate interaction. Mediated communication is any type of communication that employs electronic means. CMC is different from mediated communication because human to human interaction is interactive. Mass communication is primarily linear. Messages travel in one direction from the sender to the receiver with limited feedback. In CMC communication is transactional. Both people involved in the CMC event are responsible for simultaneously sending and receiving messages. Although mass communication and CMC are different forms of mediated communication they share the common element of using electronic channels to facilitate communication. Most of the CMC mediums rely greatly on internet protocols because these are readily available. There must be congruency between software protocols employed by the sender as well as the receiver. Although all CMC shares the concept of networking, the similarities in types of CMC end there. CMC can be classified into two main categories;

SYNCHRONOUS COMMUNICATION Members of the communication interaction interact in real time, and each participant is simultaneously a sender and receiver. ASYNCHRONOUS COMMUNICATION Delays occur in the communication interaction and each participant must take turns being sender and receiver. The INTERNET

Is a global network of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, academic, business and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking technologies. The World Wide Web is a global information system that allows users to access information from the Internet. Web (many sites linked together) searches can provide a great wealth of information quickly and easily. Most traditional communications media, such as telephone and television services, are reshaped or redefined using the technologies of the internet, giving rise to services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) and IPTV. Newspaper publishing has been reshaped into Web Sites, blogging and web feeds. The internet has enabled or accelerated the creation of new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, internet forums and social networking sites. The complex communications infrastructure of the internet consists of its hardware components and a system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture. While the hardware can often be used to support other software systems, it is the design and the rigorous standardization process of the software architecture that characterizes the internet and provides the foundation for its scalability and success . The responsibility for the architectural design of the internet software system has been delegated to the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The IETF conducts standard setting work groups, open to any individual, a bout the various aspects of internet architecture. Resulting discussions and final standards are published in a series of publications; each called a Request for Comments (RFC), freely available on the IETF website. The principal methods of networking that enable the internet are contained in specially designated RFCs that constitute the Internet Standards. Other less rigorous documents are simply informative, experimental, or historical, or they document the best current practices (BCP) when implementing internet technologies. The internet has also greatly facilitated personalized marketing which allows a company to market a product to a specific person or a group. An example of a personalized marketing which allows a company to market a product online include MySpace, Orkit, Face book , Twitter and others. The origins of the internet reach back to the 1960s when the United States funded research projects of its military agencies to build robust, fault tolerant and well distributed computer networks. This research and a period of civilian funding of a new US backbone by the National Science Foundation spawned

worldwide participation in the development to new networking technologies. This also led to the commercializ ation of an international network in the mid 1990s and resulted in the following popularization of countless applications in virtually every aspect of modern human life. As of 2009, an estimated quarter of the earth s population uses the services of the internet. BENEFITS The internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own standards. Newspaper publishing has been reshaped into Web sites, blogging and web feeds. The internet has enabled or accelerated the creation of new forms of human interaction through instant messaging, internet forums and social networking sites. The internet is allowing greater flexibility in working hours and locations, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections and web applications. The internet can now be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, especially through mobile internet devices. Business and project teams can share calendars as well as documents and other information. The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge and skills has made collaborative work dramatically easier. The World Wide Web has enabled the decenteralisation of information. Through keyword-driven internet research using search engines such as Yahoo! and Google, users worldwide have easy and instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce or the sale of products and services directly via the Web continues to grow. Data transfer file sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the internet. A computer file can be e-mailed to customer, colleagues and friends as an attachment. The printing publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and other arts are found freely on the internet.

DISADVANTAGES Overuse of the internet can lead to addiction Information on Internet Facebook can be available publicly Information on the Internet is not strictly edited

Practical research and learning is threatened as information is easily accessed online. Human face-to-face interaction is and relationships are destroyed Dirty information unsuitable for minors is readily available Computer viruses can be found on the internet

But web information does not go through a review process, nor is it necessarily fact-checked in any way, so material on a web page is most suspect than that gathered from traditional sources. Critically weigh and verify the information you find, because much of it is unreliable. To find information on the Web, one has to conduct a search using one of the many available search engines there are topic based searches and site-based searches. They include (Lycos www.lycos.com, Alta Vista www.AltaVista.com, Yahoo www.Yahoo.com, Excite www.Excite.com, Google www.Google.com or Infoseek www2.infoseek.com). When you find information on the Web, be sure to write the specific bibliographic information; the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or address, date accessed, page number, and author or producer. A hyperlink is a link in a WWW document that leads to another website or to another place within the same document. A web browser is a tool for viewing pages on the WWW. Common Web browsers are Internet Explorer and Netscape. Virtual Libraries are Websites that provide links to sites that have been reviewed for relevance and usability. The Home Page is the first page on a Website. Bookmarks are features found on most web browsers that store links for immediate retrieval without entering the URL each time you want to access the site. TOOLS FOR NARROWING YOUR WWW SEARCH 1) Word stemming enter your search term with a single quote at the end. ( ) INFORM (information, informal, informing) 2) Phrase searching if you are looking for a phrase, put the phrase in quotation marks. Simply putting PUBLIC SPEAKING retains all sites containing the two words anywhere on the site. Public speaking 3) Boolean operators Boolean operators allow you to specify logical arguments for what you want returned in a list of matching items. For instance tobacco AND addictive, PowerPoint NOT Microsoft, Coke OR Pepsi. 4) Parenthesis Using parenthesis allows you to nest Boolean arguments. In the following example the search argument will look for websites containing the terms media and Violence but not television. (media AND violence) NOT television Searching the Web can be interesting, entertaining, frustrating, addictive and educational. Web information comes from a variety of sources. Some are reliable and credible, and others are neither useful, credible, relevant, nor reliable.

EVALUATING WEB SOURCES Elizabeth Kirk of the Milton S Eisenhower Library of the John Hopkins University offers four basic evaluative criteria: 1) Author Who wrote the material? Are they qualified? Can you contact the author if you have questions? 2) Publishing body - Who publishes or sponsors the Website? Is there a header or footer that shows connection to a larger website? Is there a link on the page taking us to the homepage of the website? What can you learn from the URL? Check the letters just to the left of the first backslash (/)? Here are some abbreviations providing insight to a web source, which are used for the URLs .edu refers to a college or university. .org non-profit organization or trade association .gov a government agency, official or organization .mil military site. Beyond the backslash if you notice a tilde (~) or if the URL includes terms such as /users/ or /people/, you may be looking at an individual s personal page within the official pages of a larger website. With personal pages one cannot tell if the views reflected represent the organization or if they are really credible. 3) Currency - How recently was the website published, created or updated? This information should be at the bottom of the web page or homepage of the Website. 4) Purpose Can you determine why the information is on the Web page? One way to understand the motive of websites is to pay attention to the server. Does the site provide information, give explanations, persuade, publicise, sell products or entertain. Sometimes the URL will offer clues; part of it contains a function indicator, such as (gov) or (com) that indicates the purpose. .edu or .gov provides factual information and explanations. .com promotes and sells products, or provides current news and information .org influences public opinion and advocates for particular issues .net or .com Entertains .info especially used to provide truly global general information Finally, consider one question: How does the Web information compare with other available resources. .cc (state) us community college .com a business or other commercial enterprise .net to a network administration organization

INTRANET - An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet protocol technologies to securely share any part of an organisation s information or network operating systems within the organization. Sometimes the term refers only to the organization s internal website but may be a more extensive part of the organisation s information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal part of internal communication and collaboration. It is asynchronous. An intranet is built from the same concepts and technologies used for the internet. Any of the well known internet protocols may be found in an Intranet such as HTTP (web services), SMTP (e-mail) and FTP (file transfer). An Intranet may be understood as a private analog of the Internet or as a private extension of the internet confined to an organization. While extranets are generally restricted to employees of the organization, they may also be accessed by customers, suppliers or other approved parties. Extranets extend a private network onto the internet with special provisions for access, authorization and authentication. Intranets may provide gateways to the internet by means of a network gateway with a firewall shielding the Intranet from unauthorized external access. The gateway often also implements user authentication, encryption of messages and often virtual private network (VPN) connecting for off-site employees to access company information, computing resources and internal communications. USES To deliver tools and applications e.g. Collaboration (to facilitate working groups and teleconferencing) or sophisticated corporate directories, sales and customer relationship management tools, project management and to advance productivity. Used as corporate culture change platforms. Provide information to customers outside business via extranet

BENEFITS Workforce productivity Time saving Facilitates communication (both vertical and horizontal) Corporate knowledge maintained and easily accessed Supports business operations and management Cost effective Promotes common corporate culture Enhances collaboration

Immediate updates

DISADVANTAGES It is costly to set up when there are few resources. Virtual information can be lost through virus attacks and machine breakdown. It does not allow a wide distribution of information. i.e. it is only accessed by the people within the organization Inhibits direct human to human communication Information can be lost if viruses are present

SKYPE Is a proprietary software application that allows users to make voice calls over the internet. Skype uses a proprietary Internet telephone network called the Skype protocol. Skype uses a voice over internet protocol. A protocol in this context is a set of rules for communication. Signals are sent via both ways ANALOG(telephone) and DIGITAL (computer binary signals 0-1). Calls within the Skype service are free, while calls to both traditional landline telephones and mobile phones can be made for a fee using a debit-based user account system. Skype out allows for such calls beyond computers. Skype has also become popular for its additional features which include instant messaging, file transfer and video-conferencing. V-Skype is a further advance in technology which allows the recording of video clips as well as operation of a web camera internally or externally. It is synchronous. One needs a computer connected to the internet, Skype software, a web camera (for videos) and lastly to register as a Skype user. Registered users of Skype are identified by a unique Skype Name and may be listed on the Skype directory. Skype allows these registered users to communicate through both instant messaging and voice chat. Voice chat allows calls between pairs of users and conference calling and uses a proprietary audio codec. The Skypein service allows Skype users to receive calls on their computers dialed by regular phone subscribers to a local Skype phone number. Local numbers are available in most First World countries. Skype was founded in 2003 by the Swedish entrepreneur Niklas Zennstrom and the Dane Janus Friis. The network is operated by accompany called Skype Limited, headquartered in Luxembourg and partly owned by eBay. It has offices in Europe the US and Asia. Skype brings business people together. By overcoming the barriers of cost, distance and technology, Skype helps you to do more work wherever you are in the world. You will reach colleagues and customers for less; improve meetings with face-to-face video calls and keeping in touch with instant messaging.

ADVANTAGES Skype allows quick decision making in business. For example, a business meeting between groups of directors who are geographically separated, even internationally, can allow for quick decisions to be made because it is synchronous. Skype allows work to be done faster. Through free Skype to Skype video and voice calls, orders and instructions can be conveyed to workers and the work done according to plan and easily. Skype joins families together. Geographical separation sets families apart but Skype remedies the problem. Through video calls family members can see each other. Skype to Skype calls are free. Central management in an organization can use Skype to create employee accounts, allocate Skype credit and assign features. It is a 24 hour service Transmits a full range of human communication. Fast and reliable Fits in both formal and informal situations. Allows full expression of verbal and non-verbal communication.

DISADVANTAGES Automatically discriminates computer illiterate people Call quality can suffer if you have a slower than average internet service Interference from other electronic devices can be disruptive

VIDEO CONFERENCING- Is an extension of teleconferencing that includes picture and sound. Teleconferencing uses telephones and speakerphones to connect people in different locations. Speakerphones enable people in different locations to interact at one given location. Videoconferencing eliminates one limitation of teleconferencing in that it allows people at different locations to see each other via television, sometimes even sharing computer applications for collaboration. Placing a video call is a lot like placing a telephone call. After you connect, you see the other person in colour video on a TV screen and may be able to transfer files or collaborate via options such as document sharing or white boarding. A videoconferencing system requires the audiovisual equipment, which includes a monitor, camera, microphone, and speaker and a means of transmission. Rather than n Internet-based connection, a compressed video system on a dedicated bandwidth provides smooth audio and video. The compressed

video conferencing may be transmitted via an Integrated Services digital Network (ISDNN) line or over Internet Protocol (IP) lines. The most significant distinction among videoconferencing systems is the method of transmission. Transmission is important because two systems cannot connect if they are using different transmission methods. In the past, most videoconferences used ISDN lines; however many people are now using IP connections to save costs. There are a number of uses for videoconferencing. It allows people to collaborate in making budgets. Interviews may also be conducted through the use of videoconferencing. Distance learning courses can also be conducted using videoconferencing. It also makes supervision of students on work placements easier. Administrators and managers working with colleagues to find solutions can communicate easily The main benefit of videoconferencing is the ability of those involved in the discussion to hear and see everyone at all locations. Secondly, educators and librarians from around the world report that videoconferencing impacts students learning in several ways. Two way videoconferences heighten students motivation and improve communication and presentation skills. Additionally, a virtual field trip increases the depth of learning and provides a forum for a greater connection with the outside world. A videoconference can improve students memory retention by appealing to a variety of different learning styles by including diverse media such as video and audio clips, graphics, animation and computer applications. The visual connection and interaction among participants enhance understanding and allow both the content providers and the students to feel connected to one another. Videoconferences also improve your green credentials. It allows people in different areas to meet without travelling. In these green conscious times this is a vital, environmentally responsible use of technology, helping to lower organizational carbon output. Videoconferencing can play a key role in reducing an organisation s greenhouse gas emissions as well as drastically reducing the cost of travel and time spent travelling. With the development of efficient video technologies and high speed networks, desktop and laptop videoconferencing enables face-to face sessions for teleworkers and non-campus based students. Videoconferencing helps organizations to have better meetings. A videoconference is far more engaging and productive than a telephone conference because participants are not only able to hear the conversation, but can also see each other s facial expressions and body language. It also increases meeting attendances by participants who would otherwise be unable to join in. projects involving g geographically dispersed colleagues are also managed more efficiently. Videoconferencing facilitates

short notice meetings between individuals in distant locations as well as allowing people to make rapid solutions for urgent issues. On the negative side is its cost and need for special equipment to allow both picture and sound to be transmittable. Videoconferencing is also much more vulnerable to extremely frustrating equipment failures than teleconferencing. It also happens to distance people physically as there will be no need to meet physically. GROUPWARE Groupware is referred to as a secure, dynamic collaboration solution that offers both traditional and mobile means for NY COMMUNICATION OVER INTRANETS, EXTRANETS AND THE INTERNET. GROUPWARE IS ALSO DEFINED AS A COMBINATION OF TECHNOLOGIES ENABLING AN ORGANISATION TO CREATE, SHARE, AND ACCUMULATE A KNOWLEDGE BASE. THIRDLY, GROUPWARE IS DESCRIBED AS A COMPUTER BASED SYSTEM THAT SUPPPORTS GROUPS OF PEOPLE ENGAGED IN A COMMON TASK OR GOAL AND THAT PROVIDE AN INTERFACE TO A SHARED ENVIRONMENT Groupware s origins can be traced to Plato Notes in 1973, a research prototype at UIUC which runs on numerous systems. Iris Associates pioneered the concept of Groupware based on Plato and released the product lotus notes in 1989. The founders of Iris were the students that created Plato and iris was later bought out by IBM. Groupware can be classified through a matrix system. This is a time-space matrix, or more generally a real-time/non real-time implementation. TABLE

Groupware functionaries represented by the diagram align time and place on different axis. Electronic mail, calendaring, scheduling and workflow are examples of different time and different place. Chat room, gaming, video-conferencing and shared workspace are examples of same time and different places. Groupware also involves architecture. Architecture of Groupware is a general view of what a Groupware system looks like. It is also the foundation that enables communication and collaboration across an organization. It includes content exchange, authentication services and directory services. Access to the system functions can be gained through mobile devices, internet browsers, or dedicated client side interface or software. This can be shown diagrammatically as below:

Groupware can also be classified as commercial implementation. This involves group outline viewing editor (GROVE), Microsoft exchange, novel groupware are examples of commercial groupware. Hardware failure is common in Groupware. Programming error is also another cause of groupware failure. This is due to complex algorithms and unforeseen sequence of events such as interleaving and delays. Scalability is also another cause of Groupware failure. INSTANT MESSAGING Instant messaging (IM)is a text-based form of synchronous (real time) communication which allows users (two or even more) to connect to computers over the Internet and have a conversation through their computers. It is a form of electronic communication involving correspondence between people simultaneously. Instant messaging requires specialized software, often free, that allows you to contact other people and establish instant messaging. More advanced instant messaging software allows enhanced modes of communication, such as live voice or video calling. One needs a personal computer as well as access to the internet. After that one has to register as a user of IM. ICQ software is also required for IM to operate. It may be necessary to alert whoever you are chatting with to facilitate a synchronous exchange of messages. ADVANTAGES -messages are sent in real time and responses are instant. -proper conversations can be held with another person without running the risk of a large bill. -files or pictures can be sent in instant messaging conversation. -it is free to use and can be set up quickly. -it is similar to talking to a person face-to-face. -Instant messaging systems offer a safer environment than chat rooms. -you can mon itor who is allowed to contact you at any given time and people can only add you if they know your exact hotmail or Instant message address. -it is possible to talk to many people at once. -work can be done in groups, and (if still in school or higher education) the instant messaging system allows people to ask for help before going to their teacher. -instant messaging systems allow people to talk to each other from different countries, allowing friends to keep in touch if any of them moves away. DISADVANTAGES

-people can send viruses through files sent on instant messaging servers. -instant messaging destroys proper language and writing with the overuse of shorthand. -instant messaging systems are often used for gossip and rumour spreading. -disturbs work -prone to hacking (illegal entry by a person into your computer E-MAIL it is a system for exchanging written, voice and video messages through a computer network. It is also like a cross between the postal system and telephone answering system. In an e-mail system each user has a unique identity called an e-mail address. To send someone an e-mail message one must use a special e-mail program that works with the network in order to send or receive messages. Electronic mail is an asynchronous form of CMC. It uses the Internet or a computer network to send addressable messages to another person connected to the Internet or network. E-mail is a popular method of communication for both organizations and individuals. Some companies actually encourage e-mail rather than face-to-face interactions for internal communication because e-mail is more efficient: People spend less time talking about sport and gossip. When sending a message using e-mail, the recipient s e-mail address is entered, and then the message is typed. The message travels across the network to the server, which stores the message that notifies the recipient that a new message has arrived. The e-mail is a favourite communication tool of most web project manag ers. The key features with e-mail include the address book. This is where the user can enter the name, address, e-mail address and additional comments in the address book. The user can also view the same when required by clicking on the view entries link. Another feature of e-mail is the attachments which the user can manage in their account through the view entries link. The user can also download all the attachments. Every e-mail account has a calendar. This calendar helps the user to prepare a schedule and it also allows the user to add, edit or delete entries by clicking on a specific link. E-mail also allows the user to create a new e-mail account. The user can also create, delete and rename folders and subfolders by clicking on a specific link which is the folder options link. E-mail also has a search feature. This option is extremely helpful for users who have many e-mails. With the help of this search feature the user can delete, move, read and forward the e-mail listed on the page. E-mail has several ADVANTAGES in business communication. It can be used as an advertising tool. Companies use it to showcase their products thus communicating with potential customers.

e-mail is time saving and is a more efficient way of sending messages as it only takes a few seconds for the recipient to receive his message. It is efficient in that what you have written is exactly what is sent. A single e-mail can be sent to several people at one go and can be received as information that has been mailed to more than one person. It is also a private and reliable maintaining personal accounts. All e-mails are private and cannot be accessed easily by anyone but the intended receiver. It is a useful advertising tool. Allows for simultaneous sending and receiving. DISADVANTAGES e-mail messages are prone to viruses. These are computer programs which have the potential to harm a computer system, which means they can delete unsent messages thus affecting communications. Misinterpretation is also another disadvantage as one has to be careful while composing messages. If typed in a hurry the message can have mistakes thus passing the wrong message. Lengthy mail is also on the negative side as the reader may lose interest in reading, thus failing to effectively communicate. Messages arrive unnoticed. This can be detrimental when working with deadlines. Discriminate against those who are not computer literate or those who do not have snobby cell phones. Junk mail unsolicited mail can be problematic. Often a time waster if overused. Productive time is lo st No privacy, it is prone to abuse. Network controlled/determined FAILURE TO CAPITALISE ON COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION PLATFORMS 1. Employee resistance humans are a complex resource. They succumb to fear of the unknown. Perspectives on technology differ greatly amongst people. 2. Lack of financial capital base organizations may lack the financial leverage to initiate and maintain CMC operations. They can be very costly. 3. Computer literacy is very low some have put it at 30% for Zimbabwe which is still very low.

4. No national server national satellites may be important for countries that hope to strengthen CMC platforms. Hence infrastructural changes at national level are important. In China many children are relinquishing formal education opting to learn at home. 5. Generational conflict - Technophobia New wine in old bottle skins 6. Lack of proper training workshops and training sessions to conscientise people on the use and appreciation of CMC. 7. A low culture of collaboration in an organization disturbs CMC use. It is people who must make these things work. The introduction of CMC is usually vested in IT experts in an organization, but they are not the people who will go on to use them. There is a misconception within them that if the technology is there people are going to come and use it. As they design staff portals, intranets and internet use they must have the users in mind otherwise people will ignore these platforms and employ traditional ones. The issue is ensuring that people flock to use these things. 6.ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION REPORTS PROPOSALS A proposal can be defined as a persuasive message written to get action. It is a written offer to solve a problem It allows you to off er your services to a client and compete in the marketplace, or to present ideas to improve your company. Proposals are based on facts and must not rely on emotive language They must be well organized so that readers know, without any difficulties, what the proposed action is. It must have clear sections, a numbering system and effective headings. The style must be clear, formal and simple. Good proposals must give readers correct details of costs, timetables and dates. The facts must be so well written that the reader is convinced that the proposed action is reasonable and practically achievable. Proposals vary in length. A short in-house proposal might be written as a memorandum, while a brief out of the house proposal might be submitted as a letter. TYPES OF PROPOSALS

A proposal is set out like a report. If it is sent outside the organization, it must be accompanied by a letter of transmittal, if sent within the organization then a memorandum of transmittal will suffice. Proposals can be divided into two categories; requested and non-requested proposals. A requested proposal is asked for by a client. A non-requested proposal is written when you wish to generate work for yourself. You see a problem and propose action that will possibly resolve the problem. Types of proposals also include business plans and academic proposals. FORMAT FOR PROPOSALS A requested proposal must have the following sections; 1. Title page 2. Client s instructions or terms of reference 3. Client s objectives 4. Summary of proposal (it should include all key actions, costs and timing) 5. Background to the proposal. This should contain; a. The need for the proposal b. A statement of the problem to be solved c. The nee d for a solution

d. Purposes of the proposal e. Procedure used to set up the proposal f. Plan of development of the proposal (how the proposal has been set out)

The detailed proposal should contain the following: 1. The scope of the pr oblem (delimitation)

2. The boundaries of the proposals and what must be done within its confines 3. Limitations of the proposal 4. Methods to be used to put the proposal into action 5. Breakdown of tasks to be done and their timing 6. Time and work schedule 7. Detailed costing and proposed action

8. Cost and method of payment to proposer The justification of the proposal should be persuasive and must include; 1. Benefits from the solution 2. Feasibility of the solution 3. Likelihood of success Urge to action this is a brief section which must reinforce the proposed action Appendices or attachments this contains; 1. Detailed figures to show how the proposed expenditure has been calculated. 2. Detailed calculations to back up any technical proposals 3. Detailed results of questionnaires or other surveys 4. The company s employment policies and profiles. 5. Company s success with other projects. 6. Company s financial statements (if so required). NON-REQUESTED PROPOSALS It contains all of the features of the requested proposals but the difference is that with non-requested proposals, proposers must sell themselves. In the background to proposals, the writers should state what they do and include the following; 1. A brief description of the organisation 2. A brief description of the experience with projects 3. A brief description of staff experience and qualifications 4. Statement of the company s financial position. 5. Description of employment practices 6. The company s organizational chart 7. Physical location of the company 8. Descriptive and advertising literature TECHNICAL SECTION

1. Statement of problem 2. Background clarifying the problem 3. Need for research 4. Objective of the project or specific solution proposed 5. Justification for underta king the project 6. General statement of wh y funds are necessary and how they will be spent.

7. Feasibility of the project or solution. 8. Limitations of the proposal. 9. Product of the project deliverables 10. Methodologies 11. Summary of methods not chosen and why MANAGERIAL SECTION 1. Personnel 2. Task/time schedule 3. Facilities and equipment available 4. Description of work previously completed or similar projects 5. Descriptive literature (provides information on your organization) FINANCIAL SECTION 1. Budget for the project describes all expenditures 2. Method of payment suggests when and how payment will be made LETTERS T he most important quality to cultivate for letter writing is empathy. You need to stand in the shoes of the recipient. 1. Address all the points raised in the incoming letter. There is always a danger in a complex letter that some of the questions raised will be unanswered. 2. Reply letters as promptly as possible.

3. Keep the language as simple as possible particularly when you are writing to a non-expert. But do not go too far lest the recipient feel he/she is being treated like an idiot. 4. Avoid irrelevancy and triviality. 5. Check the letter carefully before it is signed and leaves the office. The letter is an advertisement for the efficiency of your business. 6. Avoid making promises you cannot keep. 7. Avoid attacking other people or firms particularly by name. (publishing a libel) 8. Be careful not to commit your organization to an unwanted course of action. Letters in business generally fall into three categories. ENQUIRY Most business transactions develop out of an initial enquiry from a potential customer. Letters of enquiry should be handled with care because they could be the starting point for a long and mutually beneficial trading relationship. If sender and receiver have met before some formalities may be ignored. COLLECTION When writing letters reminding customers of outstanding debts, it is always wise to remind ourselves that without customers we have no business. It could take just one thoughtless, careless word to lose them. However, we do expect to be paid. Our job is to walk a tight-rope between being too tough and too soft. There are various reasons why customers are slow to pay outstanding debts; a. They genuinely forget that payment is due. b. Cash-flow problems c. Deliberately delay as they prefer to have money and keep it for as long as possible. d. Large companies like making their smaller suppliers wait, this improves cash-flow considerably. e. Serious financial difficulties legal action would need to be taken COMPLAINT Letters expressing dissatisfaction fall in a separate category. Special thought and care is required when you reply a customer s complaint about goods or services you have provided. People tend to be sensitive and emotional and it may not be enough to simply placate or reassure the customer. Action is often more important. CIRCULARS

The distinction between a letter and a circular is that the former is normally addressed to an individual while the latter is sent in the same form to large numbers of potential customers. Circulars are almost invariably a form of advertising and as such need to be persuasive. They need to be carefully checked. Any mistake made will be repeated as many times as the number of circulars distributed. Many advertisers include free gifts in circulars to interest people in the accompanying literature. Some ground rules for circulars include; 1. The presentation should be eye-catching 2. The message should be persuasive 3. The message should be simple and straightforward. 4. It should be easy for the recipient to respond (a prepaid envelope might be enclosed). 7. PLAIN ENGLISH Humans speak about ten thousand dialects. Although most of these sound different from one another, all possess the same characteristic of language. Language is a collection of symbols governed by rules and used to convey messages between individuals. THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE Language is symbolic all words are symbols arbitrary constructions that represent a communicator s thoughts. Spoken and written words are not the only forms of language. Sign language, as spoken by most deaf people, is symbolic in nature and not the pantomine it might seem. Symbols are more than just labels: They are the way we experience the world. SALIVA SPIT Meanings are in people, not in words A with physical symbols, the place to look for meaning in language isn t in the words themselves, but rather in the way people make sense of them. Linguistic theorists C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards illustrated the fact that meanings are social constructions in their well known triangle of meaning. This model only shows that there s only an indirect relationship (indicated by a broken line) between a word and the thing it claims to represent. Some of these things or referents do not exist in the physical world; (a unicorn is mythical, a dead person is no longer tangible or abstract ideas like love). Problems arise when people mistakenly assume that others use words in the same way they do. So words don t mean; people do and often in widely different ways. Despite this potential for linguistic problems, the situation isn t hopeless. The key to more accurate language is to avoid assuming that others interpret words the same way we do. In truth, successful communication occurs when we negotiate the meaning of a statement. Language is rule governed

a. Phonological rules govern how words sound when pronounced. The words champagne, double and occasion are spelt identically in French and English but are all pronounced differently. Non-native speakers learning English are plagued by inconsistent phonological rules. b. Syntactic rules govern the structure of language (the way symbols can be arranged). For instance, correct English syntax requires that every word contain at least one vowel. Although syntactic rules are not easy to describe, it is easy to recognize their existence by noting how odd a statement that violates them appears. Have you the cookies bought? is perfectly acceptable word order in German. -Instant messaging on the internet is forming its own syntactic rules. c. Semantic rules these deal with the meanings of specific words. Semantic rules are what make it possible for us to agree that bikes are for riding and books are for reading. Without semantic rules, communication would be impossible, because each one of us would use symbols in unique ways, unintelligible to one another. d. Pragmatic rules we use them to figure out what interpretation of a message is appropriate in a given context. They help communicators make sense of a message and how the same statement can have quite different meanings when communicators use different pragmatic rules. When mastering a new language, learning vocabulary and syntactic rules is no guarantee of linguistic proficiency. THE POWER OF LANGUAGE Beyond describing ideas, making requests and solving problems language is used to influence others and reflect our attitudes in more subtl e ways, as follows; Language shapes attitudes 1. Naming Julia in Romeo and Juliet quizzes, Whats in a name? The answer is a great deal. 2. Credibility Dr Fox s hypothesis, An apparently legitimate speaker who utters an unintelligible message will be judged competent by an audience in the speaker s area of apparent expertise. 3. Status Decades of research have demonstrated that the power of speech to influence status is a fact. Several factors combine to create positive or negative impressions: accent, choice of words, speech rate and even the apparent age of the speakers. Speakers of standard English are more favourable than dialectical English and assume a loftier status in employment circles. 4. Sexism and Racism some aspects of language suggest women are of lower status than men. Except for words referring to females by definition such as mother and actress, English defines many non-sexual concepts as male. Casey Miller and Kate Swift also argue that incorrect use of

the pronoun he to refer to both men and women can have damaging results. It is easy to use non-sexist language, manhood can be replaced by adulthood. Mankind, man-made and manpower can also be replaced. Language reflects attitudes 1. Power 2. Affiliation 3. Attraction and interest 4. Responsibility TROUBLESOME LANGUAGE A The Language of Misunderstanding 1. Equivocal language equivocal words have more than one dictionary meaning 2. Relative words relative words gain their meaning by comparison 3. Slang is a language used by a group of people whose members belong to a similar co-culture or other groups. Some slang is related to specialized interests and activities 4. Jargon 5. Abstract language B Disruptive Language At times people understand one another perfectly but still end up in conflict. Eliminating three bad linguistic habits from your communication repertoire can minimize clashes that don t need to happen 1. Confusing facts and opinions 2. Confusing facts and inferences 3. Emotive language C Evasive Language Consists of language that deliberately misleads or antagonizes others. Euphemisms and equivocations are used to avoid communicating clearly. 1. Euphemism 2. Equivocation

6.ORAL PRESENTATION SKILLS Public Presentations Making your ideas known to the world. Sharing and influencing other people, to make them see the world as you see it. 1. Selecting a topic 2. Assessing appropriateness (Interest, Audience, Knowledge, Appropriateness) 3. Narrowing the topic each time you increase a topic you increase its potential depth. This continual narrowing of the topic allows you to focus your research and content development on a more clearly defined area of the topic. Speakers can narrow the scope of a subject according to time limits, function, goals, location and the requirements of a specific topic. Once the above is done one has to structure their presentation well, hence a clear idea of the general purpose, specific purpose and a specific thesis statement is needed. General Purpose it is the overasll goal of a speech, usually one of three overlapping functions; to inform, to persuade or to entewrtaiin the General Purpose of a speech provides direction for its content. Informative speech- explains what something means, how something works or how something is done. Persuasive speech Attempts to change or reinforce listeners attitudes or behaviours by advocating or trying to gain acceptance of the speaker s point of view. Entertainment speech provides enjoyment and amusement. It has three key qualities; it islight, original and appropriate to the situation. Specific Purpose it is a single phrase that defines precisely what is to be accomplished in a speech. Once you have determined your general purpose (to inform, persuade or to entertain) you are ready to determine your specific purpose. The specific purpose identifies; 1. The General Purpose of the speech 2. The audience 3. The exact topic to be covered -The Specific Purpose should include a verb form that describes the General Purpose of the speech. The inclusion of the verb form clarifies the action the speaker hopes to accomplish -The Specific purpose should be limited to one distinct thought or idea. It is best to select only one idea and refine it as the purpose.

- The Specific Purpose should not be a question. Although a question may indicate the topic, it fails to specify the general purpose of the speech. - The Specific Purpose should be concise and carefully worded. It should not be too general and should state clearly what is to be achieved by the speech. Thesis a sentence that states specifically what is going to be discussed in a speech. It states clearly what is in the content. It should not be in the form of a question and should be clearly and concisely worded. Order of main points To ensure that the body of your speech is well organized, the content must be divided into main points. The main points serve as the basis for the thesis statement. Main points should; 1. Be specific 2. Use vivid language 3. Show relevance 4. Create parallel structure The arrangement of main points can fall into several classes; 1. Time-sequence pattern an order of presentation that begins at a particular point in time and continues either forward or backward. 2. Spatial pattern an order of presentation in which the content of a speech is organized according to relationships in space (master bedroom, guest bedroom, children s bedroom goalkeeper, defender, midfielder, striker. 3. Topical Pattern an order of presentation in which the main topic is divided into a series of related topics. Language can be misunderstood because of bypassing, indiscrimination or polarization 4. Problem-Solution Pattern includes 3 to 5 of the following a. A definition and description of the problem, including its symptoms and size. b. A critical analysis of the problem; including causes, current actions and requirements for a solution. c. Suggestions of possible solutions, including a description of each solution s strengths and weaknesses. d. A recommendation of the best solution, including a thorough justification of its superiority over other proposed solutions.

e. A discussion of the best solution put into operation, including a description of how the plan can be implemented 5. Cause-Effect pattern- explains the causes of an event, problem or issue and then discusses its consequences. 6. Motivated sequence Pattern Developed by Professor Alan H Monroe of Purdue University in the 1930s and widely used for persuasive speech. The pattern is specifically designed to help the speaker combine sound logic and practical psychology. The motivated sequence is particularly effective because it follows the human thinking process and motivates listeners to take action. AUDIENCE Whats in it for me? The audience refers to a group of people who have come together to watch or listen to someone or something, such as to listen to a speech. AUDIENCE ANALYSIS is the collection and interpretation of data about characteristics, attitudes, values and beliefs of an audience. Gain attention Arouse interest State the purpose Establish qualifications Forecast development and organisation An audience will judge what they hear on the basis of their past experience and the relevance of the information presented. The more you know about their past experience, knowledge of the subject, relationship to the subject and the reason for being there, the easier it will be to develop a meaningful speech for them. An audience can be classified into two categories; CAPTIVE PARTICIPANTS Audience members required to hear/listen to a particular speech. They have no choice but to attend. Some people may resist participation more than others. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPANTS people who choose to hear/listen to a particular speech because of interest or need. True volunteers attend only because of what they expect to hear. There is no other motivation or force behind their presence. Demographic Analysis

Age Gender Cultural or ethnic background Education Occupation Religion Geographic origins Group membership

Psychological Analysis Attitudes and beliefs Size of audience Physical setting Knowledge level Relationship with speaker Attitudes and values related to the topic you cannot talk about retirement/funeral policies to 17 year olds. Attitudes related to the situation

Ways to learn about the audience 1. Observation a method of collecting information about an audience in which the speaker watches audience members and notes their behaviours and characteristics. 2. Survey interview is a carefully planned and executed person-to-person question and answer session during which the speaker tries to discover specific information that will help in the preparation of a speech. 3. Questionnaire a set of written questions that is distributed to respondents to gather desired information Demography analysis reveals the extent to which presenters will have to adjust themselves as they present. It will imply the receptiveness of your audience. It is essential to plan a speech centered on the audience.

STAGE FRIGHT FACILITATIVE STAGE FRIGHT can help you improve your performance as opposed to DEBILITATIVE STAGE FRIGHT which occurs when the level of anxiety is intense, hence inhibiting effective self expression. Sources of debilitative stage fright includes a belief in one or more of the following fallacies; 1. The fallacy of catastrophic failure something wrong is going to ruin this presentation 2. The fallacy of perfection a good speaker never does anything wrong 3. The fallacy of absolute approval everyone has to like you/has to like what you are going to say 4. The fallacy of overgeneralization you always mess up speeches. If speech anxiety is to be overcome one has to refute the irrational fallacies just listed above. The other remedies include being receiver oriented, positive and prepared. There are four types of delivery; 1. Extemporaneous 2. Impromptu 3. Manuscript 4. Memorized In each the speaker must be concerned with both visual and ajuditory aspects of the presentation. Visual aspects include appearance, movement, posture, facial expression and eye contact. Auditory aspects include volume, rate, pitch and articulation. The four most common articulation problems are deletion, substitution, addition and slurring of word sounds. General tips oral presentation -Keep sentences short -Use active words rather than passive terms -Be specific rather than general -Cut all redundant words -Use simpler as opposed to complex words -Cut down on jargon

INTERVIEWS An interview is a somewhat formal discussion between two parties in which information is exchanged. For a business willing to fill an open job position, an employer may interview potential candidates to gain a better understanding of their backgrounds, qualifications and skills. All job interviews have the same objective but employers reach that objective in a variety of ways. Below is a discussion of the types of interviews. Meandering style - this approach is usually used by inexperienced interviewers. The interviewers rely on you to lead the discussion. It might begin with a statement like tell me about yourself, which you can use to your advantage. The interviewer may ask you another broad, open-ended question before falling into silence. This interview style allows you to tactfully guide the discussion in a way that best serves you. In this type of interview one has to remain alert to the interview and respectful to the interviewers role one should be prepared to use their skills, qualities and experiences. Although this open format allows you to shape the interview, running with your own agenda and dominating the conversation means that you run the risk of missing important information about the company and its needs. Behavioural interview Many companies increasingly rely on behavioural interviews since they deem your current behavior will indicate your future performance. In these interviews employers use standardized methods to mine information relevant to your competence in a particular area or position. Depending upon the responsibilities of the job and the working environment, you might be asked to describe a time that required problem solving skills, adaptability, leadership, conflict resolution, multitasking, initiative or stress management. You will be asked how to deal with the situations. Stress Interview - Astounding as it is, the Greek hazing system has made its way into professional interviews. Either employers view the stress interviews as a legitimate way of determining candidates aptness for a position or someone has latent maniacal tendencies. You may be held in the room waiting for an hour before the interviewer greets you. You might face long silence or cold stares. The interviewer might openly challenge your beliefs or judgement or you might be called to perform an impossible task. The interviewer may ask to exchange shoes with you! Insults and miscommunication are common. All this is designed to see whether you have the mettle to withstand the company culture, the clients or other potential stress, and therefore, one should go into an interview relaxed and rested and even when the interviewer is rude, remain calm and tactful. Directive style in this style the interviewer has a clear agenda that he or she follows. Unflinchingly, sometimes companies use this rigid format to ensure parity between interviewees. When interviewers ask each candidate the same series of questions, they can more readily compare results. Directive interviews rely upon their own questions and methods. You might feel like you are being steamrolled or you might find the conversation develops naturally. Their style does not necessarily mean that they have dominant issues, although you should keep an eye open for these if the interviewer would be your supervisor. However, in this type of an interview a person should flex with the interview and should not relinquish complete control of the interview.

Informational Interview this is underutilized by job seekers who might otherwise consider themselves savvy to the merits of networking. Job seekers secure informational meetings in order to seek the advice of someone in their current desired field as well as to gain further references to people who can lend further insight. Employers that like to stay appraised of available talent even when they do not have current job openings, are often open to informational interviews, especially if they like to share their knowledge, feel flattered by your interest, or value the mutual friendship that connected you to them. During the informational interview the job seeker and the employer exchange information and get to know one another better without reference to a specific job opening. The interview is structured as follows; One is expected to enter the interview room smiling and looking confident and being pleasant with everyone you meet. Offer to shake hands and do so firmly not like a piece of wet lettuce. You should remain standing until you are offered a seat. Do not smoke even if invited to. Place your briefcase and/or handbag on the floor beside your chair, this way you won t be tempted to play with either of these. Sit up straight, don t flop in the chair or lean over the desk. Make eye contact with whoever is asking the questions and show interest and enthusiasm in making your response. Don t mumble or speak with your hands in front of your mouth or across your face. Try to be positive in everything you say and relate your responses to the organisation you have applied. Emphasise the contribution which you can make to the organisation. If you don t understand a question ask for a clarification, this is a much safer tactic than trying to answer a question which you have not understood. Avoid answering questions with a straight yes or no. these are real conversation stoppers and may cause the interviewer to lose interest in you. Try to be informative by indicating your achievement, but avoid boasting or giving lots of historical background to your application. Do not comment or make disparaging remarks about former or rival organizations with which you have been involved. Be prepared to ask some questions but do not interview the interviewer. Ask about the organisation and, if it is a job interview, the duties you would be expected to undertake. Leave the question of wages and holidays until last, but the chances are they will be provided long before the end of the interview. When the interview terminates check that you know what will happen next. How long will it be before you know the outcome of the interview? Will they write or phone? Leave promptly thanking the interviewers for their time and for the interview. COMMON GENERAL QUESTIONS -Tell us about yourself -tell us about your education

-why do you want to join this organisation -what will you do to improve the organisation -why do you think you are the best candidate for the job -how do you feel about your progress to date -what would you like to be doing five years from now -what is your greatest strength -what is your greatest weakness -what goals have you set and how did you meet them FACTORS LEADING TO REJECTION 1.) Negative personality or poor impression more specifically, lack of motivation, ambition, maturity, aggressiveness or enthusiasm 2.) Inability to communicate, poor communication skills. 3.) Lack of competence, inadequate training. 4.) Low grades, poor grades in major field 5.) Lack of specific goals 6.) Unrealistic expectations 7.) Lack of interest in type of work 8.) Unwillingness to travel or relocate 9.) Poor preparation for the interview 10.) Lack of experience ADVANTAGES They produce a higher response rate They are useful for untangling complex topics They are advantageous to the respondent who lacks reading skills and cannot answer questionnaires

DISADVANTAGES

They are time consuming The interviewer may be biased and ask closed questions They are not useful for selection from a large number of people PERSUASION

Many communication tasks in business call for a persuasive approach. Press releases, sales circulars, promotional leaflets, catalogues, factsheets and posters all attempt to influence the reader in some way to accept the image of the company or organization or to purchase its products. Persuasive writing is an exact and demanding science which depends on both marketing skills and literary ability. A persuasive speech follows the general rules of informative speaking, but it organizes arguments and information in a way that elicits a desired response from the receiver of the message. To be labeled persuasive, a communication situation must involve a conscious attempt by one individual to change the attitudes, beliefs or behavior of another individual or group through the transmission of some message Persuasion refers to the act of manipulating symbols in order to produce change in others. The key to understanding persuasion is knowing the characteristics that identify persuasion as a communication event. 1.) One individual (the persuader) must make a conscious, intended attempt to influence one or more other individuals. SENDER 2.) The persuader generates and uses a variety of messages (both verbal and non verbal) to accomplish this purpose. CHANNEL 3.) The activity of persuasion is a process in which both the persuader and persuade are active participants. TRANSACTION 4.) The goal of persuasion is to change or reinforce the beliefs, attitudes or behaviours of persuades. COMMON UNDERSTANDING 5.) At some level, the persuades must have a choice; they must opt to accept or reject the persuader s message. FEEDBACK Persuasion, like communication, is an old art. Ptahhotpe ta-ho-ta-pe about 110 years ago advising King Isesi ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt said; -When in doubt about what to say keep silent. -Wait for the right moment to speak -Restrain passionate words

-Speak fluently but with great deliberation -Keep your tongue at one with your heart so that you speak the truth. Greek philosophers/teachers advice on persuasive writing is summarized within the context of 5 canons. 1.) INVENTION discovering the content of the message (both issues/points and supporting material). 2.) ARRANGEMENT organizing the content into introduction, narration, proof and conclusion. 3.) STYLE putting the content into words in a way that meets such criteria as correctness, clarity, ornamentation and propriety. 4.) MEMORY developing and using techniques that allow the speaker to remember the presentation after it has been prepared. 5.) DELIVERY - using voice and gestures to present a message effectively PRINCIPLES OF PERSUASIVE WRITING According to Stuart Sillars the following principles are important with persuasion 1.) DEFINING YOUR AIM 2.) KNOW YOUR FACTS 3.) DEFINE YOUR MARKET 4.) DIRECT YOUR APPEAL 5.) HAVE A CLEAR MESSAGE 6.) DON T OVERSELL 7.) KEEP IT SHORT FORMS OF PERSUASIVE SPEAKING Persuasive speaking has been categorized based on speeches that advance four types of propositions or arguments 1.) Proposition of fact In speeches that affirm propositions of fact, you make and support designative claims. You pose and answer the question, Was it/is it/will it be true? the alleged fact that you want the audience to accept as true can concern an individual, an event, a process, a condition, concept or a fact. The federal government has evidence that flying saucers are real. Workers in smoky bars and restaurants face a great risk of lung cancer. 2.) Proposition of value Speeches that affirm propositions of value make evaluative claims. They answer the question Of what worth is it? in speeches of this type, one seeks to convince an

audience that something meets or does not meet a specific value standard of goodness or quality. Lee Jones is the best salesperson in our firm. Nuclear weapons are immoral. Organised religion has produced more harm than good. 3.) Concern about a problem In speeches that create concern about a problem, you advance definitive claims. You answer the question What is it? the speech designed to create concern about a problem asks an audience to agree that specific conditions should be perceived as a problem requiring a solution. In addition to presenting the problem the speech must also show the impact of the problem. The US sale of arms to other countries is a cause for concern. Sexual harassment is a continuing problem on college and university campuses. We should be concerned about the depiction of violence on children s television. 4.) Proposition of policy in speeches that affirm propositions of policy, you make advocative claims. That is, you answer the question, What course of action should be pursued. In addition to urging adoption of a new policy or course of action, you can recommend either continuing or discontinuing an existing policy or rejecting a proposed policy. Federal regulation of the airline industry should be stopped. Aborigines should have the same rights as all Australians. Colleges and Universities should not adopt speech codes.

TOULMIN S MODEL When you ask an audience to accept a proposition of fact, value, problem or policy you do so by offering reasons. The analysis of English logician Stephen Toulmin provides a useful approach to generating and evaluating good reasons. As Toulmin describes it, when we give good reasons (an argument), we move from data, through a warrant, to a claim. Claim (C) describes the conclusion you want the audience to accept. The claim may be a fact, a value, a problem, or a policy, or it might be an intermediate claim that supports your purpose. The claim is always potentially controversial and hence requires support the audience will support. Data (D) answers the question, What is the support/grounding for the claim. It includes forms of support like language, explanations, examples, statistics, testimony and visuals. They can also include the credibility of the speaker or the values, motives and beliefs of the audience. Warrant (W) is the name Toulmin gives to the part of the argument that justifies the jump involved in advancing from accepting data to accepting a controversial claim. The warrant answers the question, How do you get from the data to the claim. The function of the warrant is to show that the data supports the claim as true or acceptable. Toulmin adds a second triad of components of an argument.

Backing (B) provides support for a warrant when listeners are not willing to accept a warrant at its face value. Support for a warrant (backing) can consist of a single item or of an entire argument in itself complete with data and a claim. Rebuttal (R) is appended to the claim and recognizes conditions under which the claim will be true or not true only in a qualified or restricted way. The rebuttal anticipates objections that an audience might advance against the claim. Qualifier (Q) it expresses the degree of force that you as the speaker believe the claim to possess. When you believe the claim to be incontrovertible, no qualifier is necessary. When you do not possess conviction you can qualify the claim with words such as probably, usually and possibly.

Traditionally forms of proof have been organized into three categories MOTIVATIONAL PROOF (pathos) proof based on the inner, drives, values or aspirations of the audience. It asks an audience to accept a claim concerning a fact, value, problem or policy on the grounds that the claim is consistent with the listeners needs and values. ETHICAL PROOF (ethos) based on the credibility of the source of the message. It asks an audience to accept a claim concerning a fact, value, problem or policy because of the speaker s competence, trustworthiness, dynamism, power, goodwill, idealism or similarity to the audience. LOGICAL PROOF (logos) proof that asks an audience to accept a claim concerning a fact, value, problem or policy because objective evidence supports the claim. It is based on evidence, such as statistics and examples. NEGOTIATION According to Freeman (1992) it is the use of communication skills and bargaining to manage conflict and reach mutually satisfying outcomes. It is a process through which two or more parties move from their initially divergent positions to a point where agreement is reached. It is a process of trying to reach an agreement between two or more parties.

For Sandra Cleary (2002) negotiation is a process of focusing on a problem between two or more parties in order to find a workable or sustainable solution. According to Laurie Dicker (1997) negotiation is a process of changing the status quo by exchanging one s set of values for another. Negotiation is part of everyday life it is based not on IQ but very much on Emotional Qualities (EQ). 85% of your happiness in life is based on negotiation. When people negotiate they employ economic policies of maximisation (benefits) and minimisation (of costs). Negotiation is either MANIPULATIVE OR PRINCIPLED. Our focus is principled negotiation. Basic rules a. Negotiators aim for one outcome, win-win solution. b. It is important to separate people (personalities) from problems (issues). c. Focus on interests and not with positions d. Generate a number of options before arriving at the most appropriate e. The end result must be arrived at on the basis of an objective criteria f. Every situation has elements within it that are negotiable.

Strategy It is a plan or policy put forward to reach an agreement or to have a successful outcome. A strategy, in other words, is a means to an end. Strategies are also long term directions taken during negotiation Negotiation Strategies These are plans or policies focusing on a problem between two or more parties to secure agreement. Negotiation strategies can be seen as a process of give and take in which both parties try to leave the bargaining table with what they perceive as a good deal (win-win situation) which could form the basis of a long term relationship. Negotiation takes place upon the commitment of two or more parties concerned to resolve the matter and come to an agreement. An important aspect in negotiation is the opening offer. Opening offers, as Sandra Cleary (2002) notes, should always be pitched well away from what you would expect to receive, ask for more than what you expect to get and offer less than what you expect to give. 1. Distributive bargaining negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources, a win or lose situation. For example, you see a used car advertised for sale in the newspaper. It appears to be just what you have been looking for then you go out to see the car. It is great and the owner tells you the asking price and you don t want to pay that much. The two of you then

negotiate over the price. The most widely cited example of distributive bargaining is in labourmanagement negotiations over wages. 2. Intergrative bargaining negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win/win situation. In contrast it tends to provide outcomes that satisfy all parties and that build lasting relationships. 3. Third party negotiation a mediator is a third party/neutral party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion and suggest alternatives. It is widely used in labour/management disputes and in civil court disputes. An arbitrator is a third party to a negotiation who has authority to dictate an agreement. A conciliator is a trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and his opponent. A consultant is a skilled and impartial third party who attempts to facilitate problem solving through communication and analysis, aided by a knowledge of conflict management. The consultant s role is not to settle the issues but rather to improve relations between the conflicting parties so that they can reach a settlement themselves. Factors Contributing to a successful negotiation 1. Sufficient time to prepare carry out a research about the parties you are going to negotiate with e.g. their strengths and weaknesses and threats as well. 2. Clear objectives be clear on what you seek or want to achieve. 3. Knowledge of the subject being aware of the aspects you are going to negotiate about. 4. Use of appropriate negotiation tactics 5. Effective communication skills be a competent communicator avoiding use of technical jargon. 6. Willingness to be open by both parties involved in the negotiation process 7. Mutual respect for one another. Benefits of negotiation -Achievement of goals or objectives by both parties since an agreement is reached after the negotiation process. -Creates better relationships among colleagues through interactions -Rewarding to the organization since organizational interests are met. -Better services for clients Principles of negotiation

1. Principle of reversal mostly employed by lawyers in court. It involves taking the point of view of the opponent, (empathy or perspective taking). It helps you to notice the fears and concerns of the opponent. It helps you to see where agreement and compromise are possible. It is linked to reciprocity. 2. Principle of win-win or no deal/the principle of timing there must be something for everyone at the end of the day. For this outcome to hold negotiators need to be relative and proactive. 3. Principle of walkaway may be effective if honoured but care should be taken to leave someone behind or the route to further negotiation still open. Do not close all channels. 4. Principle of timing 80% of the outcome in negotiation is based on the last 20% or 20 hours of timing when negotiating. The person exerting pressure in negotiating is the one who, usually, is under pressure to reach a settlement. Take your time and be deliberate. Use time to your advantage. 5. Principle of authority negotiators should show the ability to reward or hurt the opposition. When negotiating do not appear slighted or a weakling. There are several types of power; a. Power of commitment b. Knowledge of the other c. Power of indifference demonstrate mild boredom or disinterestedness if possible to exert authority. d. Power of courage speak forcefully and fearlessly Negotiation stages 1. Setting In both sides familiarize themselves with each other s position and the climate of the negotiations. 2. Consolidation negotiations progress to more substantive discussions, issues and resolution of minor issues. 3. Finalization higher priority issues are tackled. Both parties push and pull to reach a final agreement. 4. Mapping up- writing final agreements in a language checked and approved by both sides concludes the four stages. LEADERSHIP A significant factor in the success of every small group is leadership. LEADERSHIP is any behavior that helps clarify or guide the group to achieve its goals.

It is the ability to exert influence over others. A leader is a person assigned or selected, or who emerges from a group, to guide or provide direction toward reaching the group s goals. Leadership is a role that can only be given by the group, and a leader can lead only with the group s permission IDENTIFYING A LEADER 1. He/she is the centre of the group s attention. Like a teacher in a classroom. 2. By the behaviours a person displays in guiding a group to their specific goal. If a person communicates a direction and the group members follow that direction to reach that goal, then that person is demonstrating leadership. 3. A leader can be identified by his/her position or title. (But this method of identification requires caution. Even though a title signifies that a person is a nominal leader, it does not mean that he or she has leadership skills.) Leaders must help to meet two sets of tasks found in all groups; 1.) Task needs- Are related to the content of the task and to all behaviours that lead to the completion of the task, including defining and assessing the task, gathering information, studying the problem and solving the problem. 2.) Maintenance needs are related to the personal satisfaction that the group members receive from working together. It pertains to such intangibles as atmosphere, structure, role responsibility, praise and social-emotional control. To meet maintenance needs, leaders must carry out a number of functions; a. Initiating preparing members for the discussion. b. Organizing keeping members on track c. Maintaining effective interaction spreading participation d. Ensuring member satisfaction promoting interpersonal relationships e. Facilitating understanding encouraging effective listening f. Stimulating creativity and critical thinking encouraging evaluation and improvement.

LEADERSHIP STYLES Task oriented leaders Gain satisfaction from performing the task or solving the problem. They spend less time developing relationships unless doing so helps complete the task quickly.

Relationship oriented leaders They attempt to obtain a position of prominence and to establish good interpersonal relationships. They emphasise people rather than the task and focus on attending to the interpersonal needs of their group members. AUTOCRACY No consultation in decision making. The leader keeps complete control. He makes all policy and decisions. He defines tasks and assigns them to members. DEMOCRACY Majority rules. The leader shares control. He involves others in policy making and consults before making decisions. May guide task assignment to be sure work is accomplished but allows members to divide work themselves. LAISSEZ FAIRE Somewhat a contradiction. The leader gives up control. May guide task assignment but allows members to divide up work. Acts more like a facilitator. He completely avoids participation.
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