Geoderma 120 (2004) 259 272 www.elsevier.

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Podzol formation in sandy soils of Finland

D.L. Mokma a,*, M. Yli-Halla b, K. Lindqvist c
a

Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1325, USA b MTT Agrifood Research Finland, FIN-31600 Jokioinen, Finland c Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FIN-02150 Espoo, Finland Received 19 June 2002; received in revised form 23 July 2003; accepted 17 September 2003 Available online 1 December 2003

Abstract Podzolization occurs quickly in acidic parent materials with addition of acidic litter from coniferous trees. This study was conducted to evaluate Podzol formation and estimate lengths of time required to meet morphological and chemical criteria of podzolic B horizon and spodic horizon in Finland. Soil color, organic C, ODOE, and extractable Al and Fe were measured in a seven-pedon chronosequence (230 1800 years) and four older pedons (8300 11,300 years). The bulk mineralogical composition of the BC and C horizons was uniform with quartz, plagioclase and K-feldspar as main components and amphibole, illite and chlorite as minor components. The fine ( < 5 Am) fraction of selected samples was primarily amorphous allophone-like material with some mixed-layered illite vermiculite. All pedons in the study met the criteria for albic horizons according to the FAO Unesco, World Reference Base (WRB) and Soil Taxonomy systems. According to the FAO Unesco system, all pedons had spodic B horizons and were classified as Podzols. According to the WRB system, none of pedons of the chronosequence had spodic horizons, whereas the older pedons met the criteria for a spodic horizon. About 4780 years were required to form a spodic horizon according to the WRB system. The oldest pedon of the chronosequence and the older pedons had spodic horizons according to Soil Taxonomy, but the younger pedons failed to meet the spodic horizon criteria. About 1520 years were required to form a spodic horizon that met the color and organic C criteria of Soil Taxonomy, whereas it took about 4780 years to meet the required accumulation of Fe and Al. This study points out the discrepancy between the color criteria and the criteria reflecting the accumulation of Al, Fe and organic matter in the B horizon. D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Podzolization; Spodic horizon; Morphology; Chemical criteria; Chronosequence; Mineralogical composition

1. Introduction Podzol morphology traditionally consists of a light-colored eluvial horizon (E), characterized by
* Corresponding author. Fax: +1-517-353-5174. E-mail address: mokma@msu.edu (D.L. Mokma). 0016-7061/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2003.09.008

bleached, uncoated sand grains, and a dark reddishcolored illuvial horizon (Bhs or Bs), containing accumulated organic matter and Al oxides with or without Fe. Podzol soils are common in forests of the Nordic countries and northern parts of Russia. Acidic-parent materials and litter from the coniferous trees are conducive to podzolization of these soils. In

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the Soil Geographic Database of Europe at scale of 1:1,000,000 (European Soil Bureau, 2000), these areas are dominated by Podzols. Several studies from different parts of the world report on the duration of time needed for the development of a podzolic morphology. The minimum time required for the development of a thin E horizon immediately below the forest floor in Alaska, USA was 75 years (Crocker and Dickson, 1957), whereas Chandler (1942) reported that at least 500 years and more likely 1000 years were required for a Podzol profile to form in the same environment. About 370 years were required to form a Podzol profile in sandy beach deposits in British Columbia, Canada (Singleton and Lavkulich, 1987). Free iron oxides did not accumulate until after 205 years of soil formation in California, USA (Dickson and Crocker, 1954). Iron translocation was evident after 300 years in New South Wales, Australia (Burges and Drover, 1953) but about 1900 years were required before there was evidence of eluviation and illuviation in calcareous materials in Ontario, Canada (Protz et al., 1984). A distinct E horizon was observed in a pedon on a 3000-year-old beach deposit in Michigan, USA, but the pedon on a 2250-year-old surface did not have a distinct E horizon (Franzmeier and Whiteside, 1963). More than 4000 years but less than 10,000 years were required for a spodic horizon to form in Michigan (Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992). Most of the estimates required for the development of a podzolic morphology in the Nordic countries range between a few hundred and a thousand years. Jauhiainen (1972) concluded that 100 350 years were required for a chemically differentiated iron Podzol to form in Lapland, Finland. A chemical Podzol (minimum Al and Fe in E horizon and maximum Al and Fe in B horizon) formed within 200 300 years, whereas a visual Podzol (lighter colored eluvial horizon and redder/darker colored illuvial horizon) required 400 500 years in Finland (Jauhiainen, 1973). A visible E horizon formed in about 120 years but a podzol profile took 1000 1500 years in northern Sweden (Tamm, 1950). However, Starr (1991) reported that a pedon on the 339-year-old beach in Central Ostrobothnia, Finland, lacked a Podzol profile whereas pedons on beaches 1019 years old and older were podzolized. Another study from the similar area agrees that more than 330 years but less than 1200 years were necessary

for a recognizable Podzol profile to form in the district of Oulu, Finland (Petaja-Ronkainen et al., 1992). A general estimate of 500 1000 years has been given for the formation of a typical Podzol profile in Finland (Aaltonen, 1952) while a visible iron Podzol developed in about 500 years in Sweden (Bergqvist and Lindstrom, 1971). One must distinguish between soils that exhibit signs of podzolization but do not meet the criteria to be classified as Podzols or Spodosols and soils in which the processes have proceeded enough for the soil to be classified as Podzols according to the FAO Unesco system (FAO, 1990), or World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) (FAO, 1990) or as Spodosols according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). It is impossible to analyze all pedons observed when mapping soils, therefore soil mappers depend on morphological properties or chemical properties that can be measured in the field to classify pedons. An underlying assumption in soil classification is that criteria based on morphological properties and those based on laboratory analyses will give the same classification. Although many authors have used chronosequences to study podzolization and some have classified their pedons (Franzmeier and Whiteside, 1963; Jauhiainen, 1972, 1973; Moore, 1976; Starr, 1991; Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992), none have studied the length of time necessary to meet individual Podzol or Spodosol classification criteria. The objective of this study was to examine Podzol formation in relation to soil properties used to classify Podzols or Spodosols in sandy soils of Finland. Morphological and chemical properties of a chronosequence of seven relatively young pedons and four older pedons were measured to determine the length of time required for B horizons to met the criteria of Podzols or Spodosols of the FAO Unesco, WRB and Soil Taxonomy.

2. Materials and methods The chronosequence of soils was located along the southern coast of Finland near Siuntio Pickala (Fig. 1). Continued isostatic uplift of land in Finland allows the study of soil formation, especially of very young soils. Ages of the pedons were estimated using the shoreline displacement curve for the Tammisaari Pernio area of

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261

Fig. 1. Location of pedons studied. Siuntio is the location of the seven-pedon chronosequence.

Finland (Eronen et al., 2001). Four older Podzol pedons were described and sampled, one each near Jalasjarvi, Mikkeli, Sotkamo and Toholampi, the ages of which were estimated using the shoreline displacement data of the respective areas. These pedons developed from sandy parent materials under similar vegetation and climate (Table 1). The vegetation at Jalasjarvi, Siunto and Sotkamo were predominantly Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) with some Silver birch (Betula pendula). At
Table 1 Native vegetation and mean annual soil temperature (MAST) of the pedon locations Location Siunto Toholampi Jalasjarvi Mikkeli Sotkamo
a

Mikkeli grass in rotation with small grains and at Toholampi potato were grown the year of sampling with Scotch pine and Norway spruce (Picea abies) bordering the fields. The mean annual precipitation is 500 600 mm. All soils of the present study were well
Table 2 Particle size distribution of selected lower B and C horizons Age (years BP) 0 230 340 450 560 670 900 1800 8300 9100 10,700 11,300 Horizon C C C BC C C BC BC Bhsm Bs Bs3 BC2 Sand (%) 100 97 96 100 100 100 95 98 98 96 99 82 Silt (%) 0 2 3 0 0 0 5 2 1 2 1 16 Clay (%) 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 2

Vegetation Scotch pine (P. sylvestris) Scotch pine Norway spruce (P. abies) Scotch pine Scotch pine Norway spruce Scotch pine

MAST (jC)a 5 5 4 6 3

Based of the information presented by Yli-Halla et al. (2001).

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drained. The sites consisted of beach deposits or glacial outwash and were relatively homogenous in texture (Table 2). The 11,300-year-old pedon had more silt than the younger pedons. A sample for time 0 of soil formation was taken at the edge of the sea (0 m above sea level). The site was not vegetated and was subject to water saturation from wave action. Seven pedons further inland were described and sampled: one each at 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4 and 8 m above sea level with ages of 230, 340, 450, 560, 670, 900 and 1800 years before present, respectively. Four pedons were located and described at each elevation and a representative pedon was selected for sampling and chemical analyses. Organic C was determined using the Leco dry combustion apparatus (Laboratory Equipment, St. Joseph, MI). Soil pH was measured in water. Al and Fe were extracted with ammonium oxalate (pH 3.0), sodium citrate dithionite and sodium pyrophosphate (Soil Survey Staff, 1996). The optical density of the oxalate extract (ODOE) was measured as an indicator of organic C associated with amorphous materials. Particle size distribution was determined using the pipette method after digestion with hydrogen peroxide. The pedons were classified according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), the FAO Unesco system (FAO, 1988) and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources system (WRB) (FAO, 1998) assuming that the pedons have a cryic soil temperature regime (YliHalla and Mokma, 1998; Yli-Halla et al., 2001). The bulk mineralogical composition of samples from BC and C horizons was determined with the Xray diffraction technique using a Philips XPert MPD instrument equipped with a vertical goniometer, sample spinner and reflected beam monochromator. A semi-quantitative estimation of the minerals identified was calculated using the Chung method (Snyder and Bish, 1989) applying experimentally determined reference intensity ratios. For the purpose of closer observation of possible clay phases, fine ( < 5 Am) fractions were prepared from six samples by sedimentation in deionized water according to Stokes law. The < 5 Am fraction, rather than the < 2 Am fraction, was selected because of the small amount of fine material. Two oriented X-ray preparations were made of each fine fraction using the Millipore Filter Transfer Method (Moore and Reynolds, 1997) and scanned over the low angle region (2 30j 2h). After scanning the air-

dried preparations, the preparations were heated to 550 jC for 1 h, treated with ethylene glycol for 24 h and scanned. Clay minerals were identified according to Brown and Brindley (1984).

3. Results and discussion The texture and color of the C horizons of the chronosequence pedons were similar (Tables 2 and 3), therefore differences in the sola were the result of pedogenic processes rather than parent material differences. The C horizons had 95 100% sand, 0 5% silt (except the 11,300-year-old pedon), and < 3% clay. All seven pedons of the chronosequence showed evidence of translocation of C, Al and Fe; lighter colored E horizon with redder and darker colored B horizon (Table 3). The four older pedons (8300, 9100, 10700 and 11300 years BP) had very distinct zones of eluviation and illuviation (Table 4). The 230-year-old pedon of the chronosequence had visual evidence of translocation (Table 3). Chemical evidence for translocation was not clear in the 670year-old pedon but was clear in the 900-year-old pedon (Table 5). This finding is contrary to that of Jauhiainen (1973) who was able to distinguish a podzol chemically before visually. The time for evidence of translocation in this chronosequence was much less than that (3000 4000 years) in Michigan, USA (Franzmeier and Whiteside, 1963; Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992) and Ontario, Canada (Protz et al., 1984). Thickness of E horizons tended to increase with time but there was not a uniform increase. Thickness of Bs horizons increased from 23 cm (230 years) to 75 cm (1800 years). Solum thickness increased with time from 46 cm in the 230-yearold pedon to 107 cm in the 1800-year-old pedon. The Toholampi pedon (about 8300 years), Sotkamo pedon (about 10,700 years) and Jalasjarvi pedon (about 9100 years) had E horizons that ranged from 11 to 28 cm thick (Tables 4 and 6) and B horizons that ranged from 25 to 65 cm thick. The Mikkeli pedon (about 11,300 years) had a Bs horizon 16 cm thick. Some or all of the E horizons in the Toholampi and Mikkeli pedons had been mixed into the Ap horizon. The Toholampi and Sotkamo pedons had ortstein, cemented spodic materials. The Jalas-

D.L. Mokma et al. / Geoderma 120 (2004) 259272 Table 3 Morphological properties of the pedons in the chronosequence near Siuntio Pickalaa Time (years BP) 0 230 Horizon C O A E Bs C O A E Bs C O A E Bs C O A E Bs C O A E Bs C O A E Bs C O A E Bs1 Depth (cm) 0 15 02 2 10 10 23 23 46 46 72 02 29 9 20 20 57 57 75 05 59 9 13 13 61 61 80 03 3 10 10 20 20 63 63 80 02 28 8 18 18 67 67 84 04 47 7 14 14 66 66 87 0 11 11 14 14 32 32 71 Texture s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s Color 10YR 5/2 Structure 0sg As As As Aw As As As aw as as as aw as as as aw as as as aw as as as aw as as aw cw

263

Boundary

10YR 4/1 10YR 6/1, dry 7.5YR 3/4 10YR 5/2

0sg 1msbk 0sg

340

450

10YR 4/1 10YR 6/2, dry 7.5YR 3/4 10YR 5/2 7.5YR 2.5/2 10YR 2/1 10YR 5/2 10YR 6/3, dry 7.5YR 4/4 10YR 5/3

0sg 1msbk 0sg 1mpl 1msbk 0sg 1msbk 0sg 1msbk 0sg 1msbk 0sg 1msbk 0sg 1msbk 0sg 1mpl 1msbk 0sg 1csbk 0sg 1mpl 1fsbk 1msbk 1msbk

560

10YR 5/2 10YR 7/2, dry 7.5YR 4/3 10YR 5/2

670

900

1800

Bs2 C
a

71 107 107 117

s s

10YR 5/2 10YR 6/2, dry 7.5YR 4/3 10YR 5/2 5YR 3/2 10YR 3/1 10YR 6/3 10YR 7/3, dry 7.5YR 4/4 10YR 5/3 7.5YR 2.5/3 10YR 3/1 10YR 5/2 10YR 6/3, dry 7.5YR 3/4 (70%) 7.5YR 4/4 (20%) 7.5YR 2.5/3 (10%) 7.5YR 4/4 (80%) 7.5YR 2.5/3 (20%) 10YR 5/3

1msbk 1msbk

cw

Symbols used are given in Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993).

jarvi pedon had banded ortstein, probably formed at the level of previous ground water. The E horizons in these older pedons were light gray. The boundary

between the E and B horizons in the Mikkeli, Sotkamo, and Jalasjarvi pedons was wavy, likely the result of preferential flow of soil water.

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Table 4 Morphological properties of the older pedonsa Time (years BP) Toholampi 8300 Horizon Ap E Bhsm Bs BC C Jalasjarvi 9100 Depth (cm) 0 32 32 45 45 58 58 65 65 75 75 90 Texture fs fs fs fs fs fs Color 10YR 3/2 10YR 6/3, dry 7.5YR 3/4 and 2.5YR 2.5/1 7.5YR 4/4 10YR 5/4 2.5YR 6/3 Structure 1msbk 0sg 0m 1msbk 0sg 0sg Boundary as as cs cs as

O E Bhs Bs BC C1 C2

0 25 25 36 36 67 67 93 93 115 115 142 142 170

sapric s s s s sb s

5YR 2.5/2 10YR 7/2 7.5YR 2.5/2 7.5YR 3/4 10YR 5/4 10YR 4/4 10YR 5/3

pl 0sg 2fsbk 1msbk 1fsbk 1mpl 1mpl

as aw cw cw cw as

Sotkamo 10,700

Oe Oa E Bhsm Bs1 Bs2 Bs3 2Cg1 2Cg2

03 38 8 36 36 57 57 63 63 70 70 101 101 146 146 153

hemic sapric fs fs ls fsl s fslc fslc

7.5YR 3/2 5YR 2.5/2 10YR 7/1 10YR 8/1, dry 2.5YR 2.5/1 and 7.5YR 4/4 10YR 5/6 10YR 4/3 7.5YR 5/6 2.5YR 5/2 c3p 5YR 4/6 2.5YR 6/2 f2p 10YR 4/4

0sg 0m 1msbk 1msbk 1csbk 1mpl 1mpl

as aw cs cs as as as

Mikkeli 11,300

A1 A2 E Bs BC1 BC2 Cg

0 10 10 14 14 18 18 25 25 71 71 111 111 150

s s s s s ls ls

10YR 5/4 10YR 3/2 2.5YR 5/2 7.5YR 4/4 10YR 4/4 10YR 4/1 10YR 5/2

1fsbk 1fsbk 1fsbk 1fsbk 1msbk 1cpl 1cpl

cs as as cw cs cs

Symbols used are given in Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1993). Stratified with loamy fine sand and coarse sand. c Stratified with silt loam.
b

The cool, humid climate and the acidic liter produced by Scotch pine favors podzolization of the acidic parent materials prevailing in Finland. In a greater than 7000-year-old pedon near Helsinki (pedon 1 in Mokma et al., 2000) and in a 9000-yearold pedon near Jokioinen (pedon 1 in Yli-Halla and

Mokma, 2001), both under Scotch pine, were morphologically only slightly more developed than the 1800-year-old pedon at Siuntio. These pedons marginally met the chemical criteria. The Helsinki and Jokioinen pedons developed from glacial till and had a few percent of clay and silt. Another forested

D.L. Mokma et al. / Geoderma 120 (2004) 259272 Table 5 Selected chemical properties of the pedons in the chronosequence Time (years BP) Horizon pHa Org. C (%) Oxalate ODOE 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.15 0.15 Al (%) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.02 0.12 0.11 0.10 Fe (%) 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 Al + 1/2Fe (%) 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.02 0.13 0.12 0.10 Citrate dithionite Al (%) 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.02 0.13 0.11 0.09 Fe (%) 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.01 Al + Fe (%) 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.09 0.16 0.06 0.11 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.16 0.16 0.14 0.05 0.16 0.12 0.10 Pyrophosphate Al (%) 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.02 0.15 0.14 0.11 Fe (%) 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01

265

Al + Fe (%) 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.14 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.07 0.13 0.14 0.10 0.03 0.17 0.15 0.12

0 230

340

450

560

670

900

1800

C E Bs BC E Bs C E Bs1 Bs2 Bs3 BC E Bs C E Bs C E Bs1 Bs2 Bs3 E Bs1 Bs2 BC

5.4 4.8 5.5 5.3 4.5 5.6 5.2 5.0 5.4 5.3 5.4 5.3 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.0 5.4 5.4 4.9 5.7 5.7 5.5 4.7 5.0 4.8 4.8

(5.3)

(5.5)

(5.3) (5.1) (5.2)

(5.8)

(5.2)

(5.5) (5.4) (5.3) (4.8) (4.8)

0.1 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.5

pH in 1:2.5 soil/water ratio; pH in parenthesis is in 1:1 soil/water ratio.

pedon near Jokioinen (pedon 2 in Yli-Halla and Mokma, 2001), approximately 8000 years old, lacked an albic horizon but developed under spruce and pine. This pedon had a fine-loamy texture rather than the sandy texture of the soils in this study. Parent material played a role in the podzolization of these pedons. 3.1. Mineralogical composition The bulk mineralogical composition of all 12 samples studied was very similar (Table 7). Quartz, plagioclase and K-feldspar were the dominant minerals with less than 2% each of mica, chlorite and amphibole. The small amount of mica precluded a more exact identification of the mica; however, the occasional appearance of the 002-reflection suggested a dioctahedral nature (Wilson, 1987). Trace amounts of hemitate

were observed in most samples. No clay minerals of the smectite or kaolinite groups were identified in these lower B and C horizon samples. The observed composition is similar to that found in Fennoscandia by Melkerud et al. (2000). The uniform mineralogical composition of the selected samples indicates a similar origin in terms of minerals present, either granitic or gneissose (Makite et al., 1999). Jauhiainen (1973) proposed a similar parent material for sandy soils on the coastal plain of northwest Finland. The fine ( < 5 Am) of six selected B or BC horizon samples showed only minor amounts of clay minerals. The main minerals present were quartz and plagioclase with lesser amounts of K-feldspar (Table 8), similar to those in the bulk samples. Poorly crystalline, allophone-like material was abundant in three samples. The clay minerals identified included chlorite, illite and mixed-layered illite vermiculite. The

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Table 6 Selected chemical properties of the older pedons Time (years BP) Horizon pHa Org. C (%) Oxalate ODOE Al (%) 0.01 0.35 0.43 0.22 Fe (%) 0.02 0.70 0.75 0.38 Al + 1/2Fe (%) 0.02 0.70 0.80 0.41 Citrate dithionite Al (%) 0.02 0.34 0.36 0.21 Fe (%) 0.05 0.76 0.78 0.47 Al + Fe (%) 0.07 1.10 1.14 0.68 Pyrophosphate Al (%) 0.02 0.38 0.42 0.23 Fe (%) 0.01 0.59 0.54 0.30 Al + Fe (%) 0.03 0.97 0.96 0.53

Toholampi 8300

E Bhsm Bs BC

6.3 5.7 5.9 5.9

(6.0) (5.5) (5.4) (5.6)

0.1 1.6 1.4

0.01 0.62 0.35 0.15

Jalasjarvi 9100

E Bhs Bs

4.2 4.9 4.8

0.8 2.8 3.2

0.05 0.39 0.56

0.03 1.59 1.50

0.12 0.28 0.33

0.09 1.73 1.66

0.02 0.54 0.75

0.12 0.49 0.52

0.14 1.02 1.27

0.02 0.59 0.62

0.08 0.19 0.18

0.10 0.78 0.80

Sotkamo 10,700

E Bhsm Bs1 Bs2 Bs3

4.3 5.1 (5.2) 5.4 5.3 5.3 (5.4)

0.2 2.7 1.5 0.7 0.8

0.01 0.55 0.26 0.09 0.14

0.01 0.95 0.59 0.36 0.28

0.01 0.93 0.31 0.09 0.40

0.01 1.41 0.74 0.40 0.48

0.01 0.95 0.52 0.33 0.31

0.01 1.13 0.39 0.14 0.48

0.02 2.08 0.91 0.47 0.79

0.01 1.09 0.55 0.28 0.32

0.01 0.80 0.24 0.08 0.28

0.02 1.89 0.79 0.36 0.60

Mikkeli 11,300

A1 A2 E Bs

5.3 4.7 5.0 (4.8) 5.2 (5.2)

6.8 4.5 0.4 1.4

0.05 0.16

0.47 0.41 0.01 1.37

0.44 0.48 0.01 0.97

0.68 0.65 0.01 1.85

0.38 0.06 0.61

0.76 0.18 1.25

1.14 0.24 1.86

0.35 0.06 0.27

0.30 0.05 0.07

0.65 0.11 0.34

pH is 1:2.5 soil/water ratio; pH in parenthesis is 1:1 soil:water ratio.

similarity in mineralogy, bulk and fine fraction permits comparison of the older pedons with the younger pedons of the chronosequence.
Table 7 Semi-quantitative mineralogical composition of selected samples, wt.% (+ indicates trace amount) Time Horizon Qu Kfs Plg Mica Chlorite Amph Hem (years BP) 0 230 340 450 560 670 900 1800 8300 9100 10,700 11,300 C C C BC C C BC BC C Bs Bs3 BC2 44 48 46 46 47 44 42 45 45 57 47 45 19 16 16 22 17 19 19 20 20 13 18 11 33 33 36 28 32 34 36 31 32 28 32 36 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + + + + + + +

3.2. Diagnostic horizons 3.2.1. FAO Unesco (FAO, 1990) Albic horizons were present in all chronosequence and older pedons. Criteria for the spodic B horizon are chemical and do not include any morphological criteria. Because the clay content of the Bs horizons was zero, the seven chronosequence pedons met the C + Alp H clay>0.2% criterion. If the Bs horizons contained 1% clay, they would also meet the criterion. The Alp + Fep H Ald + Fed was greater than 0.5 in all Bs horizons of the chronosequence. Even the 0C horizon had Alp + Fep H Ald + Fed of 0.5. The B horizons of the older pedons met the chemical criteria. Therefore, all pedons included in this study had spodic B horizons according to the FAO Unesco system. 3.2.2. WRB (FAO, 1998) All chronosequence and older pedons had albic horizons. The Bs horizons of chronosequence pedons

Qu = quartz; Kfs = K-feldspar; Plg = plagioclase; Amph = amphibole; Hem = hematite.

D.L. Mokma et al. / Geoderma 120 (2004) 259272 Table 8 Mineralogical composition (++ + = most abundant, + = least abundant) of the fine ( < 5 Am) fraction of selected samples Time (years BP) Horizon 340 C 900 BC ++ + 8300 C +++ ++ ++ + + + + 9100 Bs ++ + + 10,700 11,300 Bs3 ++ + + BC2 +++ ++ + + + + +

267

Quartz +++ Plagioclase ++ K-feldspar + Amphibole + Chlorite + Illite + Illite vermiculite + Allophane

chronosequence pedons were spodic horizons. The B horizons of the four older pedons met all of the criteria for a spodic horizon. Simple linear regression was used to estimate the length of time for Bhs and Bs horizons to meet the various spodic horizon chemical criteria (n = 11). When the B horizon had more than one subhorizon, the upper subhorizon was used. The regression equation for Alo + 1/2Feo (Fig. 2) was: Alo 1=2Feo 0:00015 time 0:0279 r2 0:91 1

+++

+++

++

and the B horizons of the older pedons met the color criteria for a spodic horizon. Therefore, it took about 230 years to form a morphological spodic horizon in Finland. This is similar to that reported by Tamm (1950), but less time than that (>300 years) reported by Jauhiainen (1973), Starr (1991) and Petaja-Ron kainen et al. (1992). However, none of the Bs horizons had at least 0.50% Al + 1/2Fe in oxalate extracts. Only the 1800year-old pedon had two times more Alo + 1/2Feo in the Bs horizon compared to the respective albic horizon. Fulfillment of both the morphological and chemical criteria are required for the spodic horizon in the WRB system, thus none of the Bs horizons in the

Using Eq. (1), the time at which 0.5% Al + 1/2Fe would be reached was about 5280 years and at which 0.45%, which rounds up to 0.5%, would be reached was about 4780 years. The regression for Alo + 1/2Feo of the B horizon was at least twice that of the E horizon was: Alo 1=2Feo B HAlo 1=2Feo E 0:0114 time 9:085 r2 0:69 2

Using Eq. (2), the time at which (Alo + 1/2Feo)B H (Alo + 1/2Feo)E exceeded 2 was about 970 years. The

2 y = 0.0001x - 0.0252 R2 = 0.9415 1.5

Al + 1/2 Fe (%)

0.5

-0.5

TIME
Fig. 2. Alo + 1/2Feo as a function of time.

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70 60

D.L. Mokma et al. / Geoderma 120 (2004) 259272

y = 0.003x + 2.0532 R2 = 0.3803

ODOE(B) / ODOE(E)

50 40 30 20 10 0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

TIME
Fig. 3. ODOE of B horizon H ODOE of E horizon as a function of time.

regression equation for ODOE of the B horizon to be at least 0.25 was: ODOE 0:000038 time 0:0356 r2 0:64 3 Using Eq. (3), the time at which ODOE was at least 0.25 was about 5640 years and about 5540 if one uses 0.246. The following regression equation for ODOE of the B horizon to be twice that of the E horizon (Fig. 3) was obtained: ODOEB HODOEE 0:003 time 2:0532 r2 0:38 4

to form a spodic horizon (chemical criteria) in sandy soils of Finland according to the WRB system (FAO, 1998). 3.2.3. Soil taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999) The E horizons of all seven pedons of the chronosequence met the color criteria of an albic horizon. Thus, an albic horizon formed in only 230 years from these acid parent materials in Finland. The E horizons of 3000-year-old pedons in Michigan (Franzmeier and Whiteside, 1963; Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992), but not that of the 2250-year-old pedon (Franzmeier and Whiteside, 1963), met the moist color criteria of an albic horizon; dry colors were not given. An E horizon that had formed in the 70-year-old pedon of a chronosequence in Alaska (Alexander and Burt, 1996). This E horizon met the color criteria for an albic horizon. All B horizons had a pH of less than 5.9 in water (1:1) (Tables 5 and 6). Therefore, they met the pH requirement for spodic materials (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). The pH of the C horizons, including that of the chronosequence pedon 0, was 5.4 or less, thus it is not surprising that the Bs horizons met this criterion. In the chronosequence, only the Bs horizons of the 1800-year-old pedon met the organic C requirement (>0.6%). The Bs horizons of all pedons met the color criterion (hue of 7.5YR, value of 5 or less, and chroma of 4 or less) for spodic materials. Of the four

Using Eq. (4), the time at which the ODOE of the B horizon was twice that of the E horizon was about 0 years or as soon as a B horizon formed. If only the seven pedons of the chronosequence are used, the following regression equation for ODOE of the B horizon to be twice that of the E horizon was: ODOEB HODOEE 0:0043 time 0:9186 r2 0:87 5

Using Eq. (5), the time for which the ODOE was twice that of the E horizon was about 680 years. These equations and data suggest it took at least 4780 years

D.L. Mokma et al. / Geoderma 120 (2004) 259272

3.5 3 2.5 y = 0.0002x + 0.1963 R2 = 0.7734

269

ORGANIC C (%)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

TIME
Fig. 4. Organic C as a function of time.

pedons observed on the 230-year-old surface, one lacked the colors for spodic materials. Therefore, it took about 230 years to form a spodic horizon based on morphology (color). This was similar to that found by Alexander and Burt (1996) in Alaska, USA. Cracked coatings were not observed in the Bs horizons of the chronosequence pedons but were observed in the B horizons of the older pedons. Coatings were observed on sand grains in all Bs horizons and materials similar to the coatings but free of sand grains in all Bs horizons except that of the 230-year-old pedon. The older pedons had albic and spodic horizons. The B horizons of 10,000-year-old pedons in Michigan met the criteria for spodic horizon (Franzmeier and Whiteside, 1963; Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992), but not that of the 8000-yearold pedon (Franzmeier and Whiteside, 1963) and the 4000-year-old pedon (Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992). None of the B horizons in the chronosequence had materials that were cemented together by organic C and Al with or without Fe. The Toholampi and Sotkamo pedons had ortstein at least 13 cm thick. None of the B horizons in the chronosequence met the Alo + 1/2Feo criterion nor the ODOE criterion. This is not surprising as Mokma (1992) found that only about half of the sandy Spodosols he studied in Michigan, USA, met the Alo + 1/2Feo criterion and less than 10% of them met the ODOE criterion. The Michigan Spodosols were at least 6000 years old. The B

horizons of all older pedons in Finland had more than 0.50% Alo + 1/2Feo. The following regression equation for organic C versus time of surface (Fig. 4) was obtained: organic C 0:0002 time 0:1963 r2 0:77

6 Using Eq. (5), the time to reach 0.6% organic C was about 2020 years and to reach 0.55% is about 1770 years. Based on data from this study and the regression equations, it took about 1520 years to form a spodic horizon that meets the color criteria (horizon must meet the organic C criterion but not the Alo + 1/ 2Feo criterion), or about 4780 years to form one that did not meet the color criteria (horizon must meet the Alo + 1/2Feo criterion) of Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). This fits in the lower part of the range, more than 4000 years but less than 10,000 years, for a spodic horizon to form in sandy beach deposits with mixed deciduous and coniferous trees in Michigan, USA (Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992). Using only the color criteria, not including the organic C criterion, a spodic horizon formed in about 230 years in Finland (Fig. 4). One would assume that rate of formation of morphological properties of spodic horizons and that of chemical properties would be similar. This assumption is necessary if soil mappers are going to use morpho-

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D.L. Mokma et al. / Geoderma 120 (2004) 259272 Table 9 Classification of the pedons according to the FAO, WRB and Soil Taxonomy systems Time (years BP) 230 340 450 560 670 900 1800 8300 9100 10,700 11,300 FAO Unesco Cambic Podzol Cambic Podzol Cambic Podzol Cambic Podzol Cambic Podzol Cambic Podzol Cambic Podzol Haplic Podzol Haplic Podzol Haplic Podzol Cambic Podzol WRB Albic Arenosol Albic Arenosol Albic Arenosol Albic Arenosol Albic Arenosol Albic Arenosol Albic Arenosol Duric Podzol Haplic Podzol Duric Podzol Umbric Podzol Soil Taxonomy Typic Cryopsamment Typic Cryopsamment Typic Cryopsamment Typic Cryopsamment Typic Cryopsamment Typic Cryopsamment Entic Haplocryod Typic Duricryod Typic Haplocryod Typic Duricryod Typic Haplocryod

logical properties and field measured chemical properties to identify spodic horizons in the field. If there is a question as to whether or not a pedon has a spodic horizon, chemical analyses may be used to answer that question. The FAO Unesco system (FAO, 1990) does not include morphological criteria, therefore there is no apparent discrepancy. It is apparent from this study that there is a major discrepancy in both the WRB (FAO, 1998) and Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). Mokma (1992) also found many sandy soils with Spodosol morphology that did not meet the chemical criteria. All pedons in this study met the color criteria for spodic horizons of the two systems. Therefore, soil mappers would have determined that these pedons had spodic horizon and would have classified them as Podzol or Spodosols. If soil mappers were to sample any of the chronosequence pedons to verify their field identification of spodic horizons, they would be frustrated as no pedon would meet the WRB criteria and only the 1800-year-old pedon would meet the criteria of Soil Taxonomy. Chemical analyses would only serve to frustrate soil mappers, not to increase their confidence. The time for soils in this study to reach the critical value in the criteria varies greatly, 680 5540 years. With this large range, it is not possible to make minor adjustments to the critical values for the various criteria to solve the discrepancies between morphological and chemical properties. A larger group of soils is needed to solve this problem. 3.3. Classifications All seven pedons in the chronosequence were classified in the Cambic Podzol soil subunit (FAO, 1990) (Table 9). The Toholampi, Sotkamo and Jalasjarvi pedons were classified in the Haplic Podzol soil subunit. The Mikkeli pedon was classified in the Cambic Podzol soil subunit. Using chemical data, the seven pedons in the chronosequence were classified in the Albic Arenosol soil unit (FAO, 1998). The Mikkeli pedon was classified in the Umbric Podzol soil unit, the Jalasjarvi pedon in the Haplic Podzol soil unit, and the Toholampi and Sotkamo pedons in the Duric Podzol soil unit. Using only the color criteria, the chronosequence pedons would classify in the Haplic Podzol soil unit.

The chronosequence pedons had ochric epipedons and albic horizons, but only the 1800-year-old pedon had a spodic horizon based on chemical criteria (Soil Survey Staff, 1999; Mokma and Yli-Halla, 2000). Therefore, the younger pedons were classified in the Typic Cryopsamment subgroup. The 1800-year-old pedon was classified in the Entic Haplocryod subgroup. The Mikkeli and Jalasjarvi pedons were clas sified in the Typic Haplocryod subgroup. The Toholampi and Sotkamo pedons were classified as Typic Duricryod. Using only morphological properties, all chronosequence pedons would classify in the Entic Haplocryod subgroup, not just the 1800-yearold pedon.

4. Conclusions Translocation of C, Al and Fe was visually evident in the 230-year-old pedon. Chemical evidence was clear in the 900-year-old pedon. Albic horizons were present in all uncultivated pedons. Owing to the absence of clay in the Bs horizons

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and the high Alp + Fep H Ald + Fed ratio of the C horizon of pedon 0, all pedons of the chronosequence ( < 1800 years) had spodic B horizons according to the FAO Unesco system. Therefore, all pedons were classified as Podzols. According to the WRB system, none of the pedons of the chronosequence had spodic horizons and therefore were classified as Arenosols. The older pedons (8300 11,300 years) all had spodic horizons and were classified as Podzols. It took about 4780 years to form a spodic horizon in a sandy soil in Finland. According to Soil Taxonomy, it took about 1520 years to form spodic horizons that met the color criteria and about 4780 years if the B horizons did not meet the color criteria. Pedons less than 1800 years old were classified as Typic Cryopsamments. Pedons at least 1800 years old were classified as Cryods; Haplocryods if the B horizon was not cemented and Duricryods if it was cemented. Additional revision of the chemical criteria and subsequent testing is required before satisfactory color and chemical criteria for spodic horizons will be found. The mineralogical composition of the selected samples was uniform and similar to that of podzols in Fennocandia. Quartz, plagioclase and K-feldspar were the dominant minerals in the bulk samples. The fine fraction had minor amounts of illite, chlorite, and mixed-layered illite vermiculite.

Acknowledgements The authors thank Professor Matti Saarnisto, Geological Survey of Finland, for estimating the ages of the Jalasjarvi, Mikkeli, Sotkamo and Toholampi pedons. References
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