Chemistry unit 1: ELEMENT AND PERIODIC TABLE Families of elements Periods: o Horizontal rows of the periodic table (7 periods)

Groups/families: o o vertical columns of the periodic table Groups are assigned from 1-18 in the new system

o Elements in any group have similar physical and chemical properties

Alkali Metals: o GROUP 1

o

React violently with water to form an alkaline (basic) solution

o Soft, solids, most silver Alkaline Earth Metals: o GROUP 2 o Reactive, not as reactive as alkali metals o Soft metals like earth Halogens: o GROUP 17 o Very reactive o Need only one electron to fill the outer shell o May be solids, liquids, or gases Noble Gases: o GROUP 18 o Completely filled outer shells

o Non reactive/ stable Metals: o Elements that are usually solid and at room temperature Metalloids:
o

Elements that lie on a diagonal line between the metals and non-metals. Their chemical and physical properties are intermediate between the two

Non- Metals: o Elements in the upper right corner of the periodic table
o

Their chemical and physical properties are different from metals

Transition Metals: o Elements in GROUP 3-12 o Less reactive, harder metals, variable reactivity o Includes metals used for jewelry and construction

Lanthanides: o Includes elements with atomic numbers 57-70

Actinides: o Includes elements with atomic number 89-102

Transuranic elements: o Synthetic elements with atomic numbers 93 or greater

Representative elements: o Group 1, 2, 13, to 17 may be solids liquids or gases at SATP

 Calculate number of protons, neutrons, and electrons Atom: o The smallest particle of an element that has the properties of an element

Electron: o A negatively charged subatomic particle

Nucleus: o A small, positively charged centre of the atom

Proton: o Positively charged subatomic particle in the nucleus of an atom

Neutron: o An uncharged subatomic particle in the nucleus of an atom

Atomic Number: o The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom of that given element

Mass Number: o The sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom Particle
Mass Number Atomic Number

Location Nucleus Nucleus Orbits

Charge + +/-

zX Proton Neutron Electron

Mass (amu) 1.0073 1.0087 0.000548 6

Calculating number of neutrons in an atom: #of neutrons= Mass# - Atomic # Isotope: o Atom of the same element that has the same atomic number but different mass number (#of neutrons) Example: There are 3 isotopes of Hydrogen Hydrogen-H Deutirium- D
1 2

Tritiruim- T
1

H (0N) (2N)
1

H (1N)

Radioisotope: o Radioactive isotope of an element (gives off radiation)

Radioactive: o Something capable of spontaneously emitting radiation (particles) or gamma rays

Three types of radiation given off by radioisotopes:

Alpha particles Nuclei of the atoms relatively slow Positively charged

Beta Particles Electrons (fast moving, good penetration)

Gamma Rays High energy radiation Extremely fast Extremely good penetration

Calculate average atomic mass of an element from isotopic abundance The atomic mass of an element depends on the abundance of its isotopes. If you know the mass of the isotopes and the fractional abundance of the isotopes, you can calculate the element's atomic mass. The atomic mass is calculated by adding the mass of each isotope multiplied by its fractional abundance. For example, for an element with 2 isotopes: Formula: Atomic Mass = massa x %abundancea + massb x %abundanceb
Example:

Cl-35 mass is 34.968852 and % abundance is 0.7577 Cl-37 mass is 36.965303 and % abundance is 0.2423

Atomic mass = massa x %abundancea + massb x %abundanceb Atomic mass = 34.968852 x 0.7577 + 36.965303 x 0.2423 Atomic mass = 26.496 amu + 8.9566 amu Atomic mass = 35.45 amu

Predict trends in periodic table

Periodic Trends:

o Properties of elements show variation in groups and periods and these trends can be predicted with the help of the periodic table

Periodic Properties: o Atomic Radius o Ionic Radius o Ionization Energy o Electron affinity o Electronegativity

Atomic Radius:
o

An atom is a group of electrons in different orbitals/levels around a tiny central nucleus, forming a sort of electron cloud around the nucleus. The atomic radius is the approximate distance from the nucleus to the borders of this cloud.

o The atomic radius is one half of the distance between the nuclei of two atoms of the same element when the atoms are bonded

Trends in atomic radius: o Atomic radius increases from top to bottom within a group and decreases from left to right across a period
o

Atomic radius increases from top to bottom b/c more energy levels are added, which are further away from the nucleus, shielding outer electrons from positive nucleus

Ions: o Positive and negative ions form when electrons are transferred between atoms Some compounds are composed of particles called ions An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge

A cation is an ion with a positive charge An anion is an ion with a negative charge

*As an atom loses 1 or more electrons (becomes positive), it loses a layer therefore, its radius increases

Ionization Energy: o The ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove electrons from the atom (forming a +ion)
o o

Ionization energy is the energy in kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol) Na+ Energy Na+ (both sodium atom and sodium ion are in gaseous state)

Successive ionization energies: o The energy required to remove the first electron from an atom is called first ionization energy o The energy required to remove an electron from an ion with a 1+ charge is called second ionization energy o It becomes more difficult to remove successive electrons since the pull of the nucleus becomes stronger (greater number of protons relative to electrons) and the electrons are more tightly held

Trends in Ionization energy: Ionization energy tends to decrease from top to bottom within a group and increase from left to right across a period
o

Ionization energy decreases from top to bottom because there are more energy levels, electrons are further away, less attracted to the proton, more easily removed

Ionization energy increases from left to right because it becomes more difficult to remove electrons from atoms which have more protons attracting them

Electron Affinity: o Helps make negative ions Example : F+ e- F + energy o Easier to add electrons to smaller atoms and take away electrons from larger atoms

Electronegativity: (covalent bonding) o Ability of an atom to attract the shore of an electron pair o In a bonding situation it would show how powerful an atom is

Chemistry unit 2: CHEMICAL BONDING AND NOMENCLATURE Difference between different bond types: Polar covalent, nonpolar covalent, ionic, single, double, and triple Ionic bonding: o Force of attraction between metal and non metal ions The metal atom loses electron(s) to become a positive ion- cation The non metal atom gains electron(s) to become a negative ion- anion Both ions attain noble gas electron configuration (full valence electron- stable) Formation of Positive ions (Cation) General Equation: A = is a metal atom DIATOMIC GASES (HOFBrINC l) H2 O2 F2 Br2 I2 N2 Cl2

Formula:

A(g) + energy A+(g) + e(metal) + Ionizing Cation + electron energy

Ca + Energy Ca2+ +2e 1st/2nd ionizing energies Formation of Negative ions (anions) General Equation: B = is a non metal atom Formula: B(g) + e- B-(g) + energy (non-metal) + electron Anion + Electron Affinity Cl2(g) + 2e- 2Ca- +energy Properties of Ionic Compounds: Structure: o Three dimensional lattice structure called crystal lattice, strong electrostatic forces of attraction exist between ions (oppositely charged)

Boiling and Melting points: o High melting points due to the strongest forces of attraction between the particles Electrical Conductivity as solids: o Ions are help tightly, ions cannot be moved to conduct electricity o Ions cant be moved in a solid state Electrical conductivity as molten state: o Because of heat, ions begin to slide and are able to conduct electricity Electrical conductivity in aqueous state: o When ionic compounds are dissolved in water, the positive and negative ions dissociate, free flowing ions carry current Hardness:

o Because of tightly packed arrangement of oppositely charged ions o If strong force is applied to crystal then ions shift position and repulsive forces can cause crystal to become brittle Solubility: Mostly soluble in water due to forces of attraction between polar water and ions Polarity: Diagnostic test for an ionic compound: check if it dissolves and becomes an electrolyte Anything above and below any horizontal line segment of staircase is metalloid except Aluminum VSEPR Theory (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory): REMEMBER THE FOLLOWING RULES:

Electron pairs repel one another and molecules will adjust their shape so that the electron pairs are as far apart as possible **Electron pairs around the CENTRAL ATOM ONLY (both bonded and lone) influence the molecular shape! ** ** If its not near the central, its NOT counted!!!** Lone pairs and bonded repel each other and themselves SHAPES FOR VSEPR
Tetrahedral: 4 bond sites, 0 lone pairs, 109 degree angle,

i.e. CH4 --- = behind --- = sticking out each line in general though is a bond site

 Trigonal Pyramidal: 3 bs, 1 lp, 107 degree angle, i.e. NH3

..= lone pair

Bent: 2 bs, 2lp, 105 degree angle i.e. H2O

Linear: 2 bs 0 lp, 180 deg angle, i.e. NO2

**A

double bond, triple bond etc. is STILL ONLY ONE BOND SITE!!!**

Trigonal Planar: 3bs, 0 lp,120deg angle i.e.CO3

****: any diatomic molecules = linear ****: if more than one central atom, predict shape at each central atom SEPERATELY! POLAR BONDS: Using Electronegativity number and VSEPR theory, you can figure out if a molecule is polar covalent, non-polar covalent, or ionic. If the difference in Electronegativity is <0.4 (less than), it is non-polar covalent (if you already checked its covalent in the first place lol) Btwn 0.5 and 1.7 AND a VSEPR shape that causes the bond polarities to cancel out, its polar covalent. ** label the element that had the highest Electronegativity number with s- and label the lower one with s+ (meaning slightly negative/positive) and make little vector arrows on VSEPR shape pointing from s+ to s-. if they cancel, its polar. (***there are also specific guidelines on P.85 in txt which can be used INSTEAD of this method to determine if polar bonds) Any Electronegativity difference more than 1.7 and its ionic

 Write IUPAC names Nomenclature Naming Binary Molecular Compounds Molecular compounds are formed from the covalent bonding between nonmetallic elements. The nomenclature for these compounds is described in the following set of rules. The more positive atom is written first (the atom which is the furthest to the left and to the bottom of the periodic table) 1. The more negative second atom has an "-ide" ending. 2. Each prefix indicates the number of each atom present in the compound. Number Prefi Number Prefi of Atoms x of Atoms x 1 2 3 4 5
3. Examples:

mon o di tri tetra pent a

6 7 8 9 10

hexa hepta octa nona deca

CO2 = carbon dioxide P4S10 = tetraphosphorus decasulfide Naming Anions

1. Monatomic anions have the suffix "ide added to the stem of the non-

metal's name i.e., chloride (Cl-), sulfide (S2-), bromide (Br-), oxide (O2-), etc. Group 17 anions (of halogens) are called halides 2. Polyatomic anions most often contain oxygen and must be learned.

ate indicates the base number of oxygens (typically 3 but sulfate and phosphate have 4) CO32-, NO3-, PO43-, SO42-, ClO3-, BrO3-, IO3-, . carbonate, nitrate, phosphate, sulfate, chlorate, bromate, iodate

These can form a series,

ClO4- perchlorate ion per means one more O than "ate" ClO3- chlorate ion ClO2- chlorite means one less O than ate ClO- hypochlorite hypo means one less O than "ite"

Example: ClO4- to HClO4 => perchlorate to perchloric acid ClO- to HClO => hypochlorite to hypochlorous acid Write chemical formulas, including states for ionic and molecular compounds Reactions Synthesis: A + B C (like cooking, many ingredients but only one result) Decomposition: C A + B Single displacement: A + BC B + AC (the cations moves) Double displacement: AB + CD CB + AD (the cations moves) Complete combustion: A + O2 CO2 + H2O Incomplete combustion: A + O2 CO2 + H2O + CO + C Neutralisation acid + base salt + water (acids have H; bases have OH) No Reaction: A + B No Reaction (in certain cases, the cations may not be able to move; to find out when, observe the metal reactivity series)

Metals and alloys Metals Solids are malleable and ductile Conductors of heat + electricity High melting and boiling point As you go down a group, the elements become more metallic Alloys Combinations of 2 or more metals i.e. steel or brass Rarely found in nature because metals normally require some sort of man-made chemical reaction Draw Lewis structure for molecular compounds

**Lewis (electron dot) diagrams are used to show ionic bonding** *When drawing Lewis Dot Diagrams always start at the top and move in clockwise

Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry Chemical- a substance with a distinct molecular composition that is formed through a chemical reaction. How to justify a chemical reaction (colour change, odour, formation of gas or solid, heat) Use reaction type, and balance equation to determine the products of a chemical equation Determine states through solubility table

Ionic equations display charges of reactants Steps on balancing

chemical equations: Start by balancing metals, then balance non metals Use subscript to help with though equations Calculations: n=m/M

To calculate limiting reagent, find number of moles of reactants and then multiply by mole ratio If given is greater than required it is the excess reagent, if its less than its the limiting reagent The amount of product created from calculating limiting reagent is equal to the theoretical yield Actual yield will be given Solve using the formula: percentage yield=actual yield/theoretical yield x100 Empirical formula is the simplest way a reaction takes place Empirical formula reactions dont actually take place, molecular formulas are most accurate Eg. C2H2 C6H6