Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering Copyright c 2009 SAIEE, Innes House, Johannesburg

TOPIC A. HV MEASUREMENTS

UNCERTAINTIES IN THE APPLICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC AND ALTITUDE CORRECTIONS AS RECOMMENDED IN IEC STANDARDS
1

Dong Wu1*, Ming Li2 and Mats Kvarngren3 ABB HVDC, SE-771 80 Ludvika, Sweden, 2ABB Corporate Research, SE-721 78 Vsters, Sweden, 3STRI, SE-771 80 Ludvika, Sweden *Email: dong.wu@se.abb.com

Abstract: The dielectric strength of air is influenced by air density (temperature and pressure) and humidity. Such effects need to be taken into account when external insulation is designed and tested. Since the conditions of application and the conditions of the laboratory tests may be different, it is often necessary to make corrections between different atmospheric conditions. For engineers at manufacturers, utilities or high-voltage laboratories, they follow the relevant IEC standards. However, atmospheric conditions influence the dielectric strength of air in a complicated way. Simplified and generalized solutions may cause vacillations especially when different recommendations are given in different standards without sufficient clarifications. It is the intension of this paper to give an outline of such issues that may lead to uncertainties in the application of various IEC standards regarding the atmospheric correction. Some proposals are also given for discussion.

1.

INTRODUCTION

The dielectric strength of air is influenced by air density (temperature and pressure) and humidity. Such effects need to be taken into account when external insulation is designed and tested. Since the conditions at the application and the conditions at the laboratory tests may be different, it is often necessary to make corrections between different atmospheric conditions. Creditable studies and reviews have been published on the atmospheric corrections, e.g. [1, 2]. These studies were the base for the recommendations in IEC standards, e.g. [3-10]. For engineers at manufacturers, utilities or high-voltage laboratories, they follow the relevant IEC standards. However, atmospheric conditions influence the dielectric strength of air in a complicated way. Simplified and generalized solutions may cause vacillations especially when different recommendations are given in different standards without sufficient clarifications. Based on practical engineering experience, it is the intension of this paper to give an outline of such issues that may lead to uncertainties in the application of various IEC standards regarding the atmospheric correction. Some proposals are also given for discussion. 2. 2.1. CORRECTION FOR AIR INSULATION Related parameters of air

Where: p0 and t0 (in degree C) are the pressure and temperature at the standard reference conditions respectively; p1 and t1 are that at other air conditions. Thereafter the atmospheric conditions are converted into mainly two parameters, the relative air density and the absolute humidity. These two parameters have also certain co-effects. It should be noted that for outdoor conditions, it might be assumed that the effects of ambient temperature and humidity tend to cancel each other [4]. 2.2. Influence of air density

The breakdown of a non-uniform long air gap takes often the processes as corona inception, streamer propagation, leader formation and propagation, and final jump. The streamer and leader processes are the decisive processes. It has been concluded in literature [1-2] that the influence of air density is most significant on the streamer formation and propagation. The air density has little influence on the leader process. Therefore, as an approximation, one may consider if the streamer dominates the breakdown processes in a gap, the dielectric strength of this air gap is proportional to relative air density. This is in principle the case for shorter gaps, shorter than 2 meters. For longer gaps, the breakdown will be resulted by both the streamer and the leader process. Therefore, the dielectric strength of a longer air gap is, in many cases, less than proportional to air density. According to above approximations, the change of the dielectric strength of air gaps with air density may be evaluated by the value of m. For breakdown caused mainly by streamers, m is equal to one (m=1). Otherwise, for most of the non-uniform long gaps, m is smaller than one (m<1). Therefore, the main task for air density correction is to evaluate m. However, the value of m is not just a simple function of gap length, it is also the function of gap structure, voltage type, as
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The dielectric strength of air is influenced by the air density (temperature and pressure) and humidity. The influence of temperature and pressure can be taken into account simultaneously, at least as a first approximation, by the relative air density, , [2]:

p1 273 + t0 p0 273 + t1

(1)

TOPIC A. HV MEASUREMENTS

Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering Copyright c 2009 SAIEE, Innes House, Johannesburg

well as the relative air density, , in a complicated way. We have m=f(U/L, kgap, ). Here kgap is the gap factor. 2.3. G factor method

Based on creditable studies and test results obtained at altitude over 3000 meters, the correction methods using G factor were summarized and presented [1-2]. A factor, G, is introduced to simplify the complicated relation of m=f(U/L, kgap, ) by a semi-empirical approach m=f(G). The value of G is the ratio of the mean electric field, E, at the breakdown voltage of a given gap, and the average electric field of the positive streamer, Es, at the same atmosphere.

applied with an acceptable accuracy for cases where 0.9k1.1 [2]. Such limitation may only be fulfilled when correction is made between test results obtained near sea level. For high altitude correction other curves give better accuracy. This is an issue being overlooked by this standard. In this standard, it is recommended to use the 50% breakdown voltage and the minimum discharge path to evaluate G. When U50 is not available, Ub can be assumed to be 1.1 times of the voltage level of the withstand test. However, such assumption can only be justified when the voltage level of the withstand test is related to the value of U50 and the minimum discharge path in such a way that it reflects the discharge characteristics of the test object. Otherwise, errors will be introduced to the value of E=Ub/L and thereafter to G and m. For the purpose of insulation coordination and the determination of type test voltage, the value of U50 and the length of related minimum discharge path are often not available. The test voltage specified has, in many cases, a weak relation with an arcing distance of the equipment. In such a case, E=Ub/L can not be correctly estimated as recommended by this standard. 3.2. IEC 60071-2 (1996-12)

G=

E Es

(2)

With E=Ub/L, Es=Es0k, and Es0=500 kV/m. In the above relations, Ub is the breakdown voltage of the air gap and L is length of the discharge. k is the correction for humidity; and Es0 is the average electric field of the positive streamer at standard reference atmosphere. It is intended to determine, by the value of G, how much a breakdown will be contributed by streamer at the given gap. G value is actually the simplified presentation of the breakdown characterises of the given gap. The functions of m=f(G) is given Figure 1, with the value k as index.

In this standard, [4], the altitude correction is given in a formula as:

ka = e
m

H m 8150

(4)

Where: H is the altitude in meters. Actually, we can relate ka in formula (4) with kt in formula (3) by: m ka=1/kt=1/ .

G Figure 1: The relations of m=f(G) given in [2]. 3. RECOMMENDATIONS IN IEC STANDARDS IEC 60060-1 (1998-11)

3.1.

In this standard [3], the correction factor, kt, is defined as: kt = kw= U/U0
m

(3)

Figure 2: The relations of m=f(Ucw) given in [4] Instead of using the relation m=f(G), as that in IEC 60060-1 [3], m is given here as the function of the coordination withstand voltage, i.e., m=f(Ucw). This is a simplified and conservative approach, avoiding the difficulties in obtain the relation of E=Ub/L. This is

Where U is the breakdown voltage at given site conditions and U0 is the breakdown voltage at standard reference conditions. G factor method is adopted in this standard. Both m and w are the function of G. In this standard, the curve with solid line in Figure 1, for k=1, is used, for m=f(G). This curve may only be
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Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering Copyright c 2009 SAIEE, Innes House, Johannesburg

TOPIC A. HV MEASUREMENTS

very convenient for the purpose of insulation coordination and the determination of type test voltage Different values for m are recommended for different types of voltage and insulation. For lightning impulse voltage (LI) and short duration AC voltage, m=1 is recommended. For switching impulse voltage (SI), the value of m is to be obtained through a group of curves in Figure 2. 3.3. IEC 62271-1 (2007-10)

3.7.

IEC 60168 (2001-04)

In this standard [10], no recommendation is given for altitude correction. If the atmospheric conditions at the time of test differ from standard reference atmosphere, then corrections shall be made according to IEC 60060-1[3]. 4. 4.1. DISCUSSIONS AND PROPOSALS Application of IEC 60060-1

In this standard [5], the normal service conditions including altitudes not exceeding 1000 meters are specified. The altitude correction recommended is said to be applicable to 4000 meters with formula below:

ka = e

H 1000 8150

The atmospheric correction recommended by this standard [3] is most accurate when breakdown tests have been performed on air gap or dry insulators. In such cases, the dielectric characteristics of the test objects can be obtained. The value of E=Ub/L can be evaluated accurately. This correction becomes difficult to apply when correction is to be made on withstand test voltage of equipments. This is because in some cases, the relation between the withstand voltage and U50 is not 1.1 times. In some cases the discharge path may not be determined by the voltage level of this test but by other constrains, such as creepage or installation requirement. In some cases, the shortest discharge path is not the critical insulation under this test voltage. The value of E=Ub/L in such cases may not be correctly evaluated. Even if one may introduce certain type of iterative calculation procedure between the test voltage and the correction factor, the uncertainty in evaluate E=Ub/L can not be solved. However, as long as the corrections are made for relative small difference in air density from standard reference conditions, i.e., 0.9k1.1, the magnitude of the error introduced may still be tolerated. The extended application of the relation m=f(G) in this standard to high altitude correction will lead to a increased error. The correction as recommended today is not suitable for altitude correction. One solution would be to adopt the complete relation of m=f(G) as that given in Figure 1 into this standard. The other solution is to use the recommendations in IEC 60071-2 for altitude correction, limiting the application of this standard in the range of 0.9k1.1. 4.2. Application of IEC 60071-2

(5)

This is the same formula as formula (4) but avoided the correction for the altitude not exceeding 1000 m. For SI, further simplifications and approximations are made. Instead of the curves in the form of m=f(Uw), as given in Figure 2, constant values of m for different type of voltages are recommended. The correction is not anymore the function of voltage level:
For AC, LI, and phase to phase SI: m=1 For Longitudinal SI: m=0.9

For phase to earth SI: m=0.75

IEC 60076-1 (2000-04) and IEC 60076-3 (2000-03)

3.4.

In these two standards for power transformers [6-7], the normal service conditions including altitudes not exceeding 1000 meters are specified [6]. The altitude correction is made directly on the gap distance, i.e. if the transformer is specified for operation at an altitude higher than 1000 m, the clearance requirements shall be increased by 1% for every 100 m by which the altitude exceeds 1000 m [7]. 3.5. IEC 60137 (2008-07)

In this standard [8], it is said that bushings corresponding to this standard are declared suitable for operation at any altitude not exceeding 1000 m. The altitude correction recommended is applicable to 4000 meters with formula (5). Constant values for m are

also recommended as:

3.6.

The atmospheric correction recommended by this standard is most suitable for the purpose of insulation co-ordination and the determination of type test voltage. Since the correction factor is related directly to the co-ordination withstand voltage. One importance issue in this correction is whether or not to make correction for the altitude not exceeding 1000 meters. On this point this standards differs from many other IEC standards [5-9]. In this discussion, there are actually four different atmospheric conditions in the context.

m =1 for power frequency and LI; m =0.75 for SI.

IEC 60044-8 (2002-07)

This standard [9] has exactly the same approach for the altitude correction as that in IEC 62271-1 [5].

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TOPIC A. HV MEASUREMENTS

Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering Copyright c 2009 SAIEE, Innes House, Johannesburg

1.

Standard reference conditions with temperature of 20oC, air pressure of 101.3 kPa, and absolute humidity of 11g/m3 Normal service conditions (conditions that specified for various HV equipment in relevant standards) with maximum ambient temperature of, e.g., 40oC, altitude not exceeding 1000 meters, and Specific site conditions (application conditions) with altitude of, e.g., 1600 meters, and Laboratory test conditions (at the day of testing) with ambient temperature of, e.g., 25oC, air pressure of, e.g., 100.0 kPa and relative humidity of, e.g., 40%.

2.

conditions, e.g., at an altitude higher than 1000 meters, atmospheric corrections between these two conditions are necessary for both the design and test of the external insulation. For equipment which will be tested at a laboratory where conditions at the day of testing differ from standard reference conditions, atmospheric correction is necessary for the test voltage between these two conditions. Taking this discussion into account, it is justified to use formula like that in IEC 62271-1, i.e., (5) instead of formula in IEC 60071-2, (4). 4.3. Values of m for different types of voltage

3.

4.

In several IEC standards, the values of m for different voltage types are recommended. The recommendation of m=1 for LI is justified. The mean field of a rod-plane gap under positive LI is higher than 500 kV/m, i.e., E=Ub/L500 kV/m. The recommendation of m=1 for AC is a conservative approach. The non-linear characteristic of the AC breakdown voltage against gap length indicate the same breakdown process as that appears under SI [2]. For long gaps, there will be m<1. On the other hand, a rod-plane gap of 2 meters will have a U50 for short duration AC of 620 kV. This voltage corresponds to a phase to phase voltage of 1074 kV. Therefore, if AC is the dimensioning voltage, with the system voltage available today, relative short gaps will be required. Taking this into consideration, the conservative approach of using m=1 may be justified. Otherwise for longer gaps, the value of m should be similar to what is used for SI. Therefore, the recommendations would be: For gaps of lengths shorter than 2 meters, m=1 For gaps of lengths longer than 2 meters, use the same m value as that for SI obtained in Figure 2

These different conditions represent different severities for the external insulation design and test. In Figure 3, the relations between the different atmospheric conditions are sketched out.
Severity
kt
Theoretically kt Normal service conditions

Specific site conditions

Standard reference conditions

kt

Lab. test conditions

Figure 3: Atmospheric correction between different ambient conditions Theoretically, for the design and test of external insulation, atmospheric corrections should be applied between the specific site conditions, laboratory test conditions and the standard reference conditions. However, for most equipment, there are normal service conditions specified in the relevant IEC standards. For economical reasons and industrial practice, equipments have to be designed to withstand the required withstand voltage within the range of normal service conditions. The differences between the standard reference conditions and the normal service conditions have been included in the design. This means that for equipment used at a location with altitude not exceeding 1000 meters; no altitude correction will be necessary. This industrial practice has been supported by vast operational experience and adopted by many IEC standards. This is especially true for the cases when deterministic method is used for insulation coordination, e.g. for HVDC systems (IEC60071-5, under revision). The effect of the air density in this range, where H1000 meters, has already been included in the margins commonly adopted for insulation design. For equipment that will be used at the specific site conditions more severe than the normal service
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Note that peak AC voltage should be used as SI in Figure 2. No correction for DC was included in most of these standards. In Cigr report a linear relation between the short duration DC breakdown voltage and the length of rod-plane gap has been reported up to 1000 kV with mean breakdown field in the level of 500 kV/m [2]. Since the gap length is short, m=1 would be used. However, other literature has reported slightly nonlinearity from 2 to 4 meters of gap lengths [11]. The mean breakdown field is in the level of 400 kV/m. This will result in: G=0.8 and m=0.6. More laboratory studies are needed for longer gaps. However, with the limited results today, the recommendations would be: For gaps of lengths shorter 2 meters, m=1 For gaps of lengths longer than 2 meters, m=0.6.

Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering Copyright c 2009 SAIEE, Innes House, Johannesburg

TOPIC A. HV MEASUREMENTS

The recommendation of use m=0.75 for all SI level is a conservative approach. This value may be justified for EHV systems. For UHV system, relations in Figure 2 should be followed. 4.4. Altitude correction for creepage

2.

Along hydrophilic surfaces, when pollution has been wetted, dry-band related discharge activities may take place. This is a short gap with streamer breakdown. The dry-band can become wetted again after the current flow though the arc in air. Such activities can occur several times and a full flashover of the insulator may take place. In this process, the change of air density will change the dielectric strength of the air. If it was pure air breakdown in the form of streamer, then the correction would be kt=m with m=1. However, the conditions of both surfaces in series and parallel to the dry-bend activity contribute to the effects. For real insulator, the change of pollution level and the change of creepage distance in parallel with the air gap will change the interaction between the air gap and surface activities. The insulator shed profile play also an important role. This is again a complicated phenomenon [12]. Although wide differences exist in literature, it is recommended that a constant value of m should be used with m=0.5 for AC and 0.35 for DC [12]. The correction is to be applied for voltage, the same as in equation (3): kt = U/U0=m It is the same as for air insulation correction; no correction for the creepage distance is needed for altitude up to 1000 meters. In pollution test, for the insulators of the same shed profile and at a given pollution level, the relationship between the U50 and the creepage distance is in most cases linear [12]. Therefore, one can replace the voltage in equation (3) with creepage distance, L: kc = L/ L0 =a
-m

The correction method recommendation in IEC 60071-2 is convenient to use for purpose of insulation co-ordination and the determination of withstand test voltages. It can be applied for altitude correction for altitudes up to 4000 m, as being recommended by several other IEC standards, before any research results prove otherwise. It is a conservative approximation of G factor method. For equipment with a specified normal service conditions including altitudes not exceeding 1000 m, altitude correction should only be applied to correct the altitude exceeding 1000 m as that given in formula (5):

3.

ka = e
4.

H 1000 8150

the recommended value for m is proposed to be related to gap length as: For LI: m=1. For SI: using curves in Figure 2. For AC: when gap length is shorter than 2 meters, m=1. When gap length is longer than 2 meters, use the same value of m for SI with the same voltage level to AC peak voltage. For DC: when gap length is shorter than 2 meters, m=1. When gap length is longer than 2 meters, m=0.6.

5.

Altitude correction for creepage should be introduced into IEC standard as that recommended by Cigr Review [12].

6.

REFERENCES

(6)

Here L is the creepage distance for a high altitude and L0 is the creepage distance for altitudes up to 1000 meters.
5. CONCLUSIONS

For the recommendations in IEC standards on the atmospheric and altitude correction the following may be considered. 1. The correction method recommendation in IEC 60060-1 is most accurate for breakdown test performed at the condition where 0.9k1.1. It is inaccurate when used for high altitude correction. It is inconvenient and inaccurate when used for insulation coordination and the determination of withstand test voltages.

[1] K. Feser, A. Pigini, Influence of atmospheric conditions on the dielectric strength of external insulation Paper prepared at the request of the Chairman of SC 33, Electra No. 112. [2] WG 33-07, Guidelines for the evaluation of the dielectric strength of external insulation Cigr Brochre 72. [3] IEC 60060-1, High-voltage test techniques Part 1: General definitions and test requirements. Edition 2.0, 1989-11 [4] IEC 60071-2, Insulation co-ordination Part 2: Application guide. Third edition, 1996-12 [5] IEC 62271-1, High-voltage switchgear and controlgear Part 1: Common specifications. Edition 1.0, 2007-10 [6] IEC 60076-1, Power transformers Part 1: General. Edition 2.1, 2000-04 [7] IEC 60076-3, Power transformers Part 3: Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air. Second edition, 2000-03
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Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering Copyright c 2009 SAIEE, Innes House, Johannesburg

[8] IEC 60137, Insulated bushings for alternating voltage above 1000 kV. Edition 6.0, 2008-07 [9] IEC 60044-8, Instrument transformers Part 8: Electronic current transformers. First edition, 2002-07 [10] IEC 60168, Test on indoor and outdoor post insulators of ceramic material or glass for systems with nominal voltage greater than 1000 V. Edition 4.2, 2001-04 [11] S.J. Huang, Z.H. He, Z.B. Wen, M.G. Wang, Flashover tests on large air gaps with DC voltage, ICPST94 Beijing, China [12] Taskforce 33-04-01: Polluted insulators: a review of current knowledge Cigr Brochre 158

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