Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 55:631640 DOI 10.

1007/s00170-010-3059-7

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Experimental studies on optimization of process parameters and finite element analysis of temperature and stress distribution on joining of AlAl and AlAl2O3 using ultrasonic welding
Elangovan Sooriyamoorthy & Shenton Ponnayya John Henry & Prakasan Kalakkath

Received: 16 June 2010 / Accepted: 22 November 2010 / Published online: 8 December 2010 # Springer-Verlag London Limited 2010

Abstract This study is carried out to optimize the process parameters like weld time, weld pressure, and amplitude of vibration to maximize the weld strength in AlAl welding using Taguchis design of experiments methodology. Experiments are conducted using 0.3-mm thick pieces of aluminum, and the temperature generated at the weld interface and the weld strength for all the specimens are measured. Also, a finite element model is developed that is capable of predicting the interface temperature and stress distribution during welding. Further, a preliminary study on the joining of alumina to aluminum is also carried out, and the finite element models of temperature and stress distribution during welding are simulated. Results of experimental work and FEM studies are compared and found to be in good agreement. Keywords Ultrasonic welding . Finite element method . Weld strength . Taguchi design . Temperature distribution

1 Introduction Material joining is one of the major manufacturing processes used to assemble metallic and non-metallic parts for several applications. The automotive industry is actively considering a number of alternate welding technologies that would enable the increased use of lightweight and highperformance materials. Many of the alternate processes involve innovative solid-state joining in which metallurgical bonding between the similar or dissimilar materials can
E. Sooriyamoorthy (*) : S. P. John Henry : P. Kalakkath Department of Production Engineering, P.S.G College of Technology, Coimbatore 641004, India e-mail: elango_surya@yahoo.co.in

be created without melting. One of the solid-state-based joining processes is ultrasonic welding. In this process, high-frequency vibrations are combined with pressure to join the parts together without producing significant amount of heat. Ultrasonic welding is used to join thin metallic components as the process is a solid-state joining process. Ultrasonic metal welding is practiced for over 50 years (though in a crude form) and is being used in industry for many years. It is a process in which two metals are joined by the application of ultrasonic vibrations (shear force) under moderate pressure (normal force) in which the vibrations are applied parallel to the interface between the parts. The high frequency relative motion between the parts disperses oxides and contaminants and brings in an increasing area of pure metal contact. The progressive shearing and plastic deformation of asperities result in the bonding of the adjacent surfaces. These forces determine the weld quality and the power that is required to produce the weld. With the knowledge of the forces that act at the interface, it is possible to control weld strength.

2 Literature review Matsuoka [1] conducted experiments on ultrasonic welding of ceramics and metals using inserts. It is found that ultrasonic welding has made it possible to weld various ceramics such as Al2O3, SiC, Si3N4, and AlN to metals at room temperature quickly compared to other welding methods. IMAI and Matsuoka [2] conducted experimental studies to find out the optimum parameters for welding ceramics and metals. It was found that ultrasonic vibration is easy and fast for welding ceramics such as ZrO2, SiC, and Si3N4 with metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper.

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Flood [3] discussed methods to weld copper to aluminum using USW. It describes the process and parameters that influence the weld strength. This work also listed the copper to aluminum welding applications in the electrical, electronics, and automobile industry. Jeng and Horng [4] investigated the effects of applied load, surface roughness, welding power, and welding time on bonding strength. The experiments revealed that a decrease in load or ultrasonic power produces a larger weldable range. It was found that the contact temperature plays an important role in bonding strength in the initial phase of welding, and surface roughness is the dominant factor in the final stages. The maximum bonding strength occurs in the initial period for different loads and surface roughness values. Jahn et al. [5] studied the formation of ultrasonic spot welds of AA6111-T4 using a single transducer unidirectional wedge-reed welder. The evolution of weld microstructures and weld strength due to anvil cap geometry and welding energy were studied. It was found that the variations in lap shear failure load and weld microstructures as a function of welding energy were only slightly influenced by the changes in the anvil cap geometry. Weld failure in lap shear tensile tests occurred due to interface fracture for low-energy welds and by button formation for high-energy welds. Initially, microwelds or weld islands of several microns in diameter were generated presumably at asperities of the two pieces being joined. Micro porosity was observed at the periphery of growing weld islands and along the flow lines. The study showed the effect of variations in anvil cap size and the knurl patterns in ultrasonic spot welding of AA6111-T4 aluminum. Ding et al. [6] analyzed the deformation and stress distributions in the wire and bond pad during the ultrasonic wire bonding using the 2D and 3D finite element methods. It was found that the maximum energy intensity occurred at the periphery of the contact interface, where weld is preferentially made as shown by experimental evidence. The total frictional energy increased linearly with bond force, but the high frictional energy intensity obtained at the periphery of the interface did not show a similar increase. Watanabe et al. [7] analyzed the atomic interaction (chemical bonding) across the interface between the aluminum and alumina ceramic, which was ultrasonically bonded, using an ultrasonic pulse that lasted for a short time of 1.5 s by means of Auger electron microscopy in order to clarify whether chemical bonding can be achieved across the interface. The results from the Auger spectra analyses suggested that chemical bonding exists between Al and oxygen across the aluminum/alumina interface bonded ultrasonically for a short duration of 1.5 s, and that aluminum was chemically bonded to alumina. Tsujino et al. [8] investigated the welding characteristics of aluminum, aluminum alloys, and stainless steel by welding specimens

of 6.0-mm thickness by a 15-kHz ultrasonic butt welding system. Tarng et al. [9] presented an application of fuzzy logic using the Taguchi method for the optimization of submerged arc welding process with multiple performance characteristics. The performance characteristics such as deposition rate and dilution were simultaneously considered and improved through this approach instead of using engineering judgment. A novel and efficient approach for quality optimization of manufacturing systems with a consideration of multiple performance characteristics has been proposed in this study. The work carried out by Saurav et al. [10] on optimization of bead geometry in submerged arc bead-onplate welding uses the Taguchi method. Taguchis L25 orthogonal array design and the concept of signal to noise ratio were used to derive objective functions to be optimized within the experimental domain. The objective functions have been selected in relation to parameters of bead geometry viz. bead width, bead reinforcement, depth of penetration, and depth of HAZ. The Taguchi approach followed by Grey relational analysis has been applied to solve this multiresponse optimization problem. The significance of the factors on the overall output feature of the weldment has also been evaluated quantitatively by analysis of variance method (ANOVA). Tarng and Yang [11] described an application of the Taguchi method for the optimization of the weld bead geometry in the gas tungsten arc welding process. It has been shown that the Taguchi method provides a systematic and efficient methodology for searching the welding process parameters with optimal weld bead geometry. Through ANOVA, it is seen that welding speed, welding current, and polarity ratio are the important welding process parameters for the determination of weld bead geometry. Also, the confirmation experiments were conducted to verify the optimal welding process parameters. Chein et al. [12] constructed a feedback linearization and neural network control algorithm, which globally solves the tracking problem with almost disturbance decoupling performance for a nonlinear system. The new approach developed by the author enables the designer to determine the interconnect structure among the layers needed to stabilize the overall system without any learning or adaptive algorithms. In order to demonstrate the practical applicability, a famous ball-and-beam system has been investigated. Simulation results exploited the fact that the proposed methodology is successfully applied to the feedback linearization and neural network fields. Chen et al. [13] studied the feasibility of applying adaptive fuzzy sliding mode control strategies to reduce the dynamic responses of bridges constructed using a lead rubber bearing (LRB) isolation hybrid protective system.

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The performance and robustness of these proposed control methods are verified by numerical simulation and that results demonstrate the viability of presented methods. The attractive control strategy derived therefrom is applied to seismically excited bridges using LRB isolation. Chen et al. [14] proposed a TakagiSugeno fuzzy model approach combined with a parallel distributed compensation scheme for time delay control of the response of a tension leg platform system subjected to an external wave force. The author is given a simulation example to show the feasibility of the proposed fuzzy control approach. The example shows that the concept of half-circle fuzzy number can be used in fuzzy control and the proposed control method can be employed in practical engineering problems of oceanic structure. Thus, from literature reviews it is observed that research activities have been reported in the field of ultrasonic welding of ceramics with metals/alloys and metal with metal/alloys, but these reports do not provide the method to find out the best suited parameters for joining. The industries using ultrasonic welding select the optimum parameters for their products to be welded only by trial and error and doing so leads to a waste of time and energy. Thus, an approach to find out the best levels of parameters from a commonly used range of values of parameters is needed for industrial application. Also, the finite element analysis of these cases seems to be not reported. Therefore, a systematic study in which experimental investigations, followed by finite element modeling, and simulation of ceramics to metal joining and metal to metal joining are taken up with the following objectives. 1. To find out the optimum levels of parameters that will yield maximum weld strength in the case of aluminum to aluminum welding by conducting experiments according to Taguchis design of experiments 2. To carry out preliminary studies on the joining of alumina (Al2O3) with aluminum using ultrasonic welding and establish the feasibility; later, estimate the range of parameters that can be used in this case 3. To simulate the temperature and stress fields during the joining of aluminum to aluminum 4. To simulate the temperature and stress fields during the joining of alumina (Al2O3) to aluminum 5. Compare the experimental observation in either case with the simulated results and provide adequate explanations

shown in Fig. 1 with the data acquisition system. A horn made of titanium alloy was used for this study and an anvil made of steel with serrations at the top surface. The parameters that can be varied in this setup are the weld pressure, weld time, and the amplitude of vibration. These factors are selected as the variables for this study. The area of horn that comes into contact has serrations similar to the top surface of the anvil for gripping the workpiece well. The specimen (0.3 mm Aluminum sheet) was prepared as per standard [15] for testing shear strengths of the joint by tensile loading. A universal testing machine was used to determine the weld strengths. For aluminum to alumina welding, a yarn guide used in the textile machinery made of alumina was selected as it is an intended application for this study. The temperature at the interface of the specimen was monitored in real time using a data acquisition system. The data acquisition system includes sensors (thermocouple), a terminal block, DAQ card, and an analyzing software. An SWG 36 AlumalCromal (type K) thermocouple is used in this study which can measure temperatures from 180C to +1,300C. It has a high accuracy of 1.5C on each side from 40C to +375C. Figure 2 shows the ultrasonically welded samples of aluminum to aluminum and aluminum to ceramic (Al2O3). 3.2 Design of experiments Taguchis design of experiments methodology was adopted for aluminum to aluminum welding to determine the minimum number of experiments that will be required for determining the combination of process parameters that maximize weld strength. The traditional experimental design methods are too complex and difficult to use. Also, when a large number of parameters have to be investigated for significance, a large number of experiments are to be

3 Experimental study 3.1 Experimental setup The welding was carried out using a conventional ultrasonic metal welding machine (2,500 W, 20 kHz) which is

Fig. 1 Experimental setup of ultrasonic metal welding

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Degree of freedom of amplitude=31=2 Total degree of freedom=6 Since the degree of freedom of the selected three levels of orthogonal array should be greater than or equal to the total degree of freedom of all the factors considered, the L9 orthogonal array was found to be appropriate. Also, in the present work no noise factors are considered. The L9 orthogonal array shown in Table 2 contains results of nine trials of various factor combinations with three repetitions per trial. 3.4 Signal to noise ratio In the Taguchi method, the term signal represents the desirable value for the output characteristics and the noise represents the undesirable value for the output characteristics. The objective of determining signal to noise ratio is to develop processes that are insensitive to noise. A process parameter setting with the highest signal to noise ratio always yields the optimum quality with minimum variance. In general, signal to noise ratio signifies the ratio of the mean to the standard deviation. In the present context, this refers to the deviation of certain quality characteristic from its desired target value. To calculate the signal to noise ratio, the following formula is used [16]: ! r 1X 1 S=NHB 10 log r i1 yi2 where, 3.3 Identification of control and noise factors The Taguchi technique uses two factorscontrol and noise factorsto identify the optimal process settings that are minimally sensitive to noise. Control factors are those that can be controlled during the manufacturing process. Noise factors are often uncontrolled variables in a process. In the present work, welding pressure, welding time, and amplitude of the horn were considered as control factors and varied at three levels as shown in Table 1. Degree of freedom of weld pressure=31=2 Degree of freedom of welding time=31=2 r yi Number of repetitions in a trial Weld strength for ith trial

Fig. 2 Welded samples of AlAl and AlAl2O3

conducted that are time consuming and costly. Taguchi designed certain standard orthogonal arrays using which simultaneous and independent evaluation of two or more parameters for their ability to affect the variability of a particular process can be done using a minimum number of tests. In this experiment, the objective is to maximize the weld strength and hence it is the-higher-the-better-type characteristic. Regardless of the performance characteristics, greater signal to noise ratio corresponds to better performance with minimum variation. Therefore, the optimal level of the process parameters is the combination of individual parameters with levels having the highest signal to noise ratio.

4 Finite element analysis for temperature and stress distribution The finite element analysis was used to determine the temperature and stress distribution for aluminum to aluminum and aluminum to alumina (Al2O3) welding. The contact between the two workpieces is established and transient analysis is done in order to find out the temperature and stress distribution in the weld. Figure 3 shows the finite element model used in the welding of the AlAl specimen. A 3D ten-noded solid 187 element was selected for structural analysis. It has quadratic displacement behavior. The element is defined by ten nodes having three degrees of freedom at all nodes. The element has plasticity, creep, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain capabilities. The pressure is applied on the top surface of the top

Table 1 Factors and levels for the experiments Factors Pressure (bar) Amplitude (m) Time (s) Level 1 1.5 40 2.00 Level 2 2.0 45 2.25 Level 3 2.5 50 2.50

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 55:631640 Table 2 Experimental results Sample no. Welding pressure (bar) Amplitude (m) Welding time (s) Response Interface temperature (C) Trials 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 40 45 50 40 45 50 40 45 50 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.25 2.50 2.00 2.50 2.00 2.25 105 102 85 115 102 103 90 117 125 2 112 106 98 106 116 105 95 110 115 3 106 110 102 112 108 110 105 102 122 107.66 106.00 95.00 111.00 108.66 106.00 96.66 109.66 120.66 Average Weld strength (106 N/m2) Trials 1 1.58 2.09 3.32 2.09 4.26 1.44 3.68 3.46 1.44 2 1.80 2.31 2.60 2.45 3.32 1.95 3.39 2.81 1.80 3 1.87 2.16 2.24 2.09 2.31 2.24 2.60 2.02 1.58

635

Average

1.75 2.18 2.72 2.21 3.29 1.87 3.22 2.76 1.60

part on the nodes of the area only where the horn comes into contact with the workpiece and the resulting displacement of the workpiece on top due to the high-frequency vibration of the horn are fed as inputs for the structural analysis. The workpiece at the bottom is arrested in all degrees of freedom. Transient analysis was carried out with time steps of 0.1 s for 2.0, 2.25, and 2.5 s of weld time. A 3D ten-noded solid 87 element was selected for thermal analysis. It has one degree of freedom (temperature at each node). The element is applicable to 3D, steady-state or transient thermal analyses. The heat generated due to deformation at the weld interface is calculated with a set of equations taken from the work done by De Vries [17] and it

is found to be 133106 W/m2 for the parameters in the second experiment. This heat flux value is used as input for the thermal analysis. Convective boundary condition is used in the areas of the workpieces which are exposed to the air, and heat flux value is given to the contact area of the two workpieces. A transient analysis was done with time steps of 0.1 s for 2.0, 2.25, and 2.5 s of weld time. In the case of ceramic and aluminum, both the pieces are modeled separately and contact is established. The material properties considered were Youngs modulus (E), Poissons ratio (), thermal conductivity (k), and density () for performing structural and thermal analyses as shown in Table 3 [18].

Fig. 3 Meshed model of AlAl specimen

636 Table 3 Material properties of alumina and aluminum Material Alumina Aluminum Youngs modulus (GPa) 300 68 Poissons ratio 0.21 0.35

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Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 25 210

Density (kg/m3) 3,690 2,700

5 Results and discussions Experiments were conducted for joining aluminum workpieces of 0.3-mm thickness as per Taguchi methodology, and the results are shown in Table 2. Figure 4 shows the results of temperature distribution from finite element analysis (FEA)-based studies while joining aluminum to aluminum. The parameters from the fifth experiment are taken for this analysis because this combination of parameters yields maximum weld strength (weld time of 2.5 s, weld pressure of 2 bars, and amplitude of 45 m). Transient analysis is done with the actual weld time of 2.5 s. It is inferred that the maximum temperature at the weld interface is 105.342C and the experimentally observed value is 102C (an error of 3.17%). The temperature measured using thermocouple and the predicted temperature using FEA are in good agreement. Figure 5 shows the results obtained from FEA-based studies for stress distribution. The parameters from the fifth experiment are taken for this analysis since it yielded the best weld strength. It is inferred that a maximum stress of 34.9109 N/m2 is obtained at the weld interface and decreases along its length. FEA was carried out for other
Fig. 4 Temperature distribution on the workpiece (AlAl)

weld times also such as 2, 2.25, and 2.5 s. As the weld time increases, the stress levels at the interface also increases, indicating the possibility of achieving higher joint strength. This agrees well with the observation that the increase of weld time provides improved joint strength. In this work, 2.5 s was found to be the optimum weld time. Figure 6 shows the results of temperature distribution from FEA-based studies while joining alumina (Al2O3) to aluminum. Initial condition of bulk temperature for alumina is taken as 250C because the ceramic piece is preheated before welding. It is inferred that the maximum temperature at the weld interface is 358.238C, and the experimentally observed value is 345C (an error of 3.83%). FEA results for AlAl2O3 joining indicate that higher interface temperatures are developed. This can be due to the reduced thermal conductivity and preheating of Al2O3. Figure 7 shows the results obtained from the FEA-based studies for stress distribution of alumina (Al2O3) to aluminum using weld pressure of 2 bars, weld time of 2 s, and amplitude of 45 m. The stress level predicted by FEA for the joining of AlAl2O3 reaches 7.3109 N/m2. These values are lower than that for metal as Al2O3 is brittle. These predictions indicate that if good welds could

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2011) 55:631640 Fig. 5 Stress distribution on the workpiece (AlAl)

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be obtained for AlAl2O3 joints, the joint strength may be below that of AlAl joints. Figure 8 shows the graphical representation of the peak temperature obtained for AlAl joint at the weld interface during the welding process. The result shown here is for the eighth experiment and the value recorded is 117C. Figure 9 shows the signal to noise ratio plot for weld strength against the input parameters. The larger is the
Fig. 6 Temperature distribution across the AlAl2O3 workpieces

better option, which was selected since the focus is to maximize the weld strength. From the graph, it is inferred that welding pressure of 2.5 bars, amplitude of 45 m, and weld time of 2.50 s result in improved weld strength. Thus, optimum parameters are found from the selected range of parameters. The signal to noise ratios and the predicted signal to noise ratios are generated using the software which is shown in Table 4,

638 Fig. 7 Stress distribution at the interface while joining AlAl2O3

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Fig. 8 Temperature distribution for AlAl joint (lab view data)

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6 Conclusions After carrying out a systematic study as discussed earlier, the following inferences can be made and are presented: 1. Trials on welding of AlAl were carried out and using a design of experiment principles, an optimum range of parameters (weld time, weld pressure and amplitude) is achieved. The weld time of 2.5 s, weld pressure of 2.5 bars, and amplitude of 45 m were found to be the best values to achieve good weld from the selected range of parameters. 2. Trials to join AlAl2O3 were made and a weld pressure of 2 bars, weld time of 2 s, and amplitude of 45 m were used. As this work is progressing, experiments using DOE principles are not presented here. 3. FEA-based studies were carried out for AlAl joints wherein the temperature and stress at the interfaces were obtained. It is found from this study that as the weld time increases, the stress levels also increase indicating that the joint obtained at increased weld time show better strength. The temperature measured using thermocouple and the predicted temperature using FEA are in good agreement. 4. Temperature at the interface for the entire range of data while joining AlAl varied between 95C and 120C. As there are severe vibrations in the setup, the correlation between the temperature at the interface and joint strength could not be established well. This study is progressing. 5. FEA results for AlAl2O3 joining indicate that higher interface temperatures are developed. This can be due to the reduced thermal conductivity and preheating of Al2O3. 6. The stress level predicted by FEA for the joining of Al Al2O3 reaches 7.3109 N/m2 (2 bars weld pressure, 2 s weld time, 45 m amplitude). These values are lower than that for AlAl joint as ceramics are brittle. These predictions indicate that if good welds could be obtained for AlAl2O3 joints, the joint strength may

Fig. 9 SN ratio plot for weld strength against the input parameters

and it was found that the maximum value of (predicted) signal to noise ratio is 11.2535. For the fifth trial, this value is substituted in the signal to noise ratio equation to get the predicted weld strength by neglecting the number of trial values. Predicted weld strength is found to be 3.42106 N/m2. Confirmation experiments were conducted taking the parameters from the fifth experiment. The experiment is repeated five times using the same parameters and the weld strengths were found out. The average weld strength was found to be 3.30106 N/m2. Comparing the predicted weld strength with the actual weld strength, it is found that the percentage deviation is 3.6%. Since the accuracy obtained is higher than 95%, it can be concluded that the design of experiments is a true reflection of the actual process. The factors and their levels chosen significantly influence the weld strength of the aluminum sheets. The weld strength can be optimized by controlling the weld pressure, amplitude of vibrations, and the welding time.

Table 4 Signal to noise ratios and predicted signal to noise ratios

Sample no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Weld strength (106 N/m2) 1.75 2.18 2.72 2.21 3.29 1.87 3.22 2.76 1.60

SN ratio 4.8608 6.7691 8.6914 6.8878 10.3439 5.4368 10.1571 8.8182 4.0824

Predicted SN ratio 5.7704 6.6534 7.8975 6.0940 11.2535 5.3211 10.0414 8.0243 4.9920

SN signal to noise

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be below that of AlAl joints. Applications wherein strength requirements are not serious but wear resistance is important, these joints can be thought of for further studies.
Acknowledgements The authors express their sincere thanks to the management and principal of PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore for providing the necessary support and infrastructure to carry out this work. We are grateful to AICTE, New Delhi for funding this research work under the research promotion scheme (F. no. 8023/ BOR/RID/RPS, 136/2007-08).

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