IRRIGATION PROTOCOL OF GRAPES IN NORTHEN ISRAEL, IRRIGATION HANDLING SYSTEM (Irrigation survey in northern Israel) Agrostudies 2011-2012

DEPARTMENT OF NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, NORAGRIC MASTER THESIS 30 CREDITS 2006 Challenges and Possibilities of Drip and Canal Irrigation in Northern Sudan Osman Ali Osman ELmakkiCHALLENGES AND POSSIBILITIES OF DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN SUDAN BY OSMAN ALI OSMAN ELMAKKI THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AT THE NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF LIFE SCIENCES. May, 2006 ii

The Department of the international Environment and Development studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB). Eight Department, associated research institute and Norwegian college of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragrics contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments. The Noragric Master Theses are the final theses submitted by students in order to fulfil the requirements under the Noragric Master programme Management of Natural Resources and

Sustainable Agricultural (MNRSA) Development Studies and other Master programmes. The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the view of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may not be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the resource is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric Osman Ali Osman ELmakki, May 2006 osmanmakki@yahoo.com Noragric Department of International Environment and development Studies P.O. Box 5003 N-1432 s Norway Tel: +47 64 96 52 00 Fax: +47 64 96 52 01 Internet http://www.umb.no/noragric DECLARATION I, Osman Ali Osman ELmakki, do hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and has never been submitted for a degree at any other university. All the sources of the information have been duly acknowledged. Signature Place.. Date DEDICATION To my great father Ali and wonderful mother Darelsalam To my beloved wife Nada To my sons Ahmed and Awab iv iii

To my daughter Aya To my brothers & sister I dedicate this thesis ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost I would like to record my appreciation and thanks to my supervisor Dr. Jens B. Aune for his continuous follow up, guidance, support and valuable critique, that makes my on the right track. I am also grateful to my local supervisor Dr. Ahmed Ali Salah for his time and guidance in the field work. My deep thanks to Ingeborg and Lief, the wonderful librarians, for their great search for references and books for my thesis. I would like to thank NORAD for granting the scholarship and make my dream come true. I am sincerely grateful to Dr. Kjersti Larsen at Oslo University and Grete Benjaminsen at Dry Land Coordination Group (DCG) for their guidance and support from the very beginning. I would like also to acknowledge my friends Hassan Guyo Roba, Ahmed Hussein, Bilijana Kostovska, Geoffrey Gilpin, for their comments and assistances. My heartily gratitude goes to Fadul Bashir, the director of Umjawasir project, ADRA/SUDAN, for his logistic and moral supports. Deep thanks to Alex Murray the field coordinator for his supervision of the drip trial during my stay in Uganda and also for his technical supports. My incommensurately appreciation goes to Umjawasir project staff, Hyder Ashri, Ramson Duku, Kabashi Mahmoud, Sadiq Sharif, Adam Yahiya, Musa Mohammed, Musa Abdallah, Hyder Hussen, Jouis Ayoub, Eptihag Fathelaleem, Sara Kamal, Sulafa Mohammed, Majda Sirelkhatim, Hawa Fadlalah, Hassan Fadilelnabi and Ismayel Elbalol for their cooperation and assistance. My deeps thank goes to the Hawaweer community at Umjawasir for their cooperation and participation. My heartily gratitude goes to my Parents, my wife and my kids for their support, encouragement, and patient during my stay in Norway and in the field work. v

Osman Ali Osman ELmakki UMB, s, Norway May, 2006 Abstract vi

Canal irrigation is the corner stone for agricultural activities in Northern Sudan. Irrigation has traditionally depended on the Nile water or, in areas where there is no access to Nile water, cultivations depended on underground water. Several mechanical and biological problems are encountered in canal irrigation. These problems make canal irrigation costly. Drip irrigation is considered as a possible solution to the challenges facing canal irrigation. This study aims to identify the challenges facing canal and drip irrigation in Northern Sudan and to assess these possibilities for sustainable irrigation, with respect to the future benefits when growing date palms. Data was gathered from both canal and drip irrigation projects in Northern Sudan. A drip irrigation trial was completed at the Umjawasir project. Prices of vegetables were gathered over a six month period from the Khartoum market. Agricultural inputs and dripping kit prices were gathered from markets. Data concerning date palms was collected in relation to canal and drip irrigation. The investment cost for 1ha of date palm in drip irrigation was US$12,068, while US$2,338 for the canal irrigation. The NPV for drip irrigation for 1ha of date palm, was US$-7,140, while US$4,168 for the canal irrigation with 10 % discount rate. The IRR for drip irrigation was 6 % and for canal irrigation was 16 %. The profitability of date palm in drip irrigation could not compete with date palm cultivation utilizing canal irrigation. For drip irrigation to compete financially with canal irrigation, the investment cost should not exceed US$4,214

Several crops can be intercropped with date palm utilizing canal irrigation such as alfalfa, okra and tomato. Intercropping date palm with other crops is difficult in drip irrigation. Drip can be the only way to irrigate land that is not possible to irrigate with canal irrigation. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ...........................................................................................................................III DEDICATION ...............................................................................................................................IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..............................................................................................................V ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................VI LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................................X LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................................XI ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... XII CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................1 1.1 BACKGROUND....................................................................................................................1 1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND JUSTIFICATION ................................................................2 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................2 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................3 2.1 AVAILABILITY OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION ..............................................................3 2.2 CANAL IRRIGATION ..........................................................................................................3 2.3 DRIP IRRIGATION...............................................................................................................4 2.3.1 Concepts ..........................................................................................................................4 2.3.2 Global trend ....................................................................................................................6 2.3.3 Economical effects...........................................................................................................6 2.3.4 Ecological impact............................................................................................................7 2.3.5 Limitation of drip irrigation............................................................................................8 2.4 DATE PALM..........................................................................................................................8

2.4.1 Date palm irrigation........................................................................................................9 2.4.2 The economic of date palm production .........................................................................10 2.4.3 Dates marketing problem..............................................................................................10 CHAPTER III: MATERIAL AND METHODS............................................................................11 3.1 SELECTION OF THE STUDY AREA ................................................................................11 viii 3.2 BACK GROUND OF THE STUDY AREA.........................................................................11 3.2.1 Soil.................................................................................................................................13 3.2.2 Irrigation .......................................................................................................................14 3.2.3 Climate ..........................................................................................................................14 3.2.4 Agricultural activities....................................................................................................15 3.3 DATA COLLECTION .........................................................................................................16 3.3.1 Primary data .................................................................................................................16 3.3.2 Secondary data..............................................................................................................18 3.4 DATA ANALYSIS ..............................................................................................................18 3.4.1 Primary data .................................................................................................................18 3.4.2 Secondary data..............................................................................................................19 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...........................................................................21 4.1 CANAL IRRIGATION ........................................................................................................21 4.1.1 Farming system .............................................................................................................21 4.1.2 Problems of canal irrigation .........................................................................................22 4.1.3 Labour use.....................................................................................................................25 4.1.4 Comparison between cemented and traditional............................................................26 4.1.5 Intercropping in canal irrigation ..................................................................................27 4.2 DRIP IRRIGATION.............................................................................................................29 4.2.1 Overview of drip irrigation system................................................................................29

4.2.2 Crops grown in drip irrigation......................................................................................30 4.2.3 Labour use.....................................................................................................................31 4.2.4 Drip irrigation trials in Umjawasir ..............................................................................33 4.2.5 Lessons learned from drip irrigation trials...................................................................35 4.2.6 Economics of drip and canal irrigation ........................................................................37 4.2.7 Date palm life cycle.......................................................................................................38 4.2.8 Future benefits...............................................................................................................40 4.2.9 Date palm net income....................................................................................................43 4.3 ECONOMICAL SUSTAINABILITY OF DRIP IRRIGATION..........................................45 4.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION......................................46 4.5 DRIP IRRIGATION TRENDS ............................................................................................48 ix CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION......................................................................................................49 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................50 APPENDIXES ...............................................................................................................................57 APPENDIX 1: AGRICULTURAL INPUTS PRICES FOR CANAL AND DRIPPING KITS............................57 APPENDIX 2: VEGETABLE PRICES AT KHARTOUM MARKETS........................................................57 APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FARMERS USING DRIP IRRIGATION.........................................58 APPENDIX 4: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FARMERS USING CANAL IRRIGATION ....................................61 APPENDIX 5: FORM FOR DATA COLLECTION IN THE EXPERIMENTAL AREA...................................63 APPENDIX 6: GENERAL OBSERVATION GUIDE LINE......................................................................64 APPENDIX 7: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION .....................................................................................64 APPENDIX 9: VEGETABLE PRICES IN US$/ WEEK IN KHARTOUM MARKET....................................65 APPENDIX 10: FAOSTAT DATA BASE FOR DATE PALM IN SUDAN ..............................................65 x LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: APPROXIMATE LENGTH / M FOR CEMENTED AND TRADITIONAL CANAL .......................14 TABLE 2: METHODOLOGY FOR DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS.............................................20 TABLE 3: CROP PROFITABILITY FOR YEAR 2004 AT UMJAWASIR PROJECT ..................................22 TABLE 4: NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS OBSERVING DIFFERENT PROBLEMS IN CANAL PERFORMANCE22 TABLE 5: FARMERS HIRE LABOUR AND SELF DEPENDANT IN RELATION TO CANAL PERFORMANCE25 TABLE 6: COMPARISON BETWEEN CEMENTED CANALS AND TRADITIONAL CANALS....................26 TABLE 7: INTERCROPPING CONTRIBUTION TO DATE PALM ..........................................................27 TABLE 8: AVERAGE PRODUCTION COST FOR DIFFERENT CROPS...................................................28 TABLE 9: OVERVIEW OF DRIP IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN NORTH SUDAN......................................29 TABLE 10: OPINION AMONG RESPONDENTS ON DRIP IRRIGATION ...............................................30 TABLE 11: INITIAL COST FOR THE TWO DRIP IRRIGATION TRIAL FOR 250 M 2 EACH......................33 TABLE 12: COMPARISON BETWEEN THE TWO DRIP IRRIGATION TRIALS AT UMJAWASIR .............34 TABLE 13: INVESTMENT COST OF 1HA OF DATE PALM IN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION .............37 TABLE 14: PRODUCTION OF DATE PALM IN CANAL IRRIGATION..................................................39 TABLE 15: DATE PALM PRODUCTION IN DRIP IRRIGATION...........................................................39 TABLE 16: SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR DATE PALM PRODUCTION IN DRIP IRRIGATION...............41 TABLE 17: SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR DATE PALM PRODUCTION IN CANAL IRRIGATION ...........42 TABLE 18: ECONOMICAL COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION........................45 TABLE 19: COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP IRRIGATION AND CANAL IRRIGATION ..........................46 xi LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1: UMJAWASIR PROJECT LOCATION................................................................................12 FIGURE 2: UMJAWASIR PROJECT LAYOUT...................................................................................13 FIGURE 3: MAXIMUM & MINIMUM TEMPERATURE IN

0 C ...........................................................15 FIGURE 4: MAP OF SUDAN SHOWS LOCATION OF DRIP IRRIGATION PROJECTS.............................17 FIGURE 5: TRADITIONAL IRRIGATION FIGURE (A) AND CEMENTED CANAL FIGURE (B) ................24 FIGURE 6: CANAL PROBLEMS AT UMJAWASIR PROJECT IN FIGURE (C) AND (D)...........................24 FIGURE 7: LABOUR TASK OF DRIP IRRIGATION PROJECTS ............................................................32 FIGURE 8: THE TWO DRIP IRRIGATION TRIALS AT UMJAWASIR PROJECT IN FIGURE (A) AND (B)..35 FIGURE 9: OKRA GERMINATION IN THE 2 ND DRIP IRRIGATION TRIAL ...........................................36 FIGURE 10: DATE PALM FRUITS...................................................................................................43 FIGURE 11: NET INCOME FOR 1HA OF DATE FRUITS IN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION IN 30 YEAR44 xii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ADRA/SUDAN Adventist Development and Relief Agency/ Sudan Acre FAO Area Unit, of 4,840 square yards Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FAOSTAT. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Statistic database. Feddan Area unit of 4,200 square meter. ha Hectare; area unit of 10,000 square meter. IRR Internal Rate of Return NORAD Norwegian Agency for development Cooperation NGOs Non Governmental Organizations NPV Net Present Value N. State. Northern State.

SDR Social discount rate SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences yr Year 0 C Degrees Celsius CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND Irrigation plays a significant role in the agricultural production in Sudan. The total area irrigated by canal in Sudan is two million ha out of seven million ha (Abdel Rahman 1990). The performance of canal irrigation in Sudan was not satisfactory, due to the deterioration in the canal infrastructures, which leads to decline in the total production (Guvele et al. 2001). Drip irrigation was introduced to Sudan 5-6 years ago, in small areas, to solve problems related to canal irrigation. The efforts to initiate the dripping projects were being individuals. In Northern Sudan at Umjawasir project, which is an agricultural project run by ADRA/SUDAN 1 , where certain problems have been encountered with the canal irrigation such as; cracks, weed problems and sand burying the canals. Labour demand was high in canal maintenance, while in drip irrigation a skilled labourer was needed for the maintenance and operation. Drip irrigation offers an extensive range of solutions to the problems that were encountered for canals irrigation. Private companies and NGOs started to introduce drip irrigation in Northern Sudan to protect big investments in the desert, such as oil pipelines, highway roads and agricultural scheme. The initial cost for drip irrigation is higher than canal irrigation. This is due to the high cost of 1

equipment and installation. Date palm cultivation is the most profitable crop in North Sudan. Date palm is extensively grown near the Nile. Several crops are intercropped with date palms in canal irrigation. Alfalfa, okra and tomato increase the profitability of date palm cultivation when intercropped. Date palm cultivation in North Sudan has been prolonged for more than 3,000 year with the utilization of canal irrigation. While the cultivation of date palm using drip irrigation was not known as it was initiated only 5-6 years ago. The future benefit of date palm cultivation using canal irrigation was positive, however, concerning drip irrigation, certain factors determine the future benefits e.g. the social discount rate, market prices for date fruits and equipments prices. Research was proposed to; identify the challenges that are facing the canal and drip irrigation in North Sudan, and to identify the future possibilities concerning a sustainable irrigation use.

1 ADRA/SUDAN refers to Adventist Development & Relief Agency/ SUDAN. Is a humanitarian, International, development and non government organization. 1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND JUSTIFICATION Canal irrigation in North Sudan has played an economical role in keeping the date palm cultivation and different crop production sustainable for such a long time. Several problems were encountered concerning the performance of canal irrigation. In the Umjawasir project, problems involving the canal started with the establishment of the irrigation system at the site. The canals at the Umjawasir project was not properly functioning due to the problems encountered such as cracks in the canal, excessive weed growth in the canal and sand filling the canal from sandstorm. Private companies and NGOs established several projects which are irrigated by drip irrigation. These companies and NGOs were satisfied with performance of the drip irrigation. The economical future benefit for the drip irrigation project was not considered when establishing these projects. 2

Drip irrigation provides a solution to most of the problems faced with canal irrigation. Advantages and disadvantages of drip and canal irrigation were studied which would facilitate a clear assessment of economical future benefits. This research is aimed at clarifying challenges and possibilities of canal and drip irrigation in North Sudan. Date palms cultivation was chosen in this study for it is historical, social and economical value for the communities of Northern Sudan. The entire drip irrigation projects in Northern Sudan have the same ecological features as at the Umjawasir project. The common problems involved with canal irrigation in Northern Sudan are presented at the Umjawasir project. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. To identify the advantages and disadvantages of canal and drip irrigation in Northern Sudan. 2. To assess the profitability of canal and drip irrigation when growing date palm in Northern Sudan. 3. To assess the future benefit of date palm cultivation using canal and drip irrigation in Northern Sudan. CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 AVAILABILITY OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION According to the 1959 Nile agreement, Sudans share of water was set at 18.5 billion cubic meters per year (Jobin 1999). Sudan has therefore exhausted their share of the Nile water agreement, consequently through expanding in agriculture scheme, thus a new strategies concerning the irrigation policies is required. Sudan has different water resources for irrigation. The White Nile, the Blue Nile and the river Nile are considered the back bone for irrigation in Sudan. (Abdel Rahman 1990). In the areas where there is no access to River Nile or its tributaries, 75 % of the population depend on groundwater and rainwater for their domestic water use (Ayoub 1997). With the current 3

consumption of water in Sudan, there are signs of a water shortage (Abdel Rahman 1990) and (Guvele et al. 2001). In Sudan, underground water has come to attention due to low rainfalls in arid and semi arid areas coupled with difficult access to the Niles water in areas with high populations (Farah et al. 1997b). The northern Part of the Sudan is an arid and semi arid area of low rain fall. However, where there is no access to river Nile water, the main water sources is from the Nubian sandstone aquifer (underground water), which is capable of providing about 1.26 X 10 13 m 3 y -1 (Farah et al 1997a). The hydrological system in northern Sudan consists of two aquifers; the upper and the lower aquifer. The lower aquifer is more suitable for domestic and agricultural uses than the upper one (Farah et al. 1997a). In northern Sudan, agricultural activities are concentrating along the Nile bank in a very small strip of land. The cultivation of date palms is the main sources of income, along with cereal crops (Reyad et al. 1997). 2.2 CANAL IRRIGATION In many developed countries, irrigation plays a very important role in crop production. Governments are spending millions of dollars each year in order to maintain and rehabilitate the canal systems to meet their agricultural production requirements (Ghezae 1998). 4 Sudan has three agricultural sectors: irrigated, mechanized rain-fed and traditional rain- fed (Guvele et al. 2001). However, two million ha are irrigated by canal out of the total seven million

ha which are traditional /mechanize rain-fed (Abdel Rahman 1990). Intensive canal irrigation is becoming a major cornerstone for agricultural activities (Jobin 1999). The government of the Sudan, through expansion in canal irrigation, leads to severe implication of water use. The performance of large scale projects in Sudan has been recognized as disappointing at the best (Guvele et al. 2001). The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Gezira board carried out research on water management practices on selected areas in the Gezira scheme. The performance of all lower level canals was poor due to the physical deterioration of the structure of the canals (Merry 1997). The high costs of canal irrigation and the low crop prices have made the investment in new irrigation schemes increasingly unappealing (Postel 1999). In addition, farmers irrigation performance has lead to a reduction in crop yield in certain parts of Sudan. A study was done at the Gezira research station and it was found that a reduction in sorghum yield was related to water mismanagement (Farah et al. 1997a). An important mistake in many early irrigation systems has been the attempt to justify investing in an expensive reservoir and irrigation site by proposing multiple crops and high intensities of irrigation (Jobin 1999, p.14) If such proposal was made in areas with poor drainage and where farmers have no experiences on intensive irrigation, the proposal would be rejected. Traditional irrigation systems are the opposite of the intensive irrigation, and have existed for generations (Jobin 1999). 2.3 DRIP IRRIGATION 2.3.1 Concepts Drip irrigation is defined as a method of irrigation where the water is directed to the plants zone (Suryawanshi 1995). Drip irrigation, refers to as trickle or low-flow irrigation to provide near optimal soil moisture as a continuous basis while conserving water (Smith 1997) p 89. Drip irrigation is categorized as micro-irrigation (MI), where water is irrigated according to the plant water requirement (Phene 1995a; Suryawanshi 1995). 5

There are two types of drip irrigation; surface and subsurface drip irrigation. The subsurface type uses a buried emitter which has the potential to save irrigation water by reducing the amount of water added to the plant (Evett et al. 1995). Both surface and subsurface drip irrigation use the same mechanism for delivering water to each individual plant. Drip irrigation is different than sprinkling irrigation. Sprinkling irrigation is the emission of water through the air with a predictable pattern and radius (Smith 1997). Sprinkling irrigation is widely used for the irrigation and freezing protection of young citrus trees in the USA (Davies 1995). The main features of drip irrigation are; the deep percolation of water into the soil, negligible sign of water losses due to evaporation and no surface water run off (Postel et al 2001). Drip irrigation has been used for the cultivation of valuable trees (Smith 1997). One of the overlying benefits of drip irrigation, is that can secure food, even during periods of drought (Chigerwe et al. 2004). The adoption of drip irrigation began in areas that have traditionally suffered from water shortages (Srivastava et al. 1998). Due to the high investment cost, drip irrigation is most commonly used by wealthy farmers. (Postel 1999). In recent years, new drip irrigation technology has been developed, for home garden cultivation. A bucket, a few meters of tubes and nozzles, is all that is needed to grow vegetables for home consumption. The bucket can be filled manually, from a nearby water source (Sahin et al 2005). The application of water, in drip irrigation, can be precisely controlled, when compared to furrow and sprinkling irrigation. These advantages can increase yield and revenue, and decrease overall cultivation costs when compared to the other irrigation methods (Hanson et al. 2006). Drip irrigation is often chosen over other irrigation methods. The advantages of drip irrigation are water application efficiency and reducing the water losses. In addition, drip irrigation offer very low surface evaporation and deep percolation (Rajput et al 2006).

The unique feature of drip irrigation is the ability to apply small and frequent amount of fertilizer and the potential for applying it uniformly to minimize the loss of soluble nutrients (Phene 1995a) 6 2.3.2 Global trend The tendency in recent years has been to shift from surface irrigation to drip irrigation. World wide in year 2000, three million hectares were cultivated using micro irrigation. This represents 2 % of the total irrigated land in the world (Ayars et al. 1999). Drip irrigation is recognized to be a more efficient water delivery system, along with its ecological advantages (Sezen et al 2006). Drip irrigation has become more favourable due to it is advantages which appear in the production, fertilizer application, the control of water application, as well as the deep percolation (Postel et al. 2001; Ayars et al. 1999). Countries which have adopted drip irrigation technology are either suffering of problems of water scarcity, or poor quality water (Srivastava et al 1998). China is an example of a country with water shortages. The government is encouraging farmers to adopt drip irrigation, (Wang et al. 2006). Several studies have shown that, the area under drip irrigation is increasing. The spread of drip technologies are gaining momentum, e.g. India reported more than 70,000 ha under drip irrigation, which account for 3.97 % of the total area irrigated by drip irrigation systems world wide (Srivastava et al 1998). . One reason why people are moving towards drip irrigation is the increasing awareness that water resources are finite and perhaps are even declining (Phene 1995a). Drip irrigation can save up to 50-75 % of the irrigation water when compared to canal irrigation. Easily control of the water application in drip irrigation, along with reduced weeds growth, easy fertilizer application has led to increases the yield from 30-100 % (ELawadi 1999; Suryawanshi 1995) For the areas with a narrow and irregular landscape, drip irrigation offers a wide range of solutions to maximize the land use without runoff. These being easy delivery of fertilizers and maximum

control of the irrigation water (Bressan 1995). 2.3.3 Economical effects The investment decision for shifting to drip irrigation depends upon many factors; including cost of cultivation, productivity, yield gain factor, cost of producing electricity prices, depth of groundwater and irrigation requirement. These parameters vary from crop to crop, place to place, size of plot, and farmer to farmer.(Sirvastava et al 2003, p.79) 7 Drip irrigation is now available to all, but it is too expensive and sophisticated for small farmers to adopt (Postel et al 2001). In order for drip irrigation to become more profitable than other irrigation methods, the costs of watering along with agricultural input must be less than the total income (Hanson et al. 2006). Ecological and geographical criteria determine the cost and benefits concerning the investment in a drip irrigation system (Sezen et al. 2005). A model for investment decision for drip irrigation system was made by Indian scientists. The model is generated using computer software; all concerns the installation of a drip irrigation system, crop selection, as well as crop diversification. The model is suitable for both canal and drip irrigation with respect to those factors which determine decisions concerning which crops is grown. The model utilizes a wide range of mathematical and economical equations to enhance the decision concerning the possibilities of using drip irrigation (Sirvastava et al 2003). A cost benefit analysis at the farm level was made, for converting olive grown using surface irrigation to drip irrigation. The net present value (NPV) was used in this analysis. The NPV was positive for drip irrigation, given the high prices paid for the olives at the market (Cetin et al. 2004). An economic analysis was done to compare drip irrigation and a pivot sprinkling system in Western Kansas, USA, on a Corn field. The surface drip irrigated more area and generated a greater return than did the centre pivot sprinkler system, (Dhuyvette et al. 1995).

A field study was done in California, USA, to compare furrow, surface drip, and sub-surface drip irrigation on Lettuce yield. The drip irrigations profitability was uncertain and the revenue did not increase by converting from furrow to drip irrigation (Hanson et al. 1997). 2.3.4 Ecological impact Management of agro-chemical for crop was one of the environmental issues identified during the design of the Rahad project in Sudan, which use a canal for irrigation, where intensive and extensive use of insecticides, herbicides, defoliants, fungicides and rodenticides. The use of these agro-chemicals had a negative effects on human and animals in the area (Ghezae 1998) In Sudan malaria, diarrhoea, and schistomiasis are diseases associated with canal irrigation in the agricultural communities along the Blue Nile River, and this is due to water logging, (Ghezae 1998; Jobin 1999). 8

By using drip irrigation, it reduces the negative impacts related to canal irrigation, such as water born diseases and excessive use of agro-chemical. Agricultural research showed that drip irrigation provided enough soil moisture and a significant affects on the yield, without using large amount of fertilizer and pesticides (Smith 1997; Sezen et al 2006). Researchers summarize the advantages of the drip irrigation as; drip save water up to 50-75 %, yield increase up to 30-100 %, while fertilizers can be saved up to 25- 30 % and reduces the weed growth (Suryawanshi 1995; Zaid 1999). Drip irrigation is also reducing the incidence of crop diseases, by creating unsuitable habitat for insects to regenerate, through low humidity (Skaggs 2001). 2.3.5 Limitation of drip irrigation In spite of the numerous advantages of drip irrigation, it has a number of limitations that varies from place to another. Drip irrigation system is identified as high investment cost (US$1000 to US$ 3000 per acre). It requires a big investment capital and a high skilled labour (Barth 1995; Skaggs 2001).

Drip irrigation requires clean water neither mixed with sand nor hard particles, to avoid nozzles block, (Zaid 1999). Drip irrigation requires more maintenance and close monitoring during the operation, which increase the working load (Skaggs 2001). Canal irrigation reduces the temperature around growing plant, and thus reduces the water stress. In drip irrigation there is minimum control of the microclimate (Skaggs 2001). Salinity is one problem need to be controlled in drip irrigation, where the salts accumulate during the irrigation. To control the salinity in drip irrigation, the bed surface should be raised above that normally used for planting. The drip system in then operated moving the salts into the raised portion of the bed. (Hanson 1995) 2.4 DATE PALM Date palm phoenix dactylifera L. is a dioecious (unisexual) species with a male and a female flowers being produced in a clusters on a separate palms (Zaid et al. 1999). The world production of date fruits is about 4.8 million tons (Botes et al. 1999). The date fruits are produced largely in hot arid regions of South West Asia and North Africa. It is being marketed all over the world as a high value fruits and extremely important for most of the communities in the desert region. Most of 9 the date palm productions are in the Middle East and North Africa (Botes et al. 1999). During 1996 Iraq and Iran had about 35 % of the harvested area in the world (Botes et al. 1999). History shows that date palm is a traditional crop in the old world. In recent year it has been introduced as a modern plantation in the USA and Israel. A decline in the date palm productivity of the traditional growing area over the last decade was due to political and socio-economic constrains (Botes et al. 1999). North Sudan is considered one of the oldest places in the world for date palm cultivation. Date palm cultivation in Sudan started 3,000 years ago. It has social and economical benefits in that region of the North Sudan (Reyad et al. 1997). Cultivation of date palm in Sudan exists in three states; Northern state, River Nile state, and Northern Darfour state. These three states comprise

about 81.4 % from the total date palm area in Sudan. The numbers of date palm trees in Sudan are about 8 million in 1996, which produces about 240 thousand tons of date fruits (Reyad et al. 1997). 2.4.1 Date palm irrigation Different methods where used to irrigate date palms, at different water requirement even within the same country (Liebenberg et al. 1999). The oldest methods are flood irrigation, and furrow basin irrigation. Furrow basin is a redesign of flood irrigation (Liebenberg et al. 1999). Flood irrigation method has several advantages. It has low operational cost and easy to apply. The disadvantages of the flood irrigation are high labour requirements, difficult to achieve a high efficiency rate and it is not suited for sandy soil (Liebenberg et al. 1999). Drip irrigation is the latest methods used for date palm irrigation. The control of water in drip irrigation is easy to schedule and manage. The topography is not a limitation for drip irrigation, as it is not influence by a wind or dust storm and its not labour intensive (Liebenberg et al. 1999). In summer season the water requirement through flood irrigation for date palm are almost double the amounts of water needed in winter season, which constitutes 1 /3 of the annual water consumption (Liebenberg et al. 1999). 2.4.2 The economic of date palm production In the Northern and river Nile state date palm is intercropped with wheat, broad beans and fodder. It is difficult to calculate the cost of each crop in this intercropping system. In Sudan, statistical data showed that the cost of production of 1 ha of date palm range between US$114 in 1992 to US$ 130 in 1995 (Reyad et al. 1997). A study of the date palm cultivation in the North Sudan found that; in 1995 the cost of production of 1 ha of date palm intercropped with different crop is higher in the Northern state than in the River Nile state. In the Northern state the cost was US$ 286, and US$ 232 in the River Nile state. 10

Therefore the agricultural input transportation cost to the Northern state is higher than the River Nile state (Reyad et al. 1997).

2.4.3 Dates marketing problem The marketing problems of the date fruits in Sudan were summarised in four main points by (Reyad et al. 1997) 1- The date fruits are packed in traditional bags known as shawal which is susceptible to pests, and that lead to low price. 2- The storage of date fruits is in traditional rooms built by mud which is suitable for pests to regenerate. 3- Transportation means is not designed for date fruits or any other crop. 4- Dry varieties of date fruits is produced in Sudan, which has low prices in the international market. CHAPTER III: MATERIAL AND METHODS 3.1 SELECTION OF THE STUDY AREA In order to carry out the study on drip and canal irrigation system, three states were selected; Northern, River Nile, and Khartoum states. River Nile and Northern states were selected both for the location of the drip irrigation projects. Six drip irrigation projects were recognized for data gathering; two in the River Nile and four in the Northern state. Khartoum was selected in order to gather information from market, government offices and research institutes. The Umjawasir agricultural project was selected as the main study area for collecting the canal irrigation data, along with a drip irrigation trial. 3.2 BACK GROUND OF THE STUDY AREA The Umjawasir area is located approximately 200 km North West of Khartoum city in the Bayoda 11

desert of Northern Sudan along the wadi ELmugaddam 2 , (figure 1). The Hawaweer tribe are the inhabitants of Umjawasir, and have secured their livelihood mainly through pastoralism (Larsen et al. 2001). In the early 1980s, drought and famine hit the Umjawasir area as well as other places in the Sahel region. The Hawaweer lost most of their livestock and some of them migrated to other places in the northern state and the Khartoum state (Larsen et al. 2001). ADRA/SUDAN started the agricultural project in Umjawasir to ensure food security for the Hawaweer people and to rehabilitate the environment that had been affected by the drought.

2 Wadi ELmugaddam is a dry tributary of the river Nile stretching from Kordofan in Western Sudan and join the River Nile in Korti in Northern Sudan. (Larsen et al. 2001) 12

Figure 1: Umjawasir project location Source: Google Earth. The Umjawasir agricultural project started in 1991 with a pilot phase (phase zero) (figure 2). The main objective was to discover the possibilities of growing different crops. The project started with four bore holes using turbine pumps and a diesel engine to irrigate an area of 38 ha. In the first agricultural season on 1991 different crops were grown, and it was reported as a success. The first phase (phase 1) started in 1995 with 6 bore holes to irrigate 130 ha. The direct beneficiaries were 72 families, each with 1.68 ha. The objective of phase 1 was to insure food security in the area and to rehabilitate the environment. Phase 2 started in 2000 and 151 ha was brought under irrigation. Direct beneficiaries were 90 families who were involved in the agricultural activities. The land was irrigated from 6 bore holes.

All the three phases were funded by NORAD and implemented by ADRA/SUDAN. 13 Figure 2: Umjawasir project layout 3.2.1 Soil The soil in Umjawasir was deposited during the annual flood, which took place during various geological periods. The soils depth is 180 cm, with a clay content between 48 -50% and a yellowish brown colour in the top 70 cm and a dark yellowish-brown profile on the bottom (Mustafa 2003) Over all, the soils showed neither salinity nor alkalinity during the first growing season. Generally, the soil of the area is good for agricultural purposes, but due to aridity, the organic matter content is very low along with nitrogen deficiency (Mustafa 2003). The soil of some surface areas is salty; however, this disappears by leaching to deeper zones in the first cultivation season. (Mustafa 2003) 14 3.2.2 Irrigation The main source of water for irrigation in Umjawasir project is the underground water from the Nubian sandstone aquifer. The project drilled four bore holes in phase zero (130-150 meters depth), six bore holes in phase one, and another six bore holes in phase two (149 180 meters depth). Monitoring the underground water levels showed a negligible decline of a few meters during operations. (Mustafa 2003) All of the 16 bore holes from the three phases, irrigate 330 ha in Umjawasir. The irrigation area is distributed among 210 families. Irrigation is done through canal net work stating from the bore hole to the farms site. Canal is divided into two types, main canal, which is cemented and sub main canal, which is erected by soil only. Table 1 summarize the total approximate length of each type of canal Table 1: approximate length / m for cemented and traditional canal Project # Cemented canal Traditional canal

Phase zero 00 01,360 m Phase one 3,690 m 15,330 m Phase two 4,200 m 18,900 m Total 7,890 m 35,590 m

3.2.3 Climate The temperature in Umjawasir varies between the average 27 0 C minimum to 45 0 C maximum (figure 3). Low humidity and high evaporation are the general climatic features in the area. The evaporation increases when the temperature increases. The Annual rain fall is 50 mm/yr however; the area can flood in case of ample rain in the high land of northern Kordofan. The summer season extends from April to July, and winter is from October to March. The period from August to September is considered the rainy season. 15 0 10 20 30 40 50 Sep-95 Nov-95

Jan-96 Mar-96 May-96 Jul-96 Sep-96 Nov-96 Jan-97 Mar-97 May-97 Jul-97 Month 0 C Maximum C Minimum C Figure 3: Maximum & Minimum Temperature in 0 C Source: Umjawasir project

3.2.4 Agricultural activities Subsistence farming is the agricultural activity in the project area. Farmers grow different summer and winter crops. The main crops grown in winter are wheat and broad beans along with alfalfa. In the summer season sorghum grain, fodder and okra are grown. Wheat is considered the main crop, and almost all inhabitants depend on it as their main source of

food. Broad beans in the recent years are grown for commercial purposes and some domestic consumption. Many farmers in the project grow alfalfa to generate high incomes. Date palms are also grown in the project area intercropped with alfalfa. By growing date palms farmers secure a future for the succeeding generations, and can claim rights to the land. Limited crops are grown in the summer season and most of the inhabitants tend to grow Okra for its high income. 16

Sorghum grain and sorghum fodder are grown in small areas on the farm. The operational costs of growing sorghum are higher compared to wheat and broad beans. The reason for this is the intense demand on irrigation, which demands more fuel and spare parts.

3.3 DATA COLLECTION Primary and secondary data were collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. The qualitative method, consists of semi structured and unstructured interview with close and open ended question, as well as general observation for the study area and a focus group discussion with the informants The quantitative methods consist of the drip irrigation trial at Umjawasir project and questionnaire survey. A detailed description of how data was collected and analysed is presented in the following part. 3.3.1 Primary data Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect primary data on both the irrigation systems and market prices of vegetables and agriculture inputs. In order to identify the advantages and disadvantages along with the labour use and the future benefit of the canal irrigation, a qualitative method were used through semi structured and unstructured interview

The interviews conducted in Umjawasir project included 39 farmers (31 male and 8 female) out of 50 farmers who were cultivating during the survey time. The selection was done randomly from a list obtained from the project administration and a calculator was used to select randomly. Focus group discussions were carried out with four groups, seven persons each. The groups were purposefully selected from Umjawasir projects field office, to represent young, middle, old age farmers, and labourers. For the drip irrigation projects (figure 4), semi structured and unstructured interviews were conducted with the manager/ owners of the farms, to identify the advantages and disadvantages, also the labour use, as well as to identify the profitability and the future benefits. One drip 17 irrigation owner would name another drip irrigation project, such that in the end it turned out to be snow ball sampling (Bryman 2001).

Figure 4: Map of Sudan shows location of drip irrigation projects Qualitative methods were used to collect prices for six types of vegetables in Khartoum market through structured interviews. The structured interview consist of a list of vegetable, agricultural inputs and dripping kit to identify the prices From a list of vegetable traders, a random sample of 20 traders was selected using a random numbers. Prices of agriculture input for both drip and canal irrigation were collected from companies and drip irrigation dealers through a check list of specific items. To test the effects of drip irrigation on Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), two trials were conducted at two locations of Umjawasir project. The first trial was established on 250 m near the farms in phase #2, with 520 plants per nozzle at spacing between plants of 50 cm and 80 cm between rows 18 (the plant spacing is according to the extension unit at Umjawasir project). Okra (Abelmoschus

esculentus) was selected, for its fast growth rate and high commercial value (Camciuc et al. 1996). Water requirement for the trial was set at 3 lit per plant per day. Further adjustment of water requirement was done during the trail. However, the trail had to be abandoned after three weeks because of pump breakdown. The second trial was conducted in phase # 0 of the project, which has more sand content. A water tank was erected to ensure availability of water in case a pump breaks down. The trial was done with the same equipment as in the first one, and the same plant spacing. The water requirement as the first trial was applied to the second trial, beside the cultural practices (fertilizers, and pesticides). The second trial started in the 2 nd week of October till the 3 rd week of December. Few data were gathered from the second trail due to animals invasion. 3.3.2 Secondary data Secondary data were collected from Ministry of irrigation, Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD), Forestry research institute, Shambat research institute and ADRA/ SUDAN. Structured interview was used to identify the policies and strategies for irrigation in Northern Sudan, along with the future plan for drip irrigation investment in Sudan. Part of the reports on irrigation was collected from Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD) also part of the date palm information was collected from the reports at Shambat research institute in Khartoum state. 3.4 DATA ANALYSIS

3.4.1 Primary data Descriptive analysis was used through cross tabulation from SPSS computer software to identify different features for canal and drip irrigation such as the advantages and disadvantages, crop grown per area, labour use, and to compare between traditional and cemented canal, as well as to compare between canal and drip irrigation. 19

Simple calculation was used to identify the cost of production, total income in US$ and profitability for each crop when intercropped with date palm Net present Value (NPV) for 10 % Social Discount Rate (SDR) was calculated for the Dates fruit production for one hectare for drip and canal irrigation, in order to identify the future benefits from the standpoint of the present (Pearce et al. 1990). Internal Rate of Return (IRR) was calculated for both systems when growing date palm. The investment in drip and canal irrigation that correspond to the IRR was calculated by using goal seek function in the Excel program. Part of the data that could fit into the statistical package was treated separately in different spread sheet e.g. focus group discussion and the general observation. 3.4.2 Secondary data Secondary data were used as a back ground to under stand the attribute of different irrigation systems in Northern Sudan. Information was gathered for date palm (phoenix dactylifera) for both canal and drip irrigation systems. The reason was, all of the drip irrigation projects included in this study are growing date palm, in addition to that dates is the main valuable crop grown in the Northern and Nile state (Reyad et al. 1997) Table 2 summarizes the methodology of data collection and analysis, for the study. The summery tend to simplify the methodology and the purpose of the analysis.

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Table 2: Methodology for data collection and analysis Sites Methods for data collection Methods for analysis Purpose of the analysis Canal irrigation Individuals interview. Focus group discussion. General observations Descriptive statistic. Net present value (NPV). Internal rate of return (IRR) To identify the advantages and disadvantages. To assess the profitability of date palm when intercropped with different crop and vegetable. To identify labour role in irrigation management. To discover future benefit of dates production. Drip irrigation Individuals interview General observation Descriptive statistic. Net present value (NPV). Internal rate of return (IRR) To identify the advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation.

To assess profitability of date palm when irrigated by drip. To identify labour role in irrigation management. To compare between drip and canal irrigation in term of profitability. To discover future benefit of dates production. Khartoum Markets Interview guide to discover the prices of vegetables, agriculture inputs and dripping kit Mathematical calculation To discern the highest and lowest prices of vegetables. To compare between the drip and canal inputs prices when growing 1ha of date palm trees. Drip irrigation trial Field trial Descriptive analysis To identify lesson learned from the trials.

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CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 CANAL IRRIGATION 4.1.1 Farming system In the Northern Sudan winter and summer are the principle cultivation seasons. Wheat, broad

beans, vegetables and alfalfa, are grown in winter. Sorghum grain, fodder and okra are grown in summer season. Winter season extend from October to March and summer season is from April to July. In Umjawasir project wheat and broad bean are the main crops grown along with vegetables. Wheat is considered as the main source of food, while broad bean is grown for commercial purposes and for home use in case of surplus. Alfalfa is grown as animal fodder and it has a high commercial value, (Table 3). In the summer season, farmers tend to grow okra as a commercial crop (high generating income) and for home consumption. Sorghum grain is grown in small areas due to the high operational cost and the low income gained. Sorghum is grown as animal fodder and it has high prices in case of low rainfall. The straw of sorghum is used in traditional house construction in Umjawasir for the nomad communities. Farmers in the summer season tend to grow few crops in small area of their farms due to the high operational cost in summer, which require more fuel and spare parts. Agricultural activities depend on the underground water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer. A borehole was established for irrigation and the water is extracted by turbine pump. In the project area there are 16 boreholes that can irrigate 330 hectares. Each family at Umjawasir is allotted 1.68 ha of irrigated land.

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Table 3: crop profitability for year 2004 at Umjawasir project Crop name Total income US$/ha Production cost US$/ha Profit US$/ha Wheat 768 440 328 Broad beans 590 320 270

Alfalfa 2755 818 1,937 Okra 1,536 732 804 Sorghum grain 451 266 185 Sorghum fodder 360 182 178 Total 6,460 2,758 3,702 Source: Umjawasir project 2004 4.1.2 Problems of canal irrigation Each borehole irrigates an area of 20-25 ha through canal network. In Umjawasir project there are two types of canal, cemented and traditional canals. The cemented canals are constructed by stones and cements, (Figure 5 a). Traditional canal is constructed by soil only, (Figure 5 b). Three main problems are encountered within the canal irrigation. The most common problems are the mechanical damages (cracks) in the canal, followed by sand filling the canal and the last one is the excessive weeds interference in the canal. Table 4 shows how farmers respond to canal problems. Table 4: number of respondents observing different problems in canal performance Problems of cracks Problems of Weeds Problems of Sand filling the canal Number of respondents 33 17 14

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The mechanical damages (crack) of the canal were observed by 33 farmers out of 39 farmers. Cracks in the canal are due to the clay contents in the sand that mixed with the cement for construction. Also the stones that is used for construction was not installed properly due to the uneven shape. Weed interference in the canal were observed by 17 farmers out of 39 farmers. The weeds interference is related to crack in the canal. Water leakages in the canal through cracks lead to weed growth in the canal. Problems of sand filling the canal during sandstorm were observed by 14 farmers. Mainly the canals in the Northern side of the project are exposed to sandstorm that blown in the winter season, as well as the canals of the southern side is exposed to southern sandstorm in summer season.

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Figure a: Traditional canal

Figure b: Cemented canal with cracks

Figure 5: Traditional irrigation figure (a) and cemented canal figure (b)

Figure c: sand filling the canal

Figure d: weeds on canal side

Figure 6: Canal problems at Umjawasir project in figure (c) and (d)

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4.1.3 Labour use In canal irrigation system farmers hire labour for canal maintenance due to the long distances between boreholes from farms. In order to identify the role of labourers in canal maintenance, respondents were categorized into two groups; farmers hire labour and farmers who do not hire labour (self dependant). Table 5 identify number of farmers who hires labour for canal maintenance and farmers who are self dependent. Table 5: Farmers hire labour and self dependant in relation to canal performance Category Satisfied with canal performance Not satisfied with canal performance Total numbers of respondents Farmers hire labour 9 12 21 Farmers do not hire labour ( self dependant) 18 0 18 From 39 respondents of Umjawasir project, 21 farmers were hiring labour, while 18 were not hiring labour (self dependant). The reason for dissatisfaction is the water loss in the cemented canals through cracks, which needs labour force for continuous maintenance. The nine framers agreed that with the current canal performance in the traditional canal that has less water loss compare to the cemented canals and the maintenance could be done by soil only while irrigation is taking place.

Farmers that do not hire labour (self dependants) were using traditional canals that do not necessary demand labour for maintenance.

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4.1.4 Comparison between cemented and traditional A comparison was made between cemented and traditional canal in order to identify the advantages and disadvantages of each one. Four main features were distinguished between cemented and traditional canal (Table 6). The traditional canal has advantages of low cost of maintenance. The labour payment for canal maintenance differs from one farmer to another. The payment is negotiable on area not on time base. The maintenance of traditional canal can be done while irrigation is taking place. In the cemented canals, a skilled labour is needed for maintenance, as cement and sand is needed for the maintenance. After the handing over the project to the farmers committee they should secure fund for cement for maintenance of the cemented canals. Table 6: comparison between cemented canals and traditional canals features Constructed canals Traditional canals Cost of construction High Low Water delivery Good if it is well built Satisfactory Labour requirement More labour is needed if it is not constructed properly Less labour needed Maintenance Should be done with cement and stone ( Costly) With soil only

Distances Short canal Long canal Affordability Wealthy or better off farmer Normal farmers

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4.1.5 Intercropping in canal irrigation Different crops and vegetables are grown in Umjawasir in inter cropping systems. Therefore 70 % of farmers in Umjawasir project intercrop alfalfa with date palm. A market survey conducted from July to December 2005 in Khartoum Markets, to identify prices of vegetables that can be intercropped with date palm. Table 7 summarize the net profit of intercropping with date palm in Umjawasir project, when the date palm average net income is US$1,056/yr. Table 7: intercropping contribution to date palm Crop/ 1ha Total average production/1ha/yr Total average income (US$)/yr Average production cost (US$)/yr Average profit (US$)/yr Average profit+

US$1,056 Alfalfa 11cuttingX210 hodXUS$1+US$342 (seeds sale) 2,851 822 2,029 3,085 Okra 45 kgX47 bag X US$0.73 1,551 986 565 1,621 Tomato 600kgXUS$3.5+600kgXUS$0.5 2,400 986 1,414 2,740 Cucumber 2000kgX US$0.60 1,200 986 214 1,270 Eggplant 1900kgX US$0.70 1,330 986 344 1,400 Intercropping of alfalfa with date palm increases the income of 1 ha up to US$ 3085/yr. Tomato gained the second most profitable crop that increase the date palm hectare net income to US$2,740. Okra is the third profitable crops when it is intercropped with dates in canal irrigation which increases the income of 1 ha up to US$ 1621/yr. In Umjawasir farmers distribute one hectare into 210 parts, each part is know as hod. The size of hod is 42 m 2 where alfalfa is grown and it is used as a standard sale measure. The average price of one alfalfa hod is US$ 1 in addition alfalfa produces 111 kg of seeds which gains additional income of US$ 432/yr.

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The prices of alfalfa depend on the rainfall around the project. In case of no or little rainfall, the prices of alfalfa would increase tremendously and vice versa. The production cost of alfalfa is less than the production cost of okra, and this due to the additional cost of transportation, taxetc. for okra, but for the alfalfa is sold locally (Table 8)

Table 8: average production cost for different crops Items Alfalfa Okra Tomato Cucumber Eggplant Cost US$/ha Cost US$/ha Cost US$/ha Cost US$/ha Cost US$/ha Tillage 39 39 39 39 39 Seeds 173 13 13 13 13 Fertilizers 24 48 48 48 48 Fuel 450 397 397 397 397 Labour 96 49 49 49 49 Lubricant & oil 20 20 20 20 20 Spare parts 20 20 20 20 20 Transportation, tax...etc 00 400 400 400 400 Total production cost 822 986 986 986 986 Total income 2,851 1,551 2,400 1,200 1,330 Profit 2,029 565 1,414 214 344 Vegetables can be grown only in winter season from October to March. Tomato under some cases can be grown in the summer season if it has good shade from high trees like date palm or

citrus trees. Tomato gains the highest price in summer, which is US$ 3.5/kg and in winter US$ 0.5/kg. Tomato growers started to make use of a certified seed that can be grown in summer. Okra gains the second highest prices in the market survey and the prices decreases as winter approach. In Umjawasir farmers, in order to gain high prices for okra they slice it into small pieces and dry it under the shade. The dried okra can be cocked as food and it is very much consumed in Umjawasir and Khartoum as well as the whole North region.

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4.2 DRIP IRRIGATION 4.2.1 Overview of drip irrigation system Drip irrigation projects in the Northern Sudan are established by private companies and NGOs. These private companies are petrol oil companies, road construction companies and NGOs such as ADRA/SUDAN. The main reason that, oil companies established drip irrigation in Northern Sudan was to protect the oil pipeline from sand drift when crossing the desert in the river Nile state. Road construction companies were protecting parts of the highway road that link Khartoum with the Northern state from sand drift by establishing drip irrigation projects. ADRA/SUDAN established drip irrigation system for the green belts after facing difficulties in irrigation by canals. ADRA/SUDAN protects the farms by establishing green belt from eucalyptus and other trees. The green belt irrigated by canals along with additional extension of trees irrigated by dripping system. Table 9: overview of drip irrigation projects in North Sudan Project Trees and crop grown name

Location Area /ha Establishment cost US$/ha Year of establishment Dates palm Eucalyptus Acacia Citrus Vegetables Elmerooj N. state 17 8000-13000 2002 Elmarwa N. state 17 8000-13000 2002 Tharwat N. state 17 8000-13000 2002 Umjawasir N. state 1.2 4000-6000 2005 X X Oil company Nile state 20 5000-10000 2003 X X Oil company Nile state 20 5000-10000 2003 X X Grown X Not grown.

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4.2.2 Crops grown in drip irrigation A field survey was conducted to identify different trees and crops that were grown in the drip irrigation project in Northern Sudan. Table 9 shows the crops and trees that are grown in drip

irrigation projects. Based on a field survey, eucalyptus are grown in all drip irrigation projects. Eucalyptus has been grown as a wind break at the edge of the farm. All the drip irrigation projects in Northern Sudan are located in remote desert areas, where sandstorm is a common phenomenon. A need of wind break from eucalyptus is highly prioritized to reduce the alarming rate of sandstorm in the project. Date palm is grown in the six projects, as long term investment that can produce after several years. None of these projects started to produce date fruits, still after 2-4 years. In the drip irrigation projects, neither cereal crops nor vegetables were grown. Based on a field survey undertaken in the six drip irrigation projects in the North Sudan, all the projects respondents agreed that drip irrigation is not cheap. Table 10: Opinion among respondents on drip irrigation Project Cheap to buy More efficient Save time Less labour use for operation and maintenance Dripping increases the productive

Number of agreed respondents 06644 Number of disagreed respondents 60022 All projects respondents agreed that drip irrigation is more efficient than canal irrigation. From table 10, it can be seen that respondents agreed that drip irrigation saves time compared to canal irrigation. In canal irrigation, more time is needed for irrigation depending on the distance between borehole and farm, as well as the capacity of the turbine pump and engine.

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Four out of the six respondents from the drip irrigation projects agreed that drip irrigation require less labour with high payment compare low payment in canal irrigation. The other two respondents disagreed because number of labour needed depend on the project area. Four respondents agreed that drip irrigation increases the productivity more than canal irrigation. The reason is that the agricultural practices such as fertilizers and pesticides application, are done to individual plant, whereas in canal irrigation, are done to whole area irrigated. 4.2.3 Labour use In drip irrigation labourers are important for monitoring, operation and maintenance due to the technical sophistication of the system (Figure 7). Monitoring consists of follows up of the nozzles, engine and water pump performance. Each nozzle irrigates one plant, and if several nozzles are not working properly that would lead to poor growth or death of the plant.

Maintenance consists of nozzles, valve, along with engine and water pump maintenance. A skilled labour is needed for the daily maintenance due to the technicality of the system. There are two types of maintenance, daily maintenance and yearly maintenance. The daily maintenance is a regular maintenance such as nozzles cleaning, valveetc. The yearly maintenance is the overhaul of the engine and pump where it consists of changing spare parts, in addition of renewing the drip system if it is necessary. Operation consists of engine and water pump operation to fill-in the water tank. In drip irrigation projects the labour used for maintenance is also responsible for the operating the engine and pump. Mainly two labourers are hired for a project size of 16-20 ha for the three above tasks. One labourer is responsible for operation and the other is for maintenance, while both of them are responsible for monitoring.

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hiring labour for monitoring

Hiring labour for maintenance Hiring labour for W.pump & enegine operation Numbers of projects Figure 7: labour task of drip irrigation projects

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4.2.4 Drip irrigation trials in Umjawasir Two trials were conducted at Umjawasir project, to test the performance of the dripping system on Okra crop and to identify the initial cost for each trial and to get and overview for the cost, in addition to identify the advantages and disadvantages of the dripping system. Table 11: Initial cost for the two drip irrigation trial for 250 m 2 each Items 1 st trial Prices (US$) 2 nd trial prices in (US$) Dripping Kits 249 0 Fuel 60 40

Labour 100 180 Seeds 2 2 Assistance 87 87 Fertilizers 0.5 0.5 Total 478.5 329.5 Dripping kits was bought from Khartoum market, the prices was high due to small quantity requested for the dripping kit. The same dripping kit of 1 st trial was used in 2 nd trial. Fuel cost was high in the 1 st trail due to pumping water directly into the dripping system; where in the 2 nd trial irrigation was done from a water tank Labour cost in the 2 nd trial was high due to mobilizing the equipment from the 1 st trial site to the 2 nd trial site, in addition to establishing the fence around the second trial beside the reinstallation

of the system.

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A comparison was made between the two trials to identify the major differences between the two dripping system. Table 12 summarizes the differences. Table 12: comparison between the two drip irrigation trials at Umjawasir 1 st trial 2 nd trial Crop Name Okra Okra Total area 250 m 2 250 m 2 Fertilizers application 750 gram Urea 1500 gram urea Amount of seed sown 0.22 kg 0.30 kg Number of Nozzles 520 520 Plant spacing 50 cm X 80 cm 50 cm X 80 cm Irrigation time 45-90 minutes/ irrigation 30-45 minutes/irrigation Irrigation schedule daily daily Amount of water 750-900 litre per irrigation 500-750 litre per irrigation Duration of the trial 3 weeks 9 weeks

Seeds germination After 5 days from the first After 8 days from the first irrigation irrigation Growth percentages 85 % 80 % Amount of fuel 3 litre per irrigation 0.5 litre per irrigation Methods of water delivery Water pump Water tank The major different was the growth percentages in the 1 st trial was 85 %, while in the second trial it was 80 %. The factor that determines the growth rate was the water application, as well as the pest that attacked the plants. Amount of fuel in the 2 nd trial was less due to the use of water tank, while it is high in the 1 st trial due to the use of water pump directly to pump water in the system.

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4.2.5 Lessons learned from drip irrigation trials Drip irrigation trials showed that good water management reduces the running cost. Fertilizers were applied in small quantity to individual plant which reduces part of the operational cost. In drip irrigation fertilizers are placed after making small hole below the plant, whereby in canal irrigation fertilizers were broadcast in the whole area. Irrigation directly from water pump is risky in case of pump break. Nozzles need daily maintenance such as adjustment and cleaning from

rust and mud. Several dust storms occurred without affecting the performance of the drip irrigation. The nozzles covered by sand remained working. Continues irrigation creates a suitable environment for pest. In semi arid areas where the temperature is high, insects seek for a moisture habitat to survive. A fence is essential for stopping animals from attacking the dripping site and causing damages to the tubes and nozzles.

Figure a: 2 nd drip irrigation trial installation st drip irrigation trial Figure 8: The two drip irrigation trials at Umjawasir project in figure (a) and (b) Figure b: 1

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Figure 9: Okra germination in the 2 nd drip irrigation trial Photo by: Jens B. Aune.

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4.2.6 Economics of drip and canal irrigation Based on the data collected from the market, prices for dripping kit, depends on quality and country of origin. All the dripping kit was imported from different countries.

Table 13 review the investment cost for drip and canal irrigation system for North Sudan. Table 13: Investment cost of 1ha of date palm in drip and canal irrigation Canal irrigation Drip irrigation Item Quantity Cost /US$ Quantity Cost /US$ Drip irrigation kit 0 0

kits and installation 8,000 Water tank 0 Canal establishment & maintenance Main canal and sub main ( manually ) 200 0 0 0 10,000 litre water tank 1,000

Seedling 144seedlingX US$ 10 1,440 144seedling X US$ 10 1,440 Tillage Animal traction 25 By tractor 46

Fuel ( diesel) 48 lit X 24 irrig. X US$ 0.32 369 7.35literXUS$0.32 X121 days ( irrigation every 3

days) 285 Spare parts& maintenance Fuel and oil filter etc. nozzles, tube, connectors 120 Fertilizers Urea+ organic fertilizer Pesticides 25 25 10 10kg of urea X0.42 $ 4 22 Fuel and oil filter. .etc. +

Labour prices of hiring labour at Umjawasir 75 1 labour X US$ 4.29 X 183day 875 transportation every 90 kg will be transported by US$ 2.14 172 every 90 kg will be transported by US$ 2.14 274 Total Investment Cost 2,338 12,069

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The dripping kit cost established for 1ha of date palms, which costs US$ 8,000 including nozzles, tubes, connectorsetc, as well as system installation. Water tank is important for drip irrigation. A water tank reduces working hours of a water pump, as well as securing water in case of pump break. Price of water tank depends on quality, and dimension. A metal tank costs US$ 1,000 for a tank size 10,000 litres. In order to fill the water tank there is a need of 7.35 litre of diesel. This amount of water can sustain for three days. This corresponds to the diesel cost of US$ 285/yr.

In canal irrigation spare parts are needed for the turbine pump and a diesel engine, which requires maintenance and overhauling. In drip irrigation spare parts are needed for drip kit as well as a water pump and an engine. Labour in drip irrigation should be skilled and familiar of maintenance and operation, while farmers in canal irrigation are hiring labourers for their physical capabilities to execute canal maintenance. 4.2.7 Date palm life cycle Date palm selected in this study for its accordance with the social and economical value to the Northern communities. Date palm is the main tree that grown in the northern part of the country. In focus group discussion farmers describe how much date produces in several years under canal irrigation. In table 14, two stages are described by farmers in canal irrigation. Farmers argue that there are different date palm varieties that differ in the amount of production. The varieties of date palm in this study were considered as the improved variety.

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Table 14: Production of date palm in canal irrigation Life cycle Income status/ 1ha Year 0 to year 4 Zero income Year 5 to year 30 Income increases from 11kg/tree to 25 kg/tree The first stage is from year 0 to year 4 where there is no production from dates. The second stage is from year 5 to year 30 where farmers identified that the production of 1 ha is between 1500 kg as minimum to 3500 kg as maximum for the improved variety. Table 15: date palm production in drip irrigation Drip irrigation Income status/ha Sources Year 0 to year 4 Zero income Year 5 to year 30 Income increases from 14 kg/tree to 42 kg/tree. Zaid and Botes (1999) All drip irrigation projects included in this study did not start to produce date fruits. The assumption was made for date palm production under drip irrigation, to be more than the production of the date palm in canal irrigation. Several authors indicated that the production of crops/trees in drip irrigation increases from 30100 %. (ELawadi 1999; Suryawanshi 1995). Zaid and Botes (1999) calculated the cash flow for 5ha of date plantation, that the date palm produces 50kg/palm.

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4.2.8 Future benefits

The Net Present Value (NPV) for 10 % SDR, for date palm in drip irrigation resulted in US$ 7,140. This showed a negative return for date palm under drip irrigation, (Table 16). The high initial and running cost leads to a negative value of NPV beside other factors. The IRR was found to be 6 % (NPV=0). The production assumption in drip irrigation is between 2,000 to 6,000 kg/yr for prices of US$ 1/ kg, while in canal irrigation is 1,500 to 3,500 kg/ha/yr for the same price. In canal irrigation the NPV for 10 % SDR, resulted in US$ 4,168, (Table 17) while the IRR was 16 %. In canal irrigation the IRR is higher than the interest rate which is 10 %. This indicated that project is economically feasible. The history of date palm cultivation in Northern region sustained more than 3,000 years under canal (traditional) irrigation. If investment on canal irrigation was not profitable it would had not sustain for that long time. The investment in drip irrigation that correspond to an interest rate of % 16 as in canal irrigation, was calculated by US$ 4,214 by using goal seek function in the Excel program. A % 65 decrease in drip irrigation investment will make drip irrigation equally profitable as canal irrigation. Date palm under drip irrigation is assumed to be more productive than in canal irrigation. The reasons are; irrigation was directed to the root zone of individual plant, also the agricultural practices was done properly due to the skilled labour.

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Table 16: Sensitivity analysis for date palm production in drip irrigation Drip irrigation Year Production kg/ha

Income US$ Investment cost US$ Net income US$ 0 0 0 12069 -12069 1 0 0 1583 -1583 2 0 0 1583 -1583 3 0 0 1583 -1583 4 0 0 1583 -1583 5 2000 2000 1583 417 6 2000 2000 1800 200 7 2000 2000 1583 417 8 2000 2000 1583 417 9 2000 2000 1583 417 10 2000 2000 1583 417 11 3000 3000 1583 1417 12 3000 3000 1583 1417 13 3000 3000 1583 1417 14 3000 3000 1800 1200 15 4000 4000 1583 2417 16 4000 4000 1583 2417 17 4000 4000 1583 2417 18 4000 4000 1583 2417 19 4000 4000 1583 2417 20 5000 5000 1583 3417

21 5000 5000 1800 3200 22 5000 5000 1583 3417 23 5000 5000 1583 3417 24 5000 5000 1583 3417 25 6000 6000 1583 4417 26 6000 6000 1583 4417 27 6000 6000 1583 4417 28 6000 6000 1800 4200 29 6000 6000 1583 4417 30 6000 6000 1583 4417 NPV for 10 % SDR -$7,140.88 IRR 6%

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Table 17: Sensitivity analysis for date palm production in canal irrigation Canal irrigation Year Production kg/ha Income US$ Investment cost US$ Net income US$ 0 0 0 2338 -2338

1 0 0 638 -638 2 0 0 638 -638 3 0 0 638 -638 4 0 0 638 -638 5 1500 1500 638 862 6 1500 1500 700 800 7 1500 1500 638 862 8 1500 1500 638 862 9 1500 1500 638 862 10 2000 2000 638 1362 11 2000 2000 638 1362 12 2000 2000 638 1362 13 2000 2000 638 1362 14 2000 2000 700 1300 15 2500 2500 638 1862 16 2500 2500 638 1862 17 2500 2500 638 1862 18 2500 2500 638 1862 19 2500 2500 638 1862 20 3000 3000 638 2362 21 3000 3000 700 2300 22 3000 3000 638 2362 23 3000 3000 638 2362 24 3000 3000 638 2362 25 3500 3500 638 2862

26 3500 3500 638 2862 27 3500 3500 638 2862 28 3500 3500 700 2800 29 3500 3500 638 2862 30 3500 3500 638 2862 NPV for 10 % SDR $ 4,168.49 IRR 16%

43

Figure 10: date palm fruits Photo by: Jens B. Aune 4.2.9 Date palm net income The investment cost of drip is US$ 12,069. In year 5 the net income is US$ 417 exceeds the operational cost. Drip irrigation gain more income as time goes on. In canal irrigation, the net income starts to exceed the operational cost at year 5, where the net income is US$ 862. Canal irrigation net income is higher in year 5 due to the high investment (operational) cost for drip irrigation.

44

-14000 -12000 -10000

-8000 -6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 Year Income in US$ net income US$ for drip net income US$ for canal Figure 11: Net income for 1ha of date fruits in drip and canal irrigation in 30 year In canal irrigation the net income is between US$862 in year 5 to US$2,862 in year 30, while in drip irrigation is US$417 in year 5 to US$ 4,417. This net income depends on the prices of the date fruits, which varies from variety to another. From Figure 11 despite the high production per kg for drip irrigation between years 5 to 13 the net income for drip irrigation did not exceed the investment cost. This is due to the high operational cost in this year which did not contest with the production.

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4.3 ECONOMICAL SUSTAINABILITY OF DRIP IRRIGATION It is important to asses the economical sustainability of the canal and drip irrigation. The age of

the canal irrigation specifically for the date palm is more than 3,000 years, while drip irrigation started in Sudan 5-6 years ago. Date palm under drip irrigation produces after 5 years with an operational cost of US$ 1,583/yr, while in canal it is US$638/year. (Table18).

With the current investment cost, date palm under drip irrigation would secure the future benefit if the production increases more than 6,000 kg/ yr/ha. If the social discount rate is decreased then the future benefit would be secured for the date palm investment under drip irrigation. Table 18: Economical comparison between drip and canal irrigation Economical characteristic Drip irrigation Canal irrigation Investment cost US$12,069 US$2,338 Maximum annual income US$6,000 US$3,500 US$417 US$ 862

Minimum positive annual income NPV (10 % SDR) US$- 7,140 US$4,168 IRR % 6 16 US$ 215 US$62 US$1,583 US$638

Maintenance cost Operational cost

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4.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN DRIP AND CANAL IRRIGATION Different aspects need to be discussed when comparing drip with canal irrigation. The comparison was made in table 19 for showing the context and the feasibilities of each irrigation systems.

Table 19: Comparison between drip irrigation and canal irrigation Drip irrigation Canal irrigation Amount of water use Less water More water Types of crop Limited All crops and trees Investment cost High Low Labour use Less labour More labour Labour payment high Medium or low Income high Medium or Low Spare parts use More use Less use Effects on human health No or limited Negative effects Land pattern No limitation Very limited Irrigation equipment sophisticated Simple Intercropping Very limited Highly possible Weather effects No effects e.g. dust storm Highly sensitive Fuel and energy Less need High need fertilizers Less used More used pesticides Less used More used affordability Companies Individuals The comparison was made in order to identify the advantages and disadvantages for each system. This comparison may not be valid for all kind of environmental and socio economic context. There are different factors determining the affordability of each system e.g. financial capability

47

and the environmental conditions of each system.

The comparison is based on a holistic analysis of the two systems in Northern Sudan. Three major areas are the focus of the comparison, the agricultural practices, economical benefit and environmental effects. The major advantages of drip irrigation are less fuel and water use. In canal irrigation more fuel and water is used. Cultivation in drip irrigation, require less fertilizer compare to cultivation in canal irrigation. In drip irrigation fertilizers are placed by making a small hole under the plant and placed the fertilizers. Whereby in canal irrigation fertilizers are broadcast in the whole unit and this need more fertilizers. The main disadvantages for drip irrigation are the limited possibilities for intercropping, in addition, the highly sophisticated system that needs specific training for installation and maintenance. In canal irrigation the main disadvantages are the negative impact on human and animals health, along with low income gained compared to drip irrigation.

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4.5 DRIP IRRIGATION TRENDS The availability of water, from different sources, as well as the big schemes in the country irrigated by canals, shows that the government does not intend to expand in agriculture by utilizing drip irrigation. New drip irrigation projects require individual efforts. More time is needed before drip irrigation become recognized by the government and other public sectors. Drip irrigation projects in this study, imported the dripping kit from other countries. By importing the dripping kit, the initial cost became high due to tax, transportation and installation costs. Drip irrigation requires less labour but has high payment, compared to canal irrigation.

In canal irrigation, farmers maintain the canals through assistance from their family, but in many cases hired labour is needed for heavy works. More labours are engaged in canal works, even farmers them selves work as labours in other farms in anticipation of harvesting their crops, while drip irrigation require skilled labour. All the drip irrigation projects mentioned in this study were located in desert areas. The effects of drip irrigation are being localized to reduce the alarming rate of dust storm. Creating a tree habitat in the desert is an advantage to the project, whereas it reduces the wind velocity that carries the sand particles. Growing of date palm trees in these projects is very important as date palm is originally grown in the desert area. For the companies and NGOs in Northern Sudan, the genuine investment is not the drip projects, but it is the projects that are protected by the dripping system e.g. oil pipeline, highway road, or agricultural scheme. The actual benefit for these companies and NGOs is from the protected investment, not from the dripping projects.

49

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION Sudan has rich underground water resources that secure water for the coming generations. A sustainable use of the underground water is needed. Drip irrigation has the ability to minimize the water use for irrigation and increase the productivity. Date palm in traditional irrigation plays an essential role in the economy of the Northern state. Different crops and vegetables can be intercropped with date palm in canal irrigation, with limited probability in drip irrigation. Tomato, okra, and alfalfa have the higher income when it is intercropped with date palm in canal irrigation.

Prices of drip equipment are high as the equipments are being imported from other countries. Drip irrigation would not be achievable by small farmers in Northern Sudan, unless the dripping equipment price is decreased to be affordable by every one, through reduction in tax, fees, and transportation cost. The NPV for date palm in drip irrigation was negative. Several scenarios can make the future benefit positive for example (a) The productivity of date palm should increase more than 6,000 kg/ha (42 kg/ palm), with the annual production increment more than 10 % then the future benefit would be achievable, (b) reduction in the dripping equipments prices to be affordable. Drip irrigation in Northern Sudan needs in depth socio-economic, agronomic and environmental studies. Farmers in North Sudan adopted the concepts of traditional irrigation centuries ago. The socio-economic studies should show how people would accept the drip irrigation in their context.

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REFERENCES Abdel Rahman, H.A. (1990). Nile water resources of the Sudan: present and future utilization. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 21 (1). Ayars, J. E., Phene, C. J., Hutmacher, R. B., Davis, K. R., Schoneman, R. A., vail, S. S. & Mead, R. M. (1999). Subsurface drip irrigation of row crops: a review of 15 years of research at the water management research laboratory. Agricultural water management, 42: 1-27. Ayoub, A.T., (1997) Extent Severity and Causative factors of Land Degradation in the Sudan. Journal of Arid Environments 1998, 38: 397-409. Barth, H. K. (1995) Resources Conservation and Preservation through a new subsurface irrigation system. Micro irrigation for a Changing World: Conserving Resources/ Preserving the Environment, Orlando, Florida. American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

Botes, A. & Zaid, A. (1999). The economic important of date production and international trade. In Zaid, A. (ed.) FAO plant production and protection paper, vol. 165 Date palm production. Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Bressan, T. (1995). Microirrigation for small and irregular landscape areas. In Lamm, F. R. (ed.) Microirrigation for a changing world: Conserving Resources/ Preserving the Environment Orlando, American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Bryman, A. (2001). Social Research Methods. New York, Oxford University Press.

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Camciuc, M., deplagne, M., Vilarem, G. & Gaset, A. (1996). Okra- Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Moench) a crop with economical potential for set aside acreage in France. Industrial Crop and Productions (7): 257-264. Cetin, B., Yazgan, S. & Tipi, T., (2004). Economics of drip irrigation of olives in Turkey. Agricultural water management, 66: 145-151. Chigerwe, J., Manjengwa, N., Zaage, p. V., zhkata, W. & Rockstrom, J. (2004). Low head drip irrigation kits and treadle pumps for smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe: a technical evaluation based on laboratory tests. Physical and chemistry of the earth, 29: 1049-1059. Davies, F. S. (1995). Microsprinkler Irrigation for Freezing Protection of young citrus trees. In Lamm, F. R. (ed.) Microirrigation for a Changing World: Conserving Resources/Preserving the Environment. Orlando, American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Dhuyvette, K. C., Lamm, F. R. & Rogers, D. H. (1995). Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) for field Corn an economic analysis. In Lamm, F. R. (ed.) Microirrigation for a Changing World: Conserving Resources/ Preserving the Environment. Orland, American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

ELawadi, M. N. (1999). Drip irrigation net work engineering design ( in Arabic). Khartoum, Arab Organization for Agricultural Development. 47-83 Evett, S. R., Howell, T. A. & Schneider, A. (1995). Energy and water balances for surface and subsurface drip irrigated corn. In Lamm, F. R. (ed.) Microirrigation for a Changing World: Conserving Resources/Preserving the Environment. Orlando, American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

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Farah, E.A, Abdullatif, O. M., Kheir ,O.M & Barazi, N. (1997a). Groundwater resources in semiarid area: a case study from central Sudan. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 25 (3): 453466. Farah, S.M., Salih, A. A., Taha, A.M., Ali, Z.I., & Ali, I.A., (1997b). Grain Sorghum response to supplementary irrigation under post- rain season condition. Agricultural water management, 33: 31-41. Ghezae, N. (1998). Irrigation water management performance study of Rahad Scheme in Sudan, 1977-1996. Uppsala, Sweden, Uppsala University Library. Guvele, C. A. & Featherstone, A. M. (2001). Dynamics of irrigation water In Sudan Gezira scheme. Water Policy, 3: 363-386. Hanson, B. R. & May, D. M. (2006). Crop coefficients for drip-irrigated processing tomato. Agricultural water management, 81: 381-399. Hanson, B. R., Schwankl, L. J., Schulbach, K. F. & Pettygrove, G. S. (1997). A comparison of furrow, surface drip, and subsurface drip irrigation on Lettuce yield and applied water. Agricultural water management, 33: 139-157. Hanson, B. R., (1995) Drip irrigation of row crops: An overview. In Lamm, F. R. (ed.) Microirrigation for a Changing World: Conserving Resources/Preserving the Environment.

Orlando, American Society of Agricultural Engineers. http://www.theodora.com/maps/new9/sudan_political_map.gif - accessed on 21.4.2006

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Jobin, W. (1999). Dams and Disease: Ecological design and health impacts of large dams, canals and irrigation systems. London, E&FN Spon. Larsen, K. & Johansen, F. H. (2001). The Um Jawasir project, Sudan: Irrigated Agriculture and Repatriation of Displaced Nomads. In Haug, R. & Turlings, J. (eds.) Successes in Rural Development. s, Noragric, Agricultural university of Norway. Liebenberg, P. J. & Zaid, A. (1999). Date Palm Irrigation. In Zaid, A. (ed.) FAO plant production and protection paper, vol. 165 Date palm production. Rome, FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Merry, D. J. (1997). Expanding the Frontiers of Irrigation Management Research. Results of research and developemt at the international management institute 1984-1995. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Mustafa, M. M. (2003). Assessment and Evaluation of Umjawasir Project. Khartoum, ADRA/SUDAN in Collaboration with the Administration for land use and Desertification Control and Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Oktem, A., Simsek, M. & Oktem, A. G. (2003). Deficit irrigation effects on sweet corn( Zea mayssaccharata Sturt) with drip irrigation system in a semi-arid region I. Water-yield relationship. Agricultural water management, 61: 63-74. Pearce, D. W. & Turner, R. K. (1990). Economic of Natural Resources and the Environment. England, Harvester Wheatsheaf.

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Phene, C. J. (1995a). Research Trend in Microirrigation. In Lamm, F. R. (ed.) Microirrigation for a Changing World: Conserving Resources/Preserving the Environment. Orlando, American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Phene, C. J. (1995b). The Sustainability and potential of subsurface drip irrigation. In Lamm, F. R. (ed.) Microirrigation for a Changing World: Conserving Resources/ preserving the Environment. Orlando, American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Postel, S. (1999). Pillar of Sand- can the irrigation miracle last? New York. Postel, S, Polak, P., Gonzales, F., & Keller, J. (2001). Drip irrigation for Small Farmers. A new Initiative to Alleviate Hunger and Poverty. Water international- international water resources association, 26 (No.1): 3-13. Rajput, T.B.S, Patel, N. (2006). Water and Nitrate Movement in Drip-Irrigated Onion under Fertigation and Irrigation Treatments. Agricultural water management, 79: 293-311. Reyad, S. E., Dawood, D. H. & Ibrahim, B. h. H. (1997). Analytical study. Agricultural system on date palm Zone, and evaluation of the socio-economic deviation, technical problems that are facing the date palm sector in the Republic of Sudan (the report in Arabic language), The arab centre for the studies of arid zones and dry lands. Agricultural Research Institute, wad Madani, Sudan. Sahin, U., Anapali, O., Domez, M.F., Sahin, F. (2005). Biological treatment of clogged emitters in drip irrigation system. Journal of Environmental management, 79: 338-341. Sezen, S. M., Yazar, A., Eker, S., (2006). Effect of drip irrigation regimes on Yield and quality of filed grown bell pepper. Agricultural water management, 81: 115-131.

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Sezen, S. M., Yazar, A., Canbolat, M., Eker, S., & Celikel, G., (2005). Effect of drip irrigation management on yield and quality of field grown green beans. Agricultural water management, 71: 243-255. Srivastava, R.C, Upadhayaya, A. (1998). Study on feasibility of drip irrigation in shallow ground water zones of eastern India. Agricultural water management, 36: 71- 83. Sirvastava, R.C, Verma, H. C., Mohanty, S. & Pattnaik, S.K., (2003). Investment decision model for drip irrigation system. Irrigation Science, 22 ( 2): 79-85. Skaggs, R. K. (2001). Predicting drip irrigation use and adoption in a desert region. Agricultural water management, 51: 125-142. Smith, S. W. (1997). Land Escape Irrigation. Design and Management. Fort Collins, Colorado, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Suryawanshi, S. K. (1995). Success of drip in India: An example to the third world. Microirrigation for a Changing World: Conservation Resources/ Preserving the Environment, Orlando, Florida. American society of Agricultural Engineers. Wang, F.-x., Kang, Y. & Liu, S.-P. (2006). Effects of drip irrigation frequency on soil wetting pattern and potato growth in North China Plain. Agricultural water management, 79: 248264. Zaid, A. (ed.) (1999). Date palm cultivation. FAO plant production and protection paper, vol. 156. Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. 287 p.

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Zaid, A. & De Wet, P. F., (1999). Botanical and systematic description of the date palm. In Zaid, A. (ed.) FAO plant production and protection paper, vol. 165 Date palm production.

Rome, FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.

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APPENDIXES Appendix 1: Agricultural inputs prices for canal and dripping kits Canal irrigation Drip irrigation Item Quantity Cost/ Dinar Quantity Cost/ Dinar In put: Drip irrigation kit

Canal establishment & maintenance

Land preparation Fuel Oil Spare parts Fertilizers Pesticides Labour transportation

Others Total

Out put: Yield/ kg Total Net benefit Appendix 2: Vegetable prices at Khartoum markets Month June prices July prices August prices September prices October prices November prices December prices Crop Okra Tomato

Onion Cucumber Egg plant Potato

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Appendix 3: Questionnaire for farmers using drip irrigation State_____________________________________ date___________________

Town______________________________ time___________________ Village__________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 1. Personal data a. Name? ___________________________________ b. Age? ___________________ c. Material status? _____________________________ d. No of children? _________ _______________________________________________________________________ 1. How many feddan do you grow under drip irrigation? 0.0-0.5 0.5-1.0 1.0-2.0 2.0- or more

2. What type of crops do you grow under drip irrigation? And why? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 3. How many Kg/tone do you produce under drip irrigation? ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 4. What other crop do you grow under canal irrigation? And why? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 5. Do you grow other crop because of drip irrigation? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 6. How is the quality affected by drip irrigation? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

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7. What is the labour use in drip irrigation as compare to canal irrigation? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

8. How many Kg/Tone do you produce under canal irrigation? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 9. Since when you started drip irrigation? 0.5- 1.0 year 2 years 3years 4and more

10. How did you finance to purchase the dripping irrigation? Through loan saving others___________________

11. How much did it cost you? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 12. Did you make any maintenance before? if yes a. What type of maintenance? b. How much did it cost you? 13. from where you get the dripping kits? Market import other_______________________

14. Why did you choose drip irrigation? Economical reasons social reasons others_______________

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15. Which one is more productive, drip or canal irrigation? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 16. What is the weakness of drip irrigation? High cost of maintenance short life less efficient Others__________________________ 17. What are the advantages of drip irrigation? Is it cheap? More efficient than canal irrigation Save time Less labour More productive Or other reasons 18. What is the yield increase with drip irrigation for different crops. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

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Appendix 4: Questionnaire for farmers using Canal irrigation

State_____________________________________

date___________________

Town______________________________ time___________________ Village__________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 1. Personal data a. Name? ___________________________________ b. Age? ___________________ c. Material status? _____________________________ d. No of children? _________ _______________________________________________________________________ 1. How many feddan do you grow under canal irrigation? 0.0-0.5 0.5-1.0 1.0-2.0 2.0- or more

2. What type of crops do you grow under canal irrigation? and why? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 3. How many Kg/Tone do you produce? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 4. Do you grow other crop because of canal irrigation? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

5. How is the quality affected by canal irrigation? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

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6. What is the labour use in canal irrigation? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ 7. since when you started canal irrigation? 0.5- 1.0 year 2 years 3years 4and more

8. How often do you make maintenance to the canal? Every week every 2 week every month every 2 month

9. Why did you choose to irrigation by canal and not drip irrigation? Economical reasons social reasons others_______________ 10. What is the weakness of canal irrigation? High cost of maintenance short life less efficient Others__________________________

11. What are the advantages of canal irrigation?

Is it cheap? More efficient than Save time Less labour More productive Or other reasons 12. What is the yield increase with canal irrigation for different crops?. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

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Appendix 5: Form for data collection in the experimental area Date Type of Crop Date of Irrigation Amount of water / m 3 Urea/ Kg Growth rate Fuel/ litre Yield / kg Remarks

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Appendix 6: General observation guide line

1. Area irrigated by canal irrigation/ drip irrigation. 2. Crop grown. 3. Size of the farm. 4. Problems of the cemented canal/ drip irrigation. 5. Problems of the traditional canal.

6. Maintenance of the canal/ maintenance of the drip irrigation. 7. Labour performance maintenance for canal/drip 8. Time of canal maintenance/ drip maintenance. 9. advantages of canal/drip irrigation

Appendix 7: Focus group discussion 1. Types of canal used. 2. What is the cost of building the canals/meter? 3. How often do you make maintenance for the canal? 4. What is the cost of maintenance? 5. How many types of crop do you grow? 6. How often do you use labour? 7. How often do you maintain the canal? 8. Can you tell the production cost of okra? 9. What are the weaknesses of the canal? 10. What are the advantages of the canal? 11. Do you have specific suggestion to improve the canal performance? 12. What is the role of the local institutions towards the canal establishment and maintenances? 13. Do you receive advises from the project administration for canal management. 65

Appendix 9: vegetable prices in US$/ week in Khartoum market Week# 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Okra 1.72 2.36 1.72 1.72 1.72 1.93 1.93 1.72 1.93 1.93 1.93 1.29 1.29 0.86 0.86 0.64 1.50 1.29 1.29 1.07

Tomato 1.72 2.58 3.43 3.00 2.36 2.58 1.93 1.50 0.86 0.86 0.64 0.54 0.43 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.86 0.86 0.64 Cucumber 0.43 0.86 0.86 0.64 0.64 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 Egg plant 2.15 1.50 1.50 1.29 1.07 0.86 0.43 0.43 0.86 1.29 1.29 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 Potato 0.86 0.86 1.07 0.86 0.86 1.07 1.07 1.29 1.07 1.29 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.29 1.29 1.29 1.29 1.29 Carrot 2.15 1.29 1.50 1.29 1.50 0.86 1.29 1.29 1.29 1.29 1.07 0.64 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 Appendix 10: FAOSTAT data base for date palm in Sudan Year 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Yield/ha 60227 59783 61053 60000 60000 60185 59130 59829 60150 60000 60703 58025 71416 71875 78571

Year 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 Yeild/ha 87500 88333 91667 97656 100038 100194 86763 85926 88462 85926 88889 89286 89286 86667

Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Yeild/ha 87500 86061 76923 78857 88889 93056 100000 109890 92166 94949 94286 94286 94286 94286 94286 INTRODUCTION; By the year 2020, Israel's population is expected to grow by 42 percent, to 8.5 million. This will cause huge increases in demand for agricultural produce and products; but urban use of land and water will also increase enormously.

In 2020 only half the amount of fresh water allocated to agriculture today (around 700 million cubic meters a year) will be available for this purpose and the amount of suitable land available for farming (360,000 hectares) will be 18 percent less than at present. Part of the increased demand - notably for field crops (such as cereals, oilseeds and sugar) and for milk products, fish and beef - will have to be met by increased imports. Nevertheless a substantial part of that growing demand will have to come from increased domestic production. Sweeping changes will be required, such as a 33% increase in the labor force and a reduction in irrigated field crops, such as grapes, to make water available for growing fruit and vegetables for the local market. The above is based on a study by the Ministry of Agriculture, which forecasts that despite its handicaps Israel will be able, by 2020, to increase production of agricultural goods by 48 percent over 1993 figures, averaging a growth of 1.5 percent per annum in real terms. This is certainly consistent with recent developments. Except for a brief period of uneven growth in the second half of the 1980s, agricultural output has grown consistently since 1948. Despite the decline in its importance relative to other economic branches, agriculture has been growing in absolute terms and still plays an important part in Israel's economy, representing today some 2.0 percent of the Gross Domestic Product and about 3.5 percent of exports. Agricultural inputs produced in Israel are valued today at over $2 billion, of which 70% are exported. Agriculture is of major national importance; in certain areas, such as the Arava and the Jordan Valley, it provides the sole means of livelihood for the population. In 1996 approximately 73,500 people were involved in farming, constituting about 3.0 percent of the country's workforce. In monetary terms, Israel produces almost 70% of all its food requirements. It imports much of its grain, oilseeds, meat and fish, and its the sugar, coffee and cocoa. However, these imports are offset by exports of agricultural produce valued at around $800 million and $600 million worth of processed foods per annum. Today, just under a quarter of the income of Israel's farmers derives from the export of fresh produce, including items such as flowers, avocados, out-of-season vegetables and certain exotic fruits grown for export. In 1996 some 140,000 tons of fruit and vegetables - 14 percent of the entire crop - were sold to factories for processing and export. This is a far cry from the situation a century ago. When Jews began resettling their historic homeland in the late 19th century, their first efforts were directed towards reclaiming the mostly semiarid land, much of which was rendered untellable by deforestation, soil erosion and neglect. Rocky field were cleared and terraces built in the hilly regions; swampland was drained and systematic reforestation begun; soil erosion was counteracted, and salty land washed to reduce soil salinity. Since Israel attained its independence in 1948, the total area under cultivation has increased from 165,000 ha. To some 435,000 ha. And the number of agricultural communities has grown from 400

to 900 (including 136 Arab villages). During the same period, agricultural production has expanded 16fold, more than three times the rate of the population growth. Israel's varied climatic, topographical and soil conditions (from sub-tropical to arid, from 400 meters below sea level to 1000 meters above and from sand dunes to heavy alluvial soils) made it possible to grow a wide range of agricultural produce. The success of the country's agriculture stems from the determination and ingenuity of farmers and scientists who have dedicated themselves to developing a flourishing agriculture in a country which is more than half desert, thus demonstrating that the real value of land is a function of how it is used. Irrigation Near the Desert Plant Research Station of Ben-Gurion University in Be'er Sheva is a farm cultivated over 2,000 years ago by the earliest desert farmers, the Nabateans. Their agricultural methods were astonishingly sophisticated. By building terraces and clearing the soil of stones, every drop of runoff water was collected and then diverted to the lower-lying fields and orchards. The methods have changed, but saving water and making optimal use of scarce land still characterizes agriculture in the region. Water saving has been the farmers' leitmotif since the State of Israel was founded in 1948. The country has ten major companies producing irrigation and filtration equipment, all internationally active. In no other field of agricultural technology has Israel so excelled. In terms of annual rainfall, 60% of the country may be defined as arid or semi-arid. Rain falls only between November and April, with uneven distribution of yearly precipitation, ranging from 28 inches (70 cm.) in the north to less than two inches (five cm.) in the south. Annual renewable water resources amount to some 1.6 billion cu.m., about 75 percent of which is used for agriculture. Of the latter, two thirds is potable - a share which is likely to decrease substantially in the coming years as more sewage treatment plants come on line. In the past 30 years agricultural output has increased almost fivefold* with hardly any increase in the amount of water used. This reflects technological advances of different types - water efficiency went up by about 30% and crops with higher yields and market-value were introduced. To reduce water consumption for agriculture, advanced water-saving techniques (notably the drip system) were applied, which direct the water flow straight to the root zone of plants. Also, computerized irrigation systems were used and greenhouse agriculture was significantly expanded. Israeli engineers and agriculturalists created the revolutionary drip irrigation system, which has reduced water consumption by 50-70 Percent compared with gravity irrigation, and by 10-20% compared to sprinkler irrigation. At present, scientists are testing the first generation of ultra-low application rate "minute irrigation" drip emitters for soil-less media in greenhouses, emitters with 100-200 cc/h flow rates. Considered even more advanced than the drip system, they will create optimal air-water relationships in the plants' root zone and, being more efficient, save yet more water. Micro-spraying and micro-sprinkling irrigation

accessories have also been developed, mainly for use in orchards, where each tree is irrigated by its individual sprayer. To overcome regional imbalances in water availability, most of the country's freshwater sources have been joined in the National Water Carrier, an integrated network of pumping stations, reservoirs, canals and pipelines which transfers water from the north, where most of the sources are, to the agricultural areas of the semi-arid south. As a result, the amount of irrigated farmland has increased from 30,000 ha. In 1948 to some 186,400 ha. Today.

OBJECTIVES: 1.