Journal of Promotion Management, 15:357381, 2009 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1049-6491 print / 1540-7594

4 online DOI: 10.1080/10496490903185760

Types of Word-of-Mouth Messages: Information Search and Credence-Based Services

CHARLES H. PATTI
University of Denver, Denver, Colorado, USA

CHIA H. CHEN
Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Word-of-mouth communication (WOMC) has been recognized as a powerful marketing communication medium and a credible information-gathering tool. To date, the various types of WOM messages have not been adequately studied, especially in credencebased services (CBS). Using the individual interview technique, this study lls this gap by describing the three types of WOMC messages in CBS information-gathering. The results contribute to the ongoing development of WOMC theory and also advance managements understandings of the types of WOMC messages in the CBS information-gathering process. KEYWORDS advertising, Australia, credence-based services (CBS), higher education service (HES), information search, international students (foreign students), marketing communication, promotion management, prospective overseas higher education students (POHES), theory, word-of-mouth communication (WOMC)

INTRODUCTION
The service industry has become a strong, driving force in worldwide economic growth and occupies a key portion of the national economy of postindustrial countries. In all post-industrial countries, for example, the higher education sector (focus of this study) is one of the key economic contributors. The natural characteristics of a service versus tangible products lead prospective consumers into risky situations and require more complex information
Address correspondence to Charles Patti, PhD, Daniels College of Business, University of Denver, 2101 South University Boulevard, Denver, CO 80208. E-mail: cpatti@du.edu 357

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gathering and evaluation. These characteristics include heterogeneity, inseparability, intangibility, and perishability (Zeithaml, Parasuraman, & Berry, 1985; Murray & Schlacter, 1990; Murray, 1991; Hartman & Lindgren, 1993; Mitchell & Greatorex, 1993; Lovelock, Patterson, & Walker, 2001, p. 63; Sneath, Kennett, & Megehee, 2002). Prospective higher education students commonly have limited knowledge and experience in choosing universities and in evaluating key aspects of the service attributes, including future possible career prospects, effective teaching and learning approaches, and the overall quality of the institutions (Richard, Gabrielle, & Craig, 1999). This limited knowledge base is especially true for prospective overseas higher education students (POHES) who experience a high level of various types of perceived risks (Richard et al., 1999). When consumers cannot evaluate the service quality, value, or capability of service providers, word-of-mouth communication (WOMC) becomes a credible, reliable, and cost-effective alternative medium to acquire subjective service evaluation and insightful information from other experienced customers within a short period of time (Murray, 1991; Beltramini & Sirsi, 1992; Bloom & Pailin, 1995; Mitra, Reiss, & Capella, 1999; Ennew, Banerjee, & Li, 2000; Thakor & Kumar, 2000; Berry & Bendapudi, 2003; Paswan & Ganesh, 2003). From a marketing professionals perspective, WOMC is recognized as an effective and powerful marketing medium for consumers from the initial stage of information generating, to the selection of service providers, to the post-consumption stage (Murray, 1991; Gilly, Graham, Wolnbarger, & Yale, 1998). WOMC is also a strong inuencing tool for marketing practitioners, as it accelerates the consumer adoption cycle, increases acceptance or the speed of rejection, and indicates purchase intentions (Lampert & Rosenberg, 1975; Martinez & Polo, 1996). Furthermore, WOMC has strong inuential power in leading and guiding messages received when consumers are searching for information, allocating searching efforts, and undertaking the decision process. However, previous studies of WOMC in the information gathering process for a consumer purchase mainly focus on the types of WOMC messages in purchasing tangible goods (Lampert & Rosenberg, 1975; Richins & RootShaffer, 1988; Assael, 1998). Very few studies have explored the types of WOMC messages in services. This study addresses this gap in the literature and has two objectives: (1) to understand the types of WOMC messages in consumers information gathering, and (2) to identify the characteristics of each type of WOMC message.

LITERATURE REVIEW Consumers Problems in CBS Information Gathering

Credence-based services (CBS) are services, such as legal services, medical services, and education services, that consumers feel are hard to evaluate even after purchase (Freiden & Goldsmith, 1989; Hartman & Lindgren, 1993,

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p. 9; Kotler & Keller, 2009). CBS not only have traditional services characteristics (heterogeneity, inseparability, intangibility, and perishability), but also have their unique characteristics (high market entry barrier environment, information asymmetry between customers and providers, service quality evaluation difculty, higher perceived risk, and perceived price insensitivity) (Darby & Karni, 1973; Nayyar, 1990; Maute & Forrester, 1991; Powpakam, 1996; Gallouj, 1997; Ha, 1998; Emons, 2001). Higher education service (HES) can be regarded as one type of CBS in that it involves high personal involvement, complexity, high intangibility, and a professional and people orientation (Patton, 2000; Veloutsou, Lewis, & Paton, 2004). HES requires qualied professional academic staff to deliver the service at a high level. For prospective students, gathering information about HES providers is an enormous challenge and affects overall students professional knowledge and transferable skills in future careers. In addition, the outcome of service content (lecturing and tutoring) is difcult for prospective students to evaluate (Hartman & Lindgren, 1993; Richard et al., 1999). Before service consumption, prospective students also have limited knowledge and experience in choosing universities and in determining what to study, what the future possible career prospects are, what the suitable teaching and learning approaches are for them, and what comprises quality teaching (Richard et al., 1999). These concerns are especially relevant for POHES because of lack of familiarity with the environment of the service providers (universities) and the geographic distance between the POHES and the study destination. POHES are facing a higher level of various types of perceived risks than domestic students, namely: nancial risk (paying for tuition and fees, the educational investment return, unknown future job attainment, job market demand in their homeland); psychological and social risk (personal fear towards the new environment, the need to build new or rebuild existing social networks, social isolation, cultural adjustment); and functional risk (academic service quality and career development impact) (Richard et al., 1999).

Information Gathering and WOMC

When consumers initiate information gathering, they immediately face three information source concerns: (1) different types of information sources; (2) effort of information gathering; and (3) search strategy (Meera & Dholakia, 1997; McColl & Fetter, 1999). Consumers sequentially utilize two types of information sources: internal and external sources. Consumers immediately scan internal information sources such as the stored long-term memory, past personal experience, and knowledge (Harrison, 2002). If consumers internally gathered information is not sufcient to eliminate their purchase concerns, they will initiate external information gathering from all possible information sources. However, the content of consumers internal sources is individual and limited toward services. External information source (e.g.,

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WOMC) becomes compulsory or supplemental to consumers in information gathering. External information gathering includes two types of sources: impersonal sources and personal sources. 1. Impersonal sources: marketers generated and controlled advertising and messages, and non-marketer generated publicity (Harrison, 2002) (e.g., personal selling, advertising, goods information on package, brochures, catalogues, independent third-party information) (Schmidt & Spreng, 1996, p. 247; McColl & Fetter, 1999; Kotler & Keller, 2009). 2. Personal sources: positive or negative information or recommendations from surrounding people, such as WOMC from friends, family, peer, and neighbors (Schmidt & Spreng, 1996, p. 247; Harrison, 2002). WOMC is a signicant source of interpersonal information, experience source for consumers, a cost-effective marketing tool to service providers, and one of the inuential personal information sources shaping consumers attitudes after the early stage of the consumer purchase cycle (Goldenberg, Libai & Muller, 2001). WOMC provides solutions to consumers information gathering problems in service attributes selection and inuences consumers service expectations (Bansal & Voyer, 2000). WOMC has been adopted by consumers as an information-seeking communication to solve problems, to allow risk reduction, and to provide an evaluation function without commercial interest (Lampert & Rosenberg, 1975; Kotler & Keller, 2009). Both personal information and independent sources are more effective and preferred sources by service consumers than tangible goods consumers, particularly when they are adopted together. One of the reasons is that WOMC tends to give consumers a high level of condence in service information gathering (Murray, 1991). WOMC is effective in retaining and recruiting new consumers through satised consumers (Haywood, 1989). These early adopters provide useful messages including personal testimonies and recommendations to other consumers. Later adopters rely on WOMC to construct their purchase decisions. Through the spread of WOMC messages, WOMC extends and accelerates the adoption cycle (Martinez & Polo, 1996). This study draws on a number of denitions of WOMC (Arndt, 1967; Lampert & Rosenberg, 1975; File, Judd, Prince, & Russ, 1992; Wee, Lim, & Lwin, 1995; Walker, 2001; Stokes & Lomax, 2002) and adopts the following denition: An informal, person-to-person communication process of information searching between a perceived non-commercial communicator and third parties about consumers feelings after services post-consumption. This denition mainly focuses on the WOMC information-gathering process of potential consumers.

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Customer Satisfaction
Service satisfaction is one of the main determining factors for consumers and service providers to generate positive WOMC in the post-consumption phase. If consumers believe dissatisfaction is not worth complaining about, service providers may not receive any negative WOMC feedback, and thus service shortcomings may not be addressed. This may cause accumulative and lasting damage to service providers (Lau & Ng, 2001). Scholars indicate that a higher level of customer satisfaction leads to higher purchase intentions and positive WOMC (File, Cermak, & Prince, 1994; Wirtz & Chew, 2002). When service quality does not meet the perceived standard, consumers are likely to initiate negative WOMC such as direct contact with prospective customers, especially with the strong social-tie customers, in order to prevent uncomfortable consumption experiences from occurring again (Walker, 2001; Wirtz & Chew, 2002). Furthermore, WOMC senders, who are frequently close to consumers, are key inuential parties to be included as a part of the marketing target audience in WOMC promotion (Lau & Ng). Prior buying experience and expectation also inuence the levels of service satisfaction. Burton, Sheather, and Roberts (1995) conclude that experienced customers tend to have higher satisfaction standards to measure service providers performance. Experienced customers tend to be more satised than novice customers, particularly if their expectations of high overall service quality are met. By contrast, for novice customers, it is easier to satisfy their standards with a small amount of service quality improvement beyond their expectations. WOMC is the accumulative feedback activities of the entire consumer service purchase cycle, not a simple one-shot effort. Furthermore, performance improvement can be made in a single area. Service satisfaction alone cannot be sufcient to trigger positive WOMC (Wirtz & Chew, 2002). WOMC activities and processes involve several challenging soft tasks such as communication skills, communication efciency, customer orientation, promised service delivery and satisfaction of key service attributes, and developing potential and maintaining existing opinion leaders (Haywood, 1989). One aspect of Walkers (2001) study suggested that using process and outcome measures of service quality together has better predictability than process or outcome quality alone. Furthermore, Wirtz and Chew (2002) indicated that satisfying customers in service outcomes should be regarded as the necessary effort to meet basic expectations before the consumers purchase intention is formed.

Australian Higher Education Service and Information Searching and WOMC

Australian higher education attracts a signicant number of overseas students to Australia. These students, mainly from Asia Pacic countries

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(Australian Department of Education Science and Training [Australian Department], 2004), contribute and stimulate the Australian economy and society. In the short-term, they assist domestic economic development (e.g., contribution to the Australian GDP, additional job creation, attractive incomes for universities) (Marginson, 2002; Australian Department, 2004). In the long-term, the signicant, accumulative number of graduated overseas students has created cultural impacts and exchange opportunities (Marginson), personal interactions, built-up personal cross-country connections and alliances, and established and provided cultural, business, and political opportunities and alliances (Patton, 2000; Michael, Armstrong, & King, 2003). Graduated students who are satised with their life experiences in Australia become inuential opinion leaders who testify in their countries to prospective overseas students through their entire life (Mazzarol & Hosie, 1996). As consumers, POHES conduct information gathering in several phases (problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, post-purchase behavior) in order to choose education service (partners) institutions (Richard et al., 1999; Adams, Banks, & Olsen, 2002; Kotler, Hayes, & Bloom, 2002; Gomes & Murphy, 2003; Pimpa, 2003). Moogan, Baron, and Bainbridge (2001) suggested three stages in students information gathering process:

STAGE 1: ENTRY LEVEL INFORMATION REQUIREMENT Students are mainly concerned about tangible requirements, such as course content, tuitions, entry requirement (GPA) and qualication, teaching and learning methods, and assessments (Moogan et al., 2001). POHES may also be concerned with additional factors such as the study destination and the English prociency test. STAGE 2: DEEPER INFORMATION SEARCHING At this stage, students include some soft factors such as their condence in the institutions, the lifestyle (Moogan et al., 2001), the institutions reputation, and learning assessment. POHES may be more concerned about cultural shock and adjustments. STAGE 3: BEFORE MAKING FINAL DECISION When students narrow the options down to a few candidate universities, they enter this stage. The life utility functions and environment factors become signicant concerns. These factors are invisible, not obvious, and require tangible or comprehensive examples to understand. POHES, however, are facing more obstacles in terms of geographic distance, time, and nancial constraints.

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In short, when prospective students are in the early information gathering stage (Stage 1), they tend to start with tangible, assessable, measurable attributes rather than the intangible, experiential, immeasurable attributes sought in Stages 2 and 3. The latter attributes tend to be intangibly assessed. Therefore, POHES rely on further external information sources and effort, such as using WOMC to collect information. Mortimers study (1997) concluded a positive relationship exists between knowledge or awareness of prospective students about a country or institution and high opportunity to select a country or institution. When POHES have useful information at an early stage or comparatively strong impression about the study destination, these prospective students increase their condence level, reduce their perceived uncertainty, and form a strong intention to study in that country (Carr, McKay & Rugimbana, 1999). This study conrmed the importance of information during the pre-consumption stage in higher education. The study by Mazzarol and Soutar (2002) concluded WOMC is one of the most effective promotion media for the international education market. POHES have the highest level of dependence on WOMC compared with other impersonal sources such as commercial and public information. In addition, the research by Michael et al. (2003) found that WOMC is the most signicant medium for overseas students when they are considering the study destination. This study indicated the main WOMC source is friends. Friends WOMC messages and experiences help POHES to learn relevant information about the quality of Australian education, course content, and cost information. These POHES use WOMC to conrm their decisions (Mortimer, 1997). Furthermore, the large base of experienced overseas higher education student (OHES) population can be a powerful WOMC referral source to generate more international students through networking (Patton, 2000; Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002). For example, university graduates are ideal opinion leaders to represent the outcome of education service quality to POHES. In addition, parents, relatives, and education agents, who have overseas study experience, are likely to recommend their friends, their own children, or customers to share their experience. Mazzarol and Soutar suggested universities should provide comprehensive and approachable WOMC messages for the target audience, parents, friends, and students to generate long-term and short-term benets. Other scholars (Mazzarol & Hosie, 1996; OMahony, McWilliams, & Whitelaw, 2001; Harris, 2002; Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002; Australian Department, 2003; Pimpa, 2003) also suggested universities should place a number of opinion leaders (satised fresh graduates, the parents of current graduates, internship executives or employees) in various countries to create a reference group to effectively answer personal questions from prospective overseas students. Although WOMC is highly appreciated by Australian higher education providers, they have devoted limited efforts in

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WOMC practice, such as the efforts concerning the potential use of satised students or university graduates (Mazzarol & Hosie; Harris).

METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this research is to explore the types of WOMC messages in CBS information gathering. This study adopts exploratory research to collect preliminary CBS searching information and obtain preliminary information and new insights, and behavior patterns from consumer information need aspects (Hair, Bush, & Ortinau, 2003, pp. 214250; Berg, 2009). The qualitative approach used here is highly suitable for collecting and understanding individual experience and attitudes to WOMC (Powpakam, 1996). Further, it enhances the understanding of intangible human factors, which are strongly correlated with satised overseas higher education students attitudes and their intentions to initiate positive recommendations to potential overseas higher education students (Carr et al., 1999). Therefore, adopting the qualitative research approach enables the researcher to generate meaningful WOMC phenomena on the basis of respondents research answers than a quantitative research approach.

Data Collection
Convergence interviewing (CI) was used to collect the data. CI is dened as an in-depth interviewing technique for collecting, analysing and interpreting qualitative information about peoples experiences, knowledge, opinion, and beliefs that converge on important research issues through the use of a number of interviews (Riege & Nair, 2004). CI has been adopted as a data collecting method in business and other disciplines for emerging business and marketing phenomena in areas such as business ethics (Kavali, Tzokas, & Saren, 2001), organizational learning (Yeo, 2002), offshore education partnerships (Poole, 2001), university advertising measurement (Gateld, Barker, & Graham, 1999), overseas higher education partnerships (Heffernan & Poole, 2004), managerial decision making (Gateld et al., 1999), strategic management (Carr & Harris, 2004), and inuencing risk attitude in managerial decision-making processes (Pennings & Smidts, 2000).

RESEARCH DESIGN Population

Full-time Asian overseas students constitute a signicant proportion of the international student population in Australia. In addition, studies indicated

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that the Asian culture contains strong social elements and has close social relationships, low individualistic orientation, and high uncertainty avoidance (Wee et al., 1995; Lau & Ng, 2001; Liu, Furrer, & Sudharshan, 2001; Money, 2004). Asian overseas students also experienced a high level of perceived risk and limited knowledge when selecting universities across borders due to geographical barriers (Lovelock, Patterson, & Walker, 2004). Therefore, as a source of rich data, high data quality, and data validity, screened full-time Asian students are an ideal study population (Marshall & Rossman, 2006).

Sampling Techniques
Convergence interviewing should be supplemented with the snowballsampling technique (Riege & Nair, 2004). This sampling technique has several benets, including: the access to the experienced, knowledgeable population and sources related to the research eld (Riege & Nair, 2004), and the identication of subjects who are knowledgeable and experienced with the buying task (Hair, Bush & Ortinau, 2000; Punch, 2000, p. 68). Thus, heterogeneous and knowledgeable participants were recruited through college and international student ofces, and personal networks among Australian universities.

SAMPLE SIZE A total of thirteen interviewees participated in interview sessions at several universities in a city in eastern Australia (Dick, 1990; Riege & Nair, 2004). Continual transcription, comparing and summarizing interview content was carried out by the interpreter to determine if content convergence was reached. If convergence was not reached immediately, the interviews continued until the content convergent appeared and provided signicant information for data interpretation until no additional data or theme appeared.

Data Analysis
Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) such as NVivo 2.0, has been recommended and gradually adopted in qualitative study (Rubin & Rubin, 2005; Sinkovics, Penz, & Ghauri, 2005). CAQDAS provides a structural and detailed data analysis process for the qualitative data collected through interviews, generating high quality interpretation (Marshall & Rossman, 1999, p. 150). NVivo 2.0 allows researchers to record, store, and retrieve data, with unlimited shufing in document management (Sinkovics et al., 2005). NVivo 2.0 also improves time management to effectively manage the huge amount data input within a short period (Rao & Perry, 2003). As

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TABLE 1 Summary of Common Characteristics of Types of WOMC Messages Types of WOMC Common characteristics of types of WOMC messages Characteristics Communication Approach 1. Participants followed the top-down approach, general-to-specic approach in information gathering. 2. Participants may experience each type of WOMC messages sequentially or simultaneously. Information Conguration 1. The depth of information content extended with the level of involvement in information gathering and number of types of WOMC messages. 2. Participants preferred to receive all types of messages in their native language through an interactive approach.

a result, researchers are able to pay extra attention in interviewing sessions to ensuring the validity, and reliability of study ndings (Gibbs, 2002).

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Three types of WOMC messages were found in this study: Type 1-service information gathering trigger and guidance; Type 2-subjective personal experience; and Type 3-personal advice. Although these types of WOMC messages had different attributes, the common characteristics of the three types of WOMC messages co-existed and are summarized in the following section.

The Common Characteristics of the Types of WOMC Messages

As shown in Table 1, the common characteristics consisted of two aspects: communication approach and information conguration. WOMC receivers intended to develop a long-term relationship with WOMC senders in order to continually make inquiries and receive information. Therefore, the gradually established longterm relationship and participants information gathering development progress were two main factors linking these types of WOMC messages between WOMC senders and receivers. TYPE 1-SERVICE INFORMATION GATHERING TRIGGER GUIDANCE

AND

The results showed WOMC receivers tended to treat WOMC messages as the initiation of their shopping journey, the gathering of shopping instructions, and information and opinions about possible suitable universities. The summary of Type 1 WOMC messages is displayed in the Table 2.

Word-of-Mouth Messages TABLE 2 Summary of Type 1-Service Information Gathering Triggers and Guidance Types of WOMC Type 1Service information gathering triggers and guidance Characteristics

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Functions and Benets 1. To briey introduce, arouse interests toward the topics. 2. To have information gathering directions to focus on particular information sources. 3. To allocate and devote their information searching efforts to understand CBS. 4. To have an opportunity to establish WOMC senders willingness and the information contacts for further information inquiring. 5. To provide summarized general positive or negative comments of service consumption experience to eliminate the psychological concerns/risks. The Information Content 1. Introducing related academic topics and macro-environmental factors. 2. Arousing WOMC receivers internal and external motives. 3. Providing general subjective comments and recognized key information cues on Australian universities and Australia. 4. Forwarding participants the key sources for further searching. 5. Participants search for the most crucial cue(s), recognition and reputation, and always balanced their capability and desire to attend ideal universities. WOMC Initiators (in Homeland and Australia) 1. WOMC sources include friends, peers, family members, education staff and agents, study companions in Australia (preferred) and homeland. 2. Friends and education agents were the most inuential WOMC senders in the long-term. 3. Education staff and tutors were more credible in the initial stage than friends and education agents.

Information content. The information content at this stage was more likely to be focused on four aspects. First, through an introduction to the macro-environment of study destination background, participants were able to understand the general Australian education structure and system, general geographic information such as climates and temperature, and the main milestones in the application procedure. Second, internal and external key inuential motives were mentioned among participants. Internal motives included strong personal inuence, enhanced job competitiveness, higher education quality, social consensus inuence, personal growth and life experience enhancement, and overall cost. External motives consisted of life pace and quality, geographic

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location, weather and temperature, and immigration possibility. Internal motives seemed to be more inuential and signicant than external motives. These motives, especially-internal motives, became the dominant driving force in the entire prospective student information gathering process. Third, it was critical for the participants to receive the positive or negative general comments on Australian education systems, general Australian education programs, and university learning quality before participants interests in studying in Australia were afrmed. For example, one typical cue among all participants was the ofcial university ranking by third parties as a general indicator of university strengths in terms of quality, value for money, public recognition to homeland education ministry and future employers, and the Australian community. It helped prospective students avoid choosing unrecognized universities.
Ranking information provides some evidence about the universitys strengths according to the third-partys neutral opinions. Ranking information only provided the service quality position relative to all programs in the university, not any specic program. Rankings helped me have a general indication of their service quality. Then I explored further to learn their specic strengths in my eld to proceed to the rst step of narrowing the search task. (Document 11 Transcription U2) The ranking is the main inuential power evidence I received from my friend. If I do not explore this target list of universities, I would feel I am behind my friends. (Document 11 Transcription U2)

Participants and their peers consistently paid extra attention to university rankings and consistently ignored the potential compatibility between themselves and the university, their personal learning style, and other tangible factors such as classroom size, total nancial budget and cost, and the required environmental adjustment. Next, due to high exibility and accessibility of WOMC sources, participants adopted WOMC information from all possible personal sources networks or their surroundings, and commercial information sources in their homeland or Australia. The coverage and depth of personal information depended on prospective students information accessibility and their search efforts. Information barriers. Prospective students faced several information barriers in their own microenvironment: 1. New environment, situational problems, and experiences that were never faced at school. 2. No or little access to WOMC to obtain subjective experience and knowledge.

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3. Language barriers when inquiring or seeking to enhance or obtain accurate information in terms of content in depth and scale of questioning.
. . . after I have experienced ESL school and university. Now I have no problems in nding the ESL schools and universities by myself. I am sure I do not need the agent to help me apply for ESL schools and universities. (Document 10 Transcription G5)

Limitations of type 1 WOMC messages. The main limitations of the Type 1 WOMC messages were the subjective, preliminary information content and limited information volume for participants. WOMC receivers were easily inuenced by other interpersonal sources such as peer inuence. The inuence was especially signicant for prospective female students who were seeking study companions in order to overcome social risk and future uncertainty. TYPE 2-SUBJECTIVE PERSONAL EXPERIENCE Type 2 WOMC messages extended the scope of previous content in terms of information amount and the level of details. Additionally, WOMC senders provide their subjective experience and knowledge to prospective students without inputting personal comments, judgement, and intentional inuence. Therefore, not only did credible information increase, but also the layer of information had extended from simple factual data gathering to psychological and emotional encouragement. The summary is set out in Table 3.
The time sequence difference appears because the personal basic needs are the rst condition to meet, then I can enter the second step and consider studying. When I am in my country, I know my environment. Since I have arrived here, my daily survival becomes the rst task I have to solve before I can take care of other issues. (Document 4 Transcription Q1) Not to change the university, but I changed course selection when I studied ESL school. The main reason is that I trust my friends opinion and his view and depth of his opinion is much higher and wider. He brings me ideas, important points to consider, and information that trigger me to reect on my thinking and help reach my new decision. It takes some time to digest and reect the information. This crucial decision came out after 34 months. I needed time to think. I truly believe the point is critical to lead me to the next important point and open a door for me. (Document 4 Transcription Q1)

Situational timing for type 2 WOMAC messages. When prospective students faced the following two situational categories, they were likely to conduct a search for Type 2 and further WOMC messages.

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TABLE 3 Summary of Type 2Subjective Personal Experience Types of WOMC Type 2Subjective personal experience Characteristics Functions and Benets 1. Provide accumulated factual information, subjective academic and life experience for participants to collect, clarify and conrm the gathered information. 2. The collected experience and information assisted participants to decide on target universities. 3. Saving time on trial-and-error process, allows immediate start on the right track to gather information, enhances the level of understanding receivers concerns from the provided information and valuable lessons through the interactive approach in their native language. 4. To adopt a concise, direct, economical, and conclusive approach to focus on the central questions and avoid information overow from impersonal sources such as printed materials and the Internet. 5. Personal experience becomes life experience lessons and alternative wisdom kept for later needs. 6. Providing continuous psychological and emotional support to overcome participants frustrations, psychological risks, self-condence loss, emotional exhaustion, and uncertainties. 7. Established the trust connection to refer to other WOMC senders to address unanswered questions. Information Content 1. Received extensive, deeper, detailed, voluminous information on previous and additional issues. 2. Related to university/academic: the possible admission feedback from universities, other alternative university entry programs, and a universitys specic strengths in faculty and teaching quality. 3. Related to improving their academic performance information and study skills in individual subjects: lecturers teaching and evaluation patterns, particular evaluation activities and tips, and previous lecture notes. 4. Related to local living adjustment and local knowledge information, particularly when participants rst arrived in Australia: more accurate living cost information and key expense items, accommodation searching and arrangements, shopping experience (saving tips), banking and nancial information (foreign currency trading activity), immigration regulation (working permits, visa extension procedure, permanent immigration information). WOMC Inuential Senders 1. In homeland and Australia, friends (peer, school staff) and private education agents were the most inuential WOMC senders. Situational Timing 1. Particular situational timing or environment factors stimulated and encouraged participants to seek Type 2WOMC messages.

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The rst category of situations directly related to prospective students own capability (e.g., the level of knowledge and experience): 1. Prospective students had little or no knowledge about the Australian education system and no ideas about how to start gathering information. 2. Impersonal information was not efcient or transparent in their environment. 3. Overseas experience knowledge was not accessible and available. 4. Prospective students faced the barriers in language and information access. 5. Prospective students had low psychological condence to make their own decisions. 6. Prospective students needed to clarify the key issues and resolve the intangible questions (e.g., teaching quality and accommodation). 7. Prospective students had short time duration for information gathering and decision making. 8. Prospective students were not comfortable with the result of their own data collection regarding credibility, reliability, and the possible potential issues.
All universities websites try to tell all students their universities are better and they should come to study. I would like to have reliable information to tell me the real situation from personal experience. In my case, I felt my alumnus was reliable to me and he was referred by my college principal. Also from this personal information source, it told me information that was not provided by the university. (Document 8 Transcription Q-3)

The second category of situations related to WOMC senders information quality, and included: 1. Situations when WOMC message senders were not able to provide more up-to-date information, accurate knowledge and experience, and 2. Situations when WOMC senders were not able to supply the additional credible answers or solutions and collective personal experience. Type 2 WOMC messages provided conrmation and enhanced personal condence on application and studying in university and enabled prospective students to recover from the negative emotion and reduce the level of perceived risk. The result strengthened the social relationship between the participants and their friends or education agents. Participants also regarded Type 2 subjective personal experience as the access to credible through experience sharing.
Whenever I feel anxious, I will catch any possible personal sources and ask for questions. Whoever the person is! I did not make a lot of effort

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to search for particular personal source. However, if I knew someone or someone gave me the contact information, then I contacted personal right away, such as my sisters friends who were studying in Australia. The information searching process can help me reduce my level of anxiety. (Document 6 Transcription U1)

Whether positive or negative, personal experience enhanced participants understanding on the key issues, built their capability for comparing the facts, claried prospective students obscured situations, enhanced understanding, and provided how-to solutions to negative university replies. The unknown answers or the further information requests also might be referred to other alternative sources with their endorsement. In particular, personal experience sharing from trusted friends provided a foundation to start conducting their own information gathering to nd solutions. TYPE 3-PERSONAL ADVICE Type 3-Personal Advice refers to WOMC messages based on senders professional and personal judgement, knowledge and prior subjective experience. Effective Type 3 WOMC messages commonly appear after Type 2 WOMC messages with the established ongoing social-tie relationship and involve high-level psychological involvement, emotional interactions, and considerations of prospective students problems. A summary of Type 3 WOMC messages is presented in Table 4. In total, three main information-processing tasks were found: comparing, conrming, and advising. WOMC senders were requested to assist in comparing the difference between the stated facts in impersonal sources (facility, course structure, and design) and their subjective experience (teaching quality and staff qualication), to conrm their subjective experience and opinions (overall service satisfaction), and to elicit prospective students own decisions or judgements to boost the level of condence on decision making (nal selection of university for enrolment, suitable lecturers). WOMC senders information gathering patterns and the feedback on particular lectures teaching quality were particularly meaningful for the participants who had low teacher-to-student-ratio courses (e.g., music performance and research supervision). The information content mainly related to academic advice (e.g., lecturing approaches). WOMC receivers preferred and commonly requested a guideline to enhancing overall academic performance.
My friends also help me to construct my course selection and structure. My friend told me which seminars or courses are important for me to enrol. It was based on her personal experience and judgement. It was the most useful and needed information from my friend. Also, she gave me comments on the difculties of studying in university. It helped me to work hard without the possible disappointments. (Document 10 Transcription G5)

Word-of-Mouth Messages TABLE 4 Summary of Type 3Personal Advice Types of WOMC Type 3Personal advice Comments/Description

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Functions and Benets 1. WOMC receivers were able to generate informative comparisons, conrmations, and solutions focused enquiries to receive personal comments, insightful suggestions, or judgement to solve particular issues. 2. Three information processing tasks were involved: comparing, conrming, and advising. 3. With increasing established strong social ties between WOMC receivers and senders from previous types of WOMC messages, Type 3 WOMC messages naturally appeared after Type 2 WOMC messages. Information Content 1. WOMC senders provide professional, knowledgeable, insightful suggestions or comments mainly related to critical issues such as university and teaching quality, program structure, faculty operation, academic performance, learning style, teaching approaches, and career planning. 2. The messages tend to be presented through warnings in lectures. 3. Preferable attributes: (1) the up-to-date information; (2) insightful, deep, projective suggestions according to WOMC receivers situations; (3) clarifying, conrming, solving the concerns and proposing a solution; (4) successful experience of personal testimonies/stories related to receivers personal problems or possible future challenges and learning difculties (e.g., group meeting, teamwork activities, and study skills); (5) written in prospective students languages (if it is applicable). WOMC Inuential Senders 1. Experienced friends and private education agents in homeland and Australia.

The selection of studying subjects, future careers, and the outlook for jobs. How is the status of degree recognition in my study, such as pharmacy practice in my country? Because I was not able to thoroughly considering these thingsdue to the short duration between my graduation and university entry. Secondly, the outcome of graduation from my study is not bright as here. In my country, the income of pharmacy in my country is low and the role is insignicant. By contrast, here it is emphasised and that lets me realize the importance of my degree. I believe that the social, emotional, cultural adjustments are the challenges for me after I graduate. (Document 6 Transcription U1)

When prospective students need feedback on the comparison analysis or to conrm the targeted university, participants expect to have frank, insightful feedback on their questions.

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For example, when I was collecting college information, I read the advertising in a local Chinese newspaper about the college program and course structure. I knew that entering the college is a pathway or a solution for me to study in university. Later I talked with my friends about their university experiences with programs and course structures. (Document 7 Transcription G4)

The best time for WOMC receivers to adopt Type 3-personal advice was when participants faced unsolvable situations. Since Type 3 involved a high level of subjective comments and judgment, WOMC senders tended to provide personal examples rather than direct advice. Therefore, to avoid possible opinion disagreement and social relationship disharmony, WOMC senders tended to wait for information seekers inquiries.
The personal advice is most useful when I have difculty interpreting the information. Then I need additional help to correct or inform my view about decisions. Such as when I arrive I might not even be aware of my learning difculty in interpreting assignment requirements and instructors standards. My friends suggestions and interpretations helped me identify, clarify, and explain the instructors points. The advice helps me have the best performance. (Document 4 Transcription Q1) You should go to Lab, and you go to see your lecturers or e-mail lecturers to ask questions. He told me that I could do this and this was something I did not know. He helps me understand the normal boundaries and how to get assistance from the lecturers . . . (Document 9 Transcription Q4)

Another ideal timing point for Type 3 WOMC messages was when participants were involved with legal regulations. The attitude of WOMC senders tended to include serious warning messages in their advising, such as You should study hard, Watch out for the absent rate, and You should pay attention to what you say. When prospective students considered their course or subjects, WOMC senders subjective experience helped to diagnose and solve prospective students concerns. By contrast, impersonal university publications only explain program structure and are not able to provide assistance to help prospective students make high involvement decisions.
Program and course descriptions do not thoroughly reect what to expect in the course. I can not understand the pre-requisites to the certain subjects, although the information indicates there is no pre-required subject needed. However, it is better to have certain subjects taken in advance in order to have better learning performance. This usually needs WOMC that provide me with the experiences of other students and gives me advice about pre-requisites. (Document 4 Transcription Q1)

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Limitations of type 3 WOMC messages. Considerable limitations of Type 3 WOMC messages were discovered. They were: (1) the messages were based on individual, subjective experience, and the senders situation might be unique; (2) WOMC senders showed the attitude they are not responsible for participants decisions, academic results, and personal problems; (3) participants tended to mainly take WOMC senders advices as learning lessons, case examples, and possible solutions in their nal decision making

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Three types of WOMC messages were discovered in this study: Type 1service information gathering trigger and guidance, Type 2-subjective personal experience, and Type 3-personal advice. Prospective students commonly adopted the top-down approach or the general-to-specic approach in the WOMC information gathering process. The diversity in the depth of information content also extended with the level of relationship involvement and information gathering duration. Type 1 WOMC messages triggered and aroused participants internal and external motives to attract participants interests. Type 1 also introduced overall features and benets of education service products without deeper subjective experience sharing or advising. Signicantly, WOMC senders provided information-gathering guidelines to initiate information gathering. Information sharing established the social connections for ongoing information sharing development and provided experienced feedback, thus minimizing participants psychological concerns. Type 2 WOMC messages supplied personal subjective experience and knowledge to prospective students without personal judgements or recommendations. The function of Type 2 WOMC message was to accumulate subjective study and life experience from the two most inuential WOMC sourcesfriends and education agentsin order to clarify and conrm collected impersonal information. Type 3 WOMC messages were based on senders professional and personal knowledge and experience to give the senders subjective comments on participants concerns about academic and life issues. The best timing for the supply of Type 3 WOMC message was when participants were facing difcult or unexpected events. Then, participants were able to appreciate deep, insightful, projective suggestions or advice from WOMC senders.

Implications for Management

This study provides promotion management guidance, particularly for Australian university administrators and their agents, in designing and

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implementing effective marketing messages. Specically, this study suggests the designing of WOMC messages according to the service providers own strength(s), especially in functional risk (e.g., innovative course design, unique course content, exibility in take-in sessions, heritage programs and reputation) and perceived price risk (e.g., value for money, international price comparison, perceived benets). It also leads practitioners to turn consumers motives and information needs into the design of the personalized, controlled interactive marketing communication packages (e.g., personal testimony, stories) through integrating other marketing communication media. Therefore, the managed WOMC messages can be presented in personalized, effective, concise, timely, and neutral content to attract prospective Asian students.

Limitations and Further Study

This study involved full-time Asian international students from Pacic Rim countries in Australian universities. However, the population of Australian universities is multicultural and may not be represented by a single population group. Future research can explore other regional overseas students with diversied cultural background, such as Western and Middle East countries (Wee et al., 1995; Lau & Ng, 2001; Liu et al., 2001; Boulard, 2004; Money, 2004), to show how the cultural differences impact on WOMC adoption and types of WOMC messages. Furthermore, the research sample collection does not include other Australian higher education institutions such as polytechnic institutions, where a growing number of Asian overseas students are attending for their personal development or immigration purposes. Including this group of population may contribute additional ndings.

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