Building+Sustainability civil+Engineer+Approach

1
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
2 Generalities about Sustainability .................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Definition of sustainability...................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Sustainability science .............................................................................................................. 6
2.2.1 Climate ............................................................................................................................ 7
2.2.2 Biodiversity ..................................................................................................................... 9
2.2.3 Agriculture .................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.4 Energy and resources .................................................................................................... 12
2.2.5 Water ............................................................................................................................. 14
2.2.6 Economic development ................................................................................................. 16
2.2.7 Health ............................................................................................................................ 18
3 Certification Programs for the Evaluation of Building Sustainability .......................................... 20
3.1. German Sustainable Building Certificate (Deutsche Gtesiegel fr Nachhaltiges Bauen DGNB)
.......................................................................................................................................................... 20
3.1.1. General ................................................................................................................................ 20
3.1.2. Topics and criteria ............................................................................................................... 21
3.1.3. Evaluation ........................................................................................................................... 26
3.2. LEED 2009 for New Construction and Major Renovations ...................................................... 27
3.2.1. General ................................................................................................................................ 27
3.2.3. Evaluation ........................................................................................................................... 33
3.3. BREEAM for Offices 2008................................................................................................... 34
3.3.1. General ................................................................................................................................ 34
3.3.3. Evaluation ..................................................................................................................... 40
4 Authors Proposals for the Building Sustainability ...................................................................... 42
4.1. Global model ......................................................................................................................... 43
4.2. Specific model ...................................................................................................................... 49
Building Sustainability
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4.3. Application of the evaluation models ................................................................................... 52
4.3.1. Family Dwelling ........................................................................................................... 52
4.3.2. Strengthened element .................................................................................................... 56
5 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 58
6 References ..................................................................................................................................... 60

Civil Engineer Approach
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1 Introduction
The term sustainability is a very complex and ambiguous and in order to be approached
correctly by an engineer it has to be clear defined and measurable. For example if you tell metaphors
as the planet is suffering, it makes no sense to a scientist or engineer because planet cannot suffer in
any commonly understood sense of the word. Engineers need rational facts as they are considered
persons who solve problems, give solutions for the real problems. For this reason to enable solutions
in such complicated spaces engineers and their methodologies are rather quantitative.
In order to design efficient and advanced technological systems, products and services, good
engineers are needed. Furthermore, if these products and service are environmental friendly, with high
social performances in a globalizing economy, we can talk about sustainable engineering. As a system
becomes more complex, it undermines the stability of the cultural and institutional framework within
engineers and other operates. Thus, the modern engineer faces a world, where not only his/her task
becomes more complicated, but also the environment within which the engineers must practice.
From a conceptual point of view, sustainability has to be reformulated, from a mythic,
qualitative, highly normative construct, in a phrase that is culturally acceptable and useful for
applying quantitative in engineering disciplines.
The construction industry plays an important role in the social - economic development, but
has also a great impact on the local and global environment. It is a major consumer of land and raw
materials and generates a great amount of waste. Furthermore, constructions through their entire
lifecycle use significant amounts of nonrenewable energy and contribute to the emission of
greenhouse gases and other gaseous wastes.
According to some institutes, the building and construction industry uses 40% of the materials
entering the global economy, consumes approximately 50% of the total energy supply and contributes
with almost 50% to the total CO
2
emissions released to the atmosphere through different stages,
including construction, operation and demolition [11], [34].
Sustainable construction has recently been identified as one of the lead markets for the near
future of the whole world. It has the potential and the ability to respond to market needs, the strength
of the worlds industry and the necessity to support it through the implementation of public policy
measures.
A sustainable construction develops the idea of low embodied energy, reduced greenhouse
gas emissions, low operation and maintenance costs, responsibly sourced materials with recycled
contents, durability, adaptability and comfort. In many countries directives and certificates has still
been developed and adopted, which evaluate the environmental performances of buildings but also
consider other important issues of sustainability.

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The book is composed of six main chapters with the following content:
Chapter one represents the introduction part and presents the main subjects of the book.
In the second chapter the authors present a short theoretical part about sustainability in
general, followed by description of how sustainability can be applied in different fields of science.
Examples of domains and research fields where the issues of sustainability can be identified are
presented.
Chapter three deals with the presentation of some important Sustainable Building Certificates:
DGNB, LEED and BREEAM. Specific schemes of these certification tools are presented in detail and
evaluated based on some criteria.
In chapter four two evaluation models, proposed by the authors, are discussed. The first one is
a global model and the second one is a specific model. These models are finally applied on two
examples: a family dwelling and a strengthened element.
Chapter five presents the main ideas and conclusions which have been underlined.
The last chapter, chapter six, includes the references and the sources which have been used.

The main arguments which determined the authors to write this book are related to some
deficiencies of the existing certification tools like:
- The certificates are mainly qualitative, with few quantitative criteria, so the
evaluation of a building may be difficult and subjective;
- Some of the certificates do not include financial aspects in the evaluation framework,
although environmental issues and financial considerations should go hand in hand at a global
analyze;
- Many certification tools refer in an inadequate manner to the technical qualities, such
as structure safety, fire protection, etc., although the sustainability of a building is strong influenced
by the technical aspects;
- The environmental assessment tools are predominantly applicable to new
constructions although the strengthening of the structures and maintenance of existing building is also
important for a sustainable future [5], [31], [62].

The aim of the authors was to propose some evaluation models, with more quantitative
values, which can be applied to whole buildings and also to strengthening solutions. The models
should help civil engineers to take the right decision when choosing a solution.

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2 Generalities about Sustainability
2.1 Definition of sustainability
The word sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere and means the ability to
sustain, maintain or support something. The term has been used initially in context with the ability of
the ecosystem to maintain a level that is able to ensure the supply of food, forestry, fishery,
agriculture and other providential resources to the growing population. In this sense, sustainability is
linked to environment and ecology that provides us with food, land and other important products and
services.
The sense of sustainability has advanced over the centuries growing up to a trend of the
modern society. Sustainability or sustainable development becomes a complex idea that can neither be
unequivocally described nor simply applied (Martens P. 2006) [41].
There have been proposed many definitions for sustainability, but one of the most widely
accepted and most frequently quoted is the definition that came after the Brundtland Report by the
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987. It stated: sustainable
development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of sustainability/ sustainable development
first linked environment with development. It linked together issues of the natural system with social
challenges and economical growth, in a time frame of present and future. This is the reason why it
becomes common to represent sustainable development as a confluence of the three pillars: economy,
environment and society (Fig.1) [18].

Figure 1Scheme of sustainable development: at the confluence of three preoccupations.

Sustainability can be defined in each of these pillars individually, but the significance of the
concept is given by the interrelation between them. Each of the domains has its own aims and can
contribute either positive or negative to sustainable development.
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Environmental sustainability focuses on the protection of the ecosystem, trying to maintain a
balance between human activities and natural resources, in order to ensure that the natural capital is
healthy recoverable, so it can be used also by the future generations. Unsustainable situations appear,
if the resources are used not carefully and inefficiently. They contribute to the degradation of the
ecosystem and on a global scale to the extinction of biodiversity.
The aim of social sustainability is to influence the development of the people and societies in
such way, that justice, well being and health play an important role. Through education the
sustainable way of thinking and living should be implemented. Unsustainable behavior can lead to
social disruptions like war, crime and corruption that can damage the capacity of the society to plan
and build for the future.
In economic sustainability the focus is on the development of the economic infrastructure and
efficient management of natural and human resources. Sustainable business practices can integrate
ecological concerns with social and economic ones. Unsustainable business, called uneconomic
growth can lead to a decline in the quality of life (Kinsley et al. 1997) [36].
2.2 Sustainability science
Emerging concerns about sustainability are visible in a number of societal and industrial
sectors, including economics, education, politics, construction and the public at large. Therefore
sustainability has to be concrete and measurable with an integrated approach, in order to ensure a
solid support for making the correct decisions and taking the appropriate measures.
A philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability was created, that connects the
accumulated knowledge of different scientific fields and disciplines. This is the new paradigm
sustainability science. It is not yet an autonomous research field or discipline and its impact is still
unknown, but sustainability science has to be the top priority mission for all scientific and research
areas (Raven 2002; Holden 2008) [53]. The name of this scientific field reflects the desire to
concretize and materialize all the general concerns of sustainability in an analytic and scientific
manner. Clark and Dickson (2003) [13] describe sustainability science as a vibrant arena that brings
together scholarship and practice, global and local perspectives from north and south and disciplines
across the natural and social science, engineering and medicine.
There is an ongoing discourse on the characteristics of sustainability science. Ostrom et al.
(2007) [47] characterized sustainability science as applied science and said that if sustainability
science is to grow into a mature applied science, we must use the scientific knowledge achieved in the
separate disciplines of anthropology, biology, ecology, economics, environmental science, geography,
history, law, political science, psychology and sociology to build diagnostics and analytical
capabilities. Gibbsons (1994) [21] stated that sustainability science emerges from a scientific sub
current, that characterizes the evolution of science in general, a shift from mode 1 science, a science
completely academic in nature, mono-disciplinary, technocratic and predictive, to mode 2 science,
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which is at core both inter- and intra-disciplinary, academic and social, participative and exploratory.
The same idea is shared by Palmer et al. (2007) [48] and Martens (2006) [41] who said that
sustainability is a multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and trans-disciplinary field, whose central
element is represented by inter and intra-disciplinary research, co- production of knowledge, co-
evolution of a complex system and its environment, learning through doing and doing through
learning and system innovation instead of system optimization.
Taking a closer look to the fields of interests, we can observe that many important concerns
and issues related to sustainability are treated in a way or other by different research fields and
domains of science. This shares the idea that sustainability science is an applied science with
multidisciplinary characteristics. The main issues whom scientists and researches pay attention are
regarded to climate, biodiversity, agriculture, energy and resources, water, economic development,
education, life style and well-being, and last but not least human health. These problems and concerns
are the same for everybody and we confront a part of them day by day in a way or other. But what is
different for everybody is the way we approach these problems. A civil engineer has a different way
of thinking and different way to approach issues related to climate or resources than a biologist,
chemist or economist. It would be incorrect to say which point of view is correct and there is no
interest to do so.
Every domain has its particularities and its own methods to approach sustainability issues.
Important is to share the results and the knowledge with each other and to benefit from the
experiences gained by others to achieve the common goal, a sustainable world.
Sustainability science was a good beginning and a solid foundation for scientist and
researchers all over the world to share their ideas and results to others with similar interests. The proof
that sustainability is in continues increase, are the researches done by Kajikawa et al. (2007) [33].
They stated that over 3000 papers on sustainability issues are currently published annually in different
journals specialized on sub domains of sustainability.
In the following section a short description of the main sustainability issues is presented,
including what these issues refer to and how they are approached in different domains. The issues are
summarily described and exemplified, in different domains, based on published studies and
researches.
2.2.1 Climate
Defined in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
[29] glossary, climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average
weather," or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean
and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months
to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables
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such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a
statistical description, of the climate system.
In terms of sustainability, climate is connected in most of the cases to climate change and
global warming. Global warming is the consequence of long term increase of greenhouse gases (CO
2
,
CH
4
, N
2
O, etc.) in the higher layer of the atmosphere. The emission of these gases is the result of
intensive environmentally harmful human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestations
and land use changes. The annual fluxes of CO
2
emissions are greater than the capacity of land and
ocean to uptake and sink these emissions. Therefore most of the studies and preoccupations focus on
the reduction of CO
2
and other non CO
2
emissions in order to mitigate global warming.
Several studies focused on carbon cycle in the ecosystem, carbon dioxide reduction or effects
of global warming. Brack et al. (2006) [9] developed a hybrid of empirical and process modeling
carbon: nitrogen mass balanced ecosystem model in Australia, which can estimate the greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions of different management activities. The model takes in consideration all the relevant
effects of ecosystem components, such as climate, land cover change, crop yield, forest growth, soil
etc. The model combines different existing approaches and offer very comprehensive and accurate
results.
Ai Hiramatsu et al. (2008) [2] realized a study on global warming issues, developing a
mapping framework for global warming, that includes seven phases: 1) socio economic activity and
GHG emissions; 2) carbon cycle and carbon concentration; 3) climate change and global warming; 4)
impacts on ecosystem and human society; 5) adaptation; 6) mitigation; and 7) social system.
Representing the research results of Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change Fourth Assessment
Report IPCC AR4 with the mapping, conducted to a series of concerns in climate issues and offered a
comprehensive picture of current scientific knowledge about global warming.
Global climate plays an important role also for oceans, sees, and river flows. Related to these
aspects, Poff et al (2007) [52] studied the effect of dams on river flows, taking in consideration the
magnitude, frequency and timing of high and law flows. The studies showed that effects of the dams
on those parameters and on the homogenization of river flows.
In order to reduce the risks related to climate change and global warming, two options are
available: mitigation of climate change or adaptation to climate change. To mitigate climate change
the emissions of GHGs has to be reduced or captured and stored, according to Stephens (2006) [59]
who reviewed carbon capture and storage technologies from institutional perspective.
Lagerblad B. (2005) [38] realized a study on the CO
2
uptake of concrete structures during its
life cycle in the Nordic countries. The CO
2
uptake was calculated for an initial service life period of
70 years followed by a 30 year post-demolition period. The result showed that about 0.5% of the total
national CO
2
emissions will be re-absorbed in concrete in Denmark, Sweden and Norway. The
corresponding number for Iceland is about 1%. The calculations showed that up to 30% of the total
CO2 emission from cement production, or up to 57% of the CO2 emission from the so-called
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calcinations process in cement manufacturing, is re-absorbed when the cement is utilized in concrete
construction in the Nordic countries.
The second societal response option, traditional for human beings, is the adaptation.
According to Hay and Mimura (2006) [25] there are 5 adaptation options: to reduce the cause, to
reduce the impact of the result and to avoid, redistribute or to accept the risk.
A key factor and important adaptation strategy is the institutional one. Institutions and their
associated policies play an important role in climate change issues. One of the most important
international policy measures is the Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, which has the aim to reduce
GHG and to fight global warming. Another important protocol is the 1987 Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which was designed to reduce the production, consumption
and emission of substances responsible for ozone depletion.
The aspect of climate and GHG emissions is the main aspect of global and environmental
sustainability, but not the only one. Another important issue, that characterizes the ecosystem itself, is
biodiversity.
2.2.2 Biodiversity
Biodiversity represents one of the most important sources of
livelihood of different kind of stakeholders. It supports a number of natural
ecosystem processes and services [45]. The most important human benefits of
the biodiversity are the:
- provision services in terms of food, fuel, raw materials for
construction works;
- regulating services such as carbon sequestration, air quality, water regulation, erosion;
- supporting services such as soil, fishery, nutrient cycling;
- cultural services through their importance to ceremonies, believes and aesthetics.
But like in case of climate, human activities have a disturbing effect on the biodiversity.
Either directly through the destruction of the habitat, overharvesting or overhunting, or indirectly
through pollution, waste generation, etc., the society indicates unsustainable ecological practices.
One of the most important causes of disturbed biodiversity is the over population, which lead
to expansion of human settlements. New developments are built in species rich locations treating
local and regional biodiversity. A lot of studies and researches in the domain of natural science have
been done on the vulnerability and evolution of different plant and animal species. Thuiller et al.
(2007) [61] simulated the distribution and vulnerability of 1350 European plant species under 7
different climate change scenarios. The results showed that more than a half of the species are
vulnerable or threatened by 2080, as an effect of temperature and moisture conditions changes. Taylor
and Irwin (2004) [60] made a similar study on the vulnerability of exotic plants in the USA by linking
the direct and indirect effects of human population, economics and ecological variables. The result of
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the study showed, that economic activities in construction and urban development can disturb the
natural landscape.
M.S. Suneetha (2009) [39] recognizes the issues that arise related to the sustenance of
resources, of ecological balances and equity in transaction due to the globalization of resource
commercialization. The paper goes beyond the definition of sustainability stated by the
IUCN/UNEP/WWF in 1991 as the capacity to maintain a certain process or state for improving the
quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems. It includes
parameters related to equity among stakeholders to returns from biological resources, related
knowledge, trade-offs, and ethical business practices related to these resources in every stage of their
supply route from raw material stage to marketing and effecting sale. The author reached to the
conclusion, that a strong political and social will is needed in order to develop a sustainable
management of the resources.
Another important aspect that is related to biodiversity is the land use and land change. They
have emerged as a fundamental component of sustainability research. Runsheng Yin and Qing Xiang
(2008) [54] presented an integrated approach to model land- use/cover changes LUCC. They
underlined the complex interactions of human and natural drivers. Their analyses focused on the
Upper Yangtze basin of China in terms of cropland use, grain production, soil erosion and related
technical changes. The results showed that technical change plays an important role in food supply on
limited cropland. Limited cropland expansion reduces soil erosion, which benefits grain production.
In conclusion policies and institutions have a major impact on land use and based on these results they
can carry out a sustainable management plan for land use and ecosystem.
2.2.3 Agriculture
Agriculture has always played a very important role in the life of our
society. It has performed pretty well over the last decades by sustaining the
permanently growing population with food, fiber, and also possibilities for a
good livelihood. But in context of sustainability, agriculture is confronting two
main problems:
1) Is agriculture able to meet the future demands of food and fiber, without affecting the
resource base?
2) How can the effects of agricultural activities, which disturb the natural conditions, be
reduced?
According to the Agriculture and Natural Resources Team of the UK, the agriculture is
sustainable when current and future food demands can be met without compromising unnecessarily
economic, ecologic and social/politic needs. In order to manage these problems, principles of
sustainability must be a core part of agricultural policies, to enable proper conditions for an efficient
and environmental friendly resource use.
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To imply the sustainability issues of agriculture in a greater manner, a new concept and term
has been introduced: Sustainable agriculture. Under the law [19] the term sustainable agriculture is
defined as an integral system of plant and animal production having a site-specific application that
will, over the long term:
- satisfy human food and fiber needs;
- enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural
economy depends;
- make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate,
where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls;
- sustain the economic viability of farm operations; and
- enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole."
Agricultural sustainability has become very popular and of great interest among stakeholders.
Through public debates, political stakeholders, with a particular political agenda, influence the
formation of public opinion on sustainability agriculture.
Philipp Aerni (2008) [51] investigated to what extent stakeholders attitude and interests help
to explain the national conception of sustainability agriculture and how these conceptions diverge
between countries with different agricultural policies. The study has been realized on two
stakeholders perception surveys in Switzerland and New Zealand. Both countries are economically
highly developed, have a similar degree of human autonomy in terms of political freedom and share
similar social values. Even so the results of the investigations showed different perception surveys,
which means, that the definitions of sustainable agriculture are highly dependent on the countrys
position in the international agricultural trading system. Swiss stakeholders believed that the Swiss
agriculture is already quite sustainable and that international trade and new technologies only make it
less sustainable. On the other hand, New Zealand stakeholders generally thought, that economic and
technological changes are necessary to increase agricultural sustainability. The attitude of the Swiss
respondents showed the defensive attitude of the country policy, while the progressive attitude of New
Zealand clearly indicates that sustainable agriculture has to be reconciled with national
competitiveness.
Sustainability in agriculture is a waste area of science, which include research and teaching
activities related to food and animal production, soil and water conservation and improvement,
nutritional science, biotechnology, etc. For example Hartshorn et al. (2006) [24] investigated the
amount of nutrients in Hawaii resulting from agricultural activities of farmers centuries ago.
Measurements have been done to compare cultivated and undisturbed land. Results showed that
cultivated land has a lower nutrient status, because of enhanced nutrient release and subsequent loss.
M. Larsson et al (2008) [40] underlined the importance of sustainable governance of
agriculture related to food production and curbed eutrophication in the Baltic Sea drainage area. To
see the effect of EU Expansion on the agriculture and local environment different scenarios were
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created. The first scenario considered that Poland and the Baltic States covered their agriculture
according to Swedish/ Finnish production. The results showed an increase of 58% off nitrogen, 18%
of phosphorus surplus and considerable food production. The second scenario is a more hypothetical
development, where all the agriculture around the Baltic Sea is converted to local organic production
and Ecological Recycling Agriculture (ERA). It resulted in halved nitrogen surplus and eliminated
phosphorus surplus. The food production would decrease or remain stable.
Because of its energy efficient practice to secure food production, urban agriculture is also
considered a sustainable practice. It increases the amount of food available to people living in cities
and provides them with fresh fruits, meats and vegetables. P. Drechsel and S. Dougus (2009) [50]
exemplified the dynamic and sustainability of urban agriculture in sub- Saharan Africa. They focused
on crape production on larger open cities and investigated how sustainable and dynamical this type of
land is used. To assess the sustainability of urban agriculture they used the adapted Framework for
Evaluating Sustainable Land Management, developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO). The dynamic was exemplified with the spatial-temporal changes of open-
space agriculture in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 1992-2005. In conclusion, crop production on open
urban spaces seemed to be a dynamic, viable and sustainable possibility to provide jobs and food for
the cities. Despite insecurity, non-agricultural land demands and the limited support for irrigated
urban farms, urban agriculture appears persistent and resilient to its changing environment, as long as
it maintains its market advantages.
2.2.4 Energy and resources
Beside climate change and economic
crises, one of the most important problems
the world faces today is regarded to energy
and resource depletion. These two terms are
generally treated together because of their
dependency to each other. Resources like coal and fossil fuel are needed to produce energy; on the
other hand processing materials and resources are leading to the loss of useful energy and/or
materials.
According to the dictionaries, resource is defined as an available supply that can be drawn
on when needed. According to Sato (2007) [55] there have been times when resources were not
needed, so they were dismissed. In a study, he traced the evolution of the resource concept in the
modern Japan, in the context of the II World War. According to his investigations, in the pre-war
period, the military government used the resources concept to create a comprehensive inventory of the
nations military forces and resource was thus a convenient to neutralize the aggressive
connotations of top-down military mobilization. After the turn to democratic principles in 1945, the
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concept of resource has radically changed. It gained the symbolic connotation of a means to serve
the people.
Human society consumes resources, in most of the cases, to produce energy. Energy is
essential for all kind of human activities. It is used for lightning, warming, cooling, transporting,
building, mining, recycling, etc. Because of the growing population and developing industry, the
conventional energy demands are in continues increase, thus resources like oil, coal and gases are
exposed to the risk of depletion. This process is in contrary to the definition of sustainability to meet
the needs of present generation, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs. On a long term, our obligation and priority should be to find methods and invent new
technologies in order to improve energy efficiency and to reduce or eliminate the use nonrenewable
energy sources.
Great technological developments have been done over the last decades to reduce the
consumption of natural sources needed to supply the increasing energy demands. The concept of
sustainable energy has appeared which is characterized by energy efficiency and renewable energy
sources. Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to sustainable energy as they
generally contribute to world energy security, reducing dependence on fossil fuel resources and
providing opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases in order to slow down global warming. The
natural resources which can be used to generate renewable energy include wind, sunlight, waves,
tides, geothermal heat, hydro and biological matters. These sources are implemented in different
technologies, which can be categorized as follows:
- first-generation technologies, which include hydropower, biomass combustion, and
geothermal power and heat;
- second-generation technologies, which include solar heating and cooling, wind power,
modern forms of bio-energy and solar photovoltaic;
- third-generation technologies, which are still under development and include advanced
biomass gasification, bio-refinery technologies, concentrating solar thermal power, hot dry rock
geothermal energy, and ocean energy.
Most of these technologies have entered the markets and are used in large scale in all kind of
industrial activities reducing the consumption of conventional energy sources. According to the Kyoto
Protocol, the European Union is obliged to lower with 20% its greenhouse gas emissions until 2020,
which is strict related to the combustion of fossil fuels.
Another great step towards sustainability would be the use of closed cycles, which means
that the sustainability level of a system could be measured by measuring its capacity to avoid the
consumption of resources. Any technological cycle that brings either a product or a service to our
everyday lives is composed of a sequence of activities, such as resource extraction, storage, transport,
transformation, production, storage and distribution, use, waste formation, partial material recycling
and product reuse and finally waste disposal either to air, ground or water (Orecchini 2007) [46].
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According to Orecchini [46], sustainable development should not consume resources; it should use
and reuse them, endlessly in a closed cycle. Unfortunately the human society is still using an open
cycle where they cause an environmental imbalance.
Sustainability of resource use is becoming an important issue also in other sectors, beside
energy. Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, oil and natural gases are the most used resources for the
production of energy, but they are non-renewable, which cannot be produced, grown, generated, or
used on a scale which can sustain its consumption rate. These resources exist in a fixed amount and
are consumed much faster than nature can create them.
Contrary, there are renewable resources, like timber, metals or even fishery, which in a
sustainable way of harvesting can sustain their consumption rate. Roughgarden J. et al. (1996) [32]
wrote an article about why fishery is in collapse and what do about it. They reached to the conclusion
that economic theory for managing a renewable resource, such as a fishery, leads to an ecologically
unstable equilibrium. Thats why a fishery should be managed for ecological stability.
The importance of forests is evident. They function as habitats for different organism, provide
us with timber, and are also responsible for carbon sequestration. Forests cover 4 billion hectares of
the Earths land surface, of which 36% are primary and 53% are modified natural forests. In 2005, 3.5
billion m
3
of wood of 434 billion m
3
growing stock were removed from the forests and used as round-
wood or fuel wood. Forest loss tends to occur in low-income countries, largely in the tropics, whereas
higher-income countries have reversed their earlier forest losses and are already experiencing forest
expansion ( Kirilenko and Sedjo 2007) [37].
2.2.5 Water
Water, in special fresh and potable water, is one of the key
resources for the human kind on earth. Although water covers 70%
of the Earths surface, unfortunately, this is not all fresh or potable
water. The quantity of fresh water, in form of rivers, lakes and
underground watercourses is only 1%. Theoretically, water is
considered a renewable resource, because it comes from the evaporation of oceans, the condensation
of clouds and melting of snow. In reality it cannot be considered 100% renewable, due to the fact that
not all the water consumed by people through different activities is recycled and replenished in the
hydrological cycle. The main problem is that the society is consuming more and more water due to
the population growth, but the fresh water resources remain the same. Beside this, the water
availability is not equally shared in every country; just a few have sufficient reserves. According to
the United Nations, by 2025 there will be around 1.8 billion people living in countries where water is
scarce [63].
Another problem, that complicates the fresh water supply are the contaminants which proceed
from industrial and agricultural activities. Some groundwater resources are contaminated with
15

chemicals from pesticides, herbicides, landfills and industrial wastes. To face the problem of fresh
water scarcity a good water management is required, based clearly defined policies, which constrain
contaminations and offer solution for efficient wastewater recycling.
Major water consumers are the construction sector and the industry in general. Therefore
industrial wastewater has been considered one of the most dangerous factors that affect the
environment, including water sources. These problems had to be solved. Now-a-days different
methods are available for an efficient use of water, for example:
- reengineered processes can lead to significant water savings;
- reusing wastewater there are technologies available, which can dry sludge and get pure
water out of it, so industrial water contained in sludge and slurry can be reused many times
without special treatments;
- sequential use the hot water produced by some industries can be used also for other
processes, which saves energy and water;
- sensor controlled water use can reduce the consume of unnecessary water;
- leak detection eliminates the losses in pipes and tanks;
- education programs the personal working in industry is instructed how to conserve water.
There are some examples that should be followed by every industry. The paper and board
production requires huge amount of water, releasing processed water as effluents into watercourses
and adding fresh water to supply the production line. This is a dissipative use of water, which
correspond to a linear flow instead of a circular flow model. They solved the problem, by developing
the Paper Kidney project, which involves two innovative purification processes with the aim of
achieving efficient effluent-free manufacturing. The system is not cheaper to use in long term, but it
made possible to increase the production while simultaneously keeping effluent discharge at former
level, or even reducing them [49].
Another example of the applied sustainability issues is at the design of the water treatment
plants in Iraq. S. Esposto (2009) [58] analyzed how technical projects can be considered to address
the needs of drinkable water in Iraq and why sustainability of the projects is a key factor in
guaranteeing the durability and efficacy of the actions. To demonstrate this fact, the author analyzed
the design of water treatment plants of common use in that region. To underline the importance of
sustainability in design, three different design options, with the same initial costs, were evaluated. The
results of the analyses showed, that the community has to bear an economic expense in order to
improve sustainability of the plants, but on long term the failure of water delivery will be reduced, so
the investments will be justified.
S.W.Hermanwicz (2008) [57] realized a study on the changes in the meaning and perception
of water resources management in terms of sustainability. Water management evaluated from a
simply water demand concern. Quality issues and water reuse became more important. Sustainable
management also requires the consideration of additional aspects like energy, pollution,
16

contaminations. The author reached to the conclusion, that in order to be considered a decision
making tool, sustainability has to be measurable and quantified. He said that the definition should
consider three important factors: 1) sphere of sustainability; 2) the time horizon; and 3) the metric,
which assess sustainability. In this way a framework can be provided, which ensure a solid base of
comparison between products or entire industrial activities.
2.2.6 Economic development
Taking in consideration the definition of the Deardorffs
Glossary of International Economics, economic development is
considered a sustained increase in the economic standard of
living of a countrys population, normally accomplished by
increasing its stocks of physical and human capital and improving
its technologies [28].
Many people confront economic development with economic growth, but this is a mistake.
Economic development considers in general the social and technological progress. It follows the
principle of qualitative improve in the production of goods and providing of services, not the
quantitative one, which focuses on wider production scale, but old methods and technologies.
Economic growth is the one with quantitative output, measured usually by the rate of change of the
gross domestic product (GDP).
Generally we can separate two types of economics, the neo-classical environmental economy
and the ecologic economy. The essential idea in the neo-classical approach is that the individual is
always provided the same range of goods and the level of well-being remains constant. This means
that the single aggregated stock of capital is preserved by substitutions between the natural capital and
the man-made capital [42]. On the other hand in ecological economics is much more important to
bring the economy back into harmony with nature, i.e. to integrate it with nature [14].
A good example for ecological economics is the circular economy. This is based on the
principle of recycling and reusing of materials. The recycling of materials can offer also economic
benefits, but most important are the environmental advantages. It reduces the amount of waste and
residuals, and more important, it minimizes the use of virgin materials for different economical
activities. Of course there are situations where recycling is difficult or useless [3]. Like any other
economic activities, circular economy is a private economic viewport. One may consider
environmental benefits as important; others may see only the business and the material benefits.
Recycling and reuse is not always benefic for a company, so the question is whether to obtain for a
sustainable development and strategy or a profit oriented strategy.
Another point of view regarded to the integration of environmental sustainability is that of
N.Stern 2006 [27], who considers that the ignorance of climate change can lead to economic
catastrophe. Higher temperatures will have large impacts on regional weather patterns. Possible
17

consequences are floods and water shortages, which will be only a threat for large cities, but a disaster
for developing countries. Stern appeals to all agencies, especially to local government, who are
involved in economic developments, to include environmental sustainability in their coordination of
different activities like planning, housing, transport, etc. The challenge for those in local economic
developments is to secure jobs and incomes for the local people, without compromising the
environment.
The contribution of the industry is also very important in the implementation of a sustainable
development. They should make the transition to a low-carbon economy. This may be concerned with
the reduction of pollution and the promotion of more efficient resource management in processes,
products and materials. [The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change 2006-idea
government].
Nordhauses (2006) [44] underlines the idea of Stern, that the environment, in specially
climate, plays an important role in the economic development. He realized a study, based on data of
the G-Econ database, which measures the economic activities of a country on a 1
o
latitude and 1
o
longitude scale. Three applications were investigated: the effect of climate (temperature), geographic
attributes and the effect of greenhouse gases. The results of the scenarios showed, that at a double
CO
2
equivalent, concentration in the atmosphere would lead to a surface temperature increase of
3
o
C, which would correspond to a decrease of the global outputs of around 1%. The scenarios were
based on the assumption that countries with high-latitude present high economic performance.
Another important parameter of the economic development is regarded to the population
growth. Its effects can be felt on global level, as well on local level. Myers and Kent (2003) [43]
studied the influence of new consumers on the global environment. The increasing consumption of
meat and water in the developing countries, as well as the rising number of vehicles, which contribute
in a significant proportion to the overall CO
2
emissions, has a major impact on the environment. The
solution, to reduce the impacts and to achieve a sustainable economic development in these countries,
is an appropriate policy response.
The rapid economic growth and the increasing number of people in the East Asia caused
several environmental problems, with harmful effects on the well-being of the people in this densely
populated region. Trans-boundary air pollution, water shortages, drinking water contaminations and
deforestations are only some of the environmental problems, which put the East Asian countries on a
bottom place in a world sustainability ranking. After the causes of the environmental threats are
understood, the strategy of sustainable development should be implemented, namely: efficient
resource and energy use, renewable energy sources, recycling and reuse of old materials and waste
[35].
A very important and actual topic, beside environment, is the poverty in many developing
countries. A sustainable economic development has to elaborate a strategy which can solve this
problem. The gravity of this problem is more evident if we consider the report of Chen and Ravallion
18

(2007) [12]. They investigated the poverty in developing countries in the period of 1981-2004. There
have been worldwide about 1470 million people who were leaving below the extreme poverty line of
$1 per day. Even if this number felt to about 960 million, with the current rate of decrease, in 2015
will be still over 800 million people with a living of $1 a day. The situation in Saharan Africa is
worse, the number of poor people almost doubled, from 168 million to 292 million and the percentage
stayed constant.
G. Huppers and M. Ishikawa (2009) [20] made an interesting study. They investigated the
compatibility between technological improvements, on micro-level and sustainability, on macro-level.
They reached to the conclusion, that in order to prevent environmental degradations, the technology
has to improve and the economy to descend. The first step in this way is the integration of eco-
efficiency scores. Therefore life cycle analysis on the technological systems, combined with life cycle
cost analysis should be performed. For a more comprehensive evaluation of the sustainable
parameters, the authors proposed a systematic framework, the ten step procedure, which they
applied on bio-fuels.
2.2.7 Health
Beside other important issues of sustainability, human health
became also an important topic for sustainability science. Most of the
researches and studies are based on vulnerability analysis, in which humans
are exposed to environmental risks, resulting in some modeling and
simulations of the risks. Based on the results of these simulations, solutions
and policy measures can be proposed, which can lead to a sustainable health.
A very interesting simulation is that of Bloom and Canning (2007) [6]. They examined the
life expectancy of different countries, in 1963 and 2003, based on the rate of mortality. According to
their study, in 40 years the life expectancy increased more than 10 years and continues improvements
are expected. Another important fact, which is argued in the article, is that life expectancy reflects a
dynamic that is more complex than a simple convergence process. For example some high-mortality
countries made a rapid transition to low mortality, whereas others stayed at the same level. In
conclusion sustainable health and life expectancy is in a strong relation with the dispersion of wealth
among nations.
Aufderheide et al. (2004) [4] investigated the origins of the Chagas disease in Chile and
Peru. DNA tests on different specimens desiccated from human mums suggested that the animal-
infected cycle of Chagas disease was well established at the time the first humans joined the other
mammal species, which acted as host for this parasite. The results also showed that there was no
significant difference among cultural groups, or among subgroups compared on the basis of age, sex
and weight.
19

Thank to such kind of investigations and modeling, solutions to reduce Chagas disease has
been proposed and also executed. An example is the one presented by Grtler et al. (2007) [23]. There
were two campaigns of residual insecticide spraying between 1984 and 2006, in Argentina, mostly in
rural villages. This first action, in 1985, immediately and strongly reduced the domestic infestation
and infection, but because no effective surveillance and control actions followed, the transmission
resurged in 2-3 years. The renewed interventions in 1992 followed by sustained, supervised and
community-based vector control largely suppressed the reestablishment of the disease. Furthermore,
the campaign mobilized communities and established strong relationships between the involved
parties, promoting sustainable health.
Singer and Castro (2007) [56] wanted to ensure sustainable health in the tropics. Therefore
they proposed some solutions, but focused their attention on three main objects: 1) to bridge
engineering with health communities, for example by implementing clear water and sanitation on a
broad scale to prevent re-worming; 2) to build an integrated human and animal disease surveillance
infrastructure and technical capacity based on reporting and scientific evidence; 3) to develop an
independent and equitable organizational structure for health impact assessment as well as to monitor
and mitigate the health consequences of economic development projects.
West et al. (2006) [65] investigated the global health benefits of mitigating the ozone
pollution. Tropospheric ozone (O
3
) is an oxidant that damages agriculture, ecosystems and materials.
It is formed from photochemical reactions involving NO
x
and voltaic organic compounds (VOCs),
while CH
4
is the primary anthropogenic VOC in the global troposphere. They are both greenhouse
gases, like CO
2
, which contribute to climate change, but also to poor air quality. They simulated the
effect of methane mitigation and showed that by 20% methane mitigation approximately 30000
premature mortalities could be prevented globally in 2030. In addition $420 000 per avoided mortality
and $240 per ton of CH
4
can be saved. It also offers a good opportunity to improve air quality, public
health, agriculture, climate and energy.

20

3 Certification Programs for the Evaluation of Building Sustainability
The environmental building assessment (Sustainable Building certificate), starting with
BREEAM in the UK, have been developed around the world as it was summarized by G.K.C Ding
(2008) [22]: 1990, BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method),
UK; 1996 HKBEAM (Hong Kong Building Environmental Assessment Method), Hong Kong; 1998,
EMGB (Evaluation Manual for Green Buildings), Taiwan; 2000 LEED (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design), USA; 2001, GHEM (Green Home Evaluation Manual), China; 2001,
NABERS (National Australian Building Environmental Rating System), Australia; 2007, DGNB
(Deutsche Gtesiegel fr Nachhaltiges Bauen), Germany.
In the next chapter three important international certificates are presented: DGNB, LEED and
BREEAM. A comparison is realized between these models and an own evaluation model is proposed,
based on the positive and negative aspects of the existing tools.
To realize this work only readily available, public documents and published reports which
cover the building certification programs, has been used. Further details can be found by purchasing
the program manuals from the rating systems discussed [10], [16], [64].
3.1. German Sustainable Building Certificate (Deutsche Gtesiegel fr
Nachhaltiges Bauen DGNB)
3.1.1. General
Founded in 2007, the German Sustainable Building Council together with the Federal
Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs (BMVBS) developed a voluntary certification
system for sustainable buildings the German Sustainable Building Certificate. The objectives of the
DGNB are the development and promotion of sustainability in the planning, construction and
operation process of a building. Sustainable building is environmental friendly, uses the resources
efficiently, has an intelligent management with low life cycle costs, offers comfort and health to the
users and fit optimally in the socio cultural ambient. The development of the certification brought
new paths and solutions for the Building and Real Estate Sector in the field of sustainable
construction. The advantages of the German certificate are:
- Active contribution to sustainability;
- Cost- and Planning Certainty;
- Minimizes Risk;
- Praxis oriented Planning Tool;
- Focus on the Life Cycle;
- Made in Germany;
- Marketing Tool;
- Comprehensive Quality of Property;
21

- The performance is key;
- More than Green Building
- Flexibility
The certificate is based on the concept of integral planning that sets, at early design stage, the
goals of sustainable construction. In this way, sustainable buildings can be designed with the current
state of technology that results in a higher building quality.
To gain a certificate for a planned building, a DGNB auditor should be assigned. The
procedure of the certification system is based on the following steps:

The rating system is currently available only for new and existent construction of office and
administrative buildings but other system models are in planning or still in the pilot phase. The first
time the Sustainable Building Certification was awarded was at the BAU 2009 in Munich. Initially, it
was awarded for the system variation New Construction Office and Administration, Version 2008.
3.1.2. Topics and criteria
The DGNB is a very comprehensive rating tool, which covers the relevant areas of
sustainable construction. The certificate is defined by 6 topics, with a total of 49 individual criteria.
The quality of location, which has 6 criteria, is treated separately to have a rating system independent
from the location. Table 1 shows the topics of the DGNB and other characteristic parameters. The
standards that the DGNB uses for the evaluation are DIN, EnEv and other EU Standards.

Award of the DGNB Certificate
Evaluation of planning and cosntruction documentation by the DGNB
Documentation during planning and construction phases according to DGNB regulations
Use of pre-certification for marketing
Definition of goals for building performance according to gold, silver or bronze
Registration of the building with the DGNB
22

Table 1 The main topics and weightings of the DGNB
Topic DGNB No. of
criteria
Max
Points
Weighting % per
point
Ecological Quality 12 criteria 195p 22.5% 0.115
Economical Quality 2 criteria 50p 22.5% 0.45
Socio - Cultural and Functional Quality 15criteria 280p 22.5% 0.08
Technical Quality 5criteria 100p 22.5% 0.225
Process Quality 9criteria 130p 10% 0.043
Quality of the Location 6 criteria 130p Separate -
Total 49 755(885) 100 0.132

A short overview and description of the topics: New Construction Office and Administration,
Version 2008 and its individual criteria is presented in the following section.
Ecological Quality 12 Criteria
C01 30p Global Warming Potential (GWP) the aim is to reduce GWP by the reduction of the
gases that contributes to the greenhouse effect. The contribution of the substance is expressed in
carbon dioxide equivalent (CO
2
-Equiv) over a period of 100 years.
C02 5p Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) the aim is to reduce the emission of the pollutants
destructing the ozone layer, that assure the protection against the UV radiation.
C03 5p Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP) the aim is to reduce the formation of
near - surface ozone, by destructive trace gases like nitric oxide and hydrocarbons in combination
with UV radiation.
C04 10p Acidification Potential (AP) the aim is to reduce the acidification potential, that
means the rising of the concentration of H ions in the air, water and soil, which react with sulphur
and nitrogen compounds from anthropogenic emissions and form acid, that in form of acid rain
falls to the earth.
C05 10p Eutrophication Potential (EP) the aim is to reduce the eutrophication, that means the
transition of water bodies and soil from nutrient poor to nutrient rich state, by phosphor- and
nitrogen compounds. These compounds proceed from manufacturing of building materials and
washing off of combustion emissions.
C06 30p Risks for the Local Environment the aim is to reduce the risks for the local
environment, by an adequate selection of the building materials.
C08 10p Other Impacts on the Global Environment the aim is to reduce the impact of a building
on the global environment, by using only certified wood issued by the Forest Stewardship Council
(FSC) or certification authorities that are accredited by the Program for Endorsement of Forest
Certification Schemes (PEFC). The use of tropic, sub-tropic or boreal wood shall be avoided.
23

C09 5p Microclimate the aim is to reduce the heat island effect, by choosing proper products
and solutions for the roofs and facades. The heat island effect means, that urban areas are
considerably warmer then rural areas, due to the thermal mass of the buildings that absorb the heat
during daytime and keep it during night.
C10 30p Non Renewable Primary Energy Demands (PE
ne
) the aim is to reduce the use of non
renewable energy resources like coal, petroleum or natural gases. The construction and operation of
the building should be energy-efficient, to reduce the primary energy demands.
C11 20p Total Primary Energy Demands and Percentage of Renewable Primary Energy the aim
is to minimize the total demand for primary energy and to maximize the use of renewable energy like
biomass, solar radiation, wind energy, etc., during the life cycle of the building.
C14 20p Potable Water Consumption and Sewage Generation the aim is to reduce the
consumption of potable water and to manage the sewage generation.
C15 20p Surface Area Usage the aim is to use areas that are already assigned as traffic or
settlement areas or are allocated for the recovery of contaminated locations. In this way the
environmental impact of the buildings can be reduced.
Economical Quality 2 Criteria
C16 30p Building - related Life Cycle Cost (LCC) the aim is to reduce the life cycle costs of a
building arising during its entire life, beginning with the project development, up to construction,
operation and deconstruction. Life Cycle Cost analysis have to be done in order to have a support to
make decisions for improvements.
C17 20p Value Stability the aim is to create buildings with high efficiency, flexibility and
adaptability. That means that buildings can be easily adapted to new requirements and destinations,
without needing high investments.
Socio Cultural and Functional Quality 15 Criteria
C18 20p Thermal comfort in the Winter the aim is to assure optimal work place conditions by
evaluating the thermal comfort, air quality, noise and illumination in the office.
C19 30p Thermal Comfort in the summer the aim is to assure optimal work place conditions by
evaluating the thermal comfort, air quality, noise and illumination in the office.
C20 30p Indoor Hygiene the aim is assure a healthy indoor environment, evaluating the quality
of the felt air, the unwanted odours, measuring the TVOC concentration of the room air and
checking the microbiological situation.
C21 10p Acoustic Comfort the aim is to create proper conditions, assuring low level interference
and background noise. In this way, the detraction and detriment to health and capability will be
reduced.
C22 30p Visual Comfort the aim is to achieve a good visual comfort. An important role plays the
daylight availability, visibility to the exterior, glaring, etc.
24

C23 20p User Influences the aim is to assure the possibility for the user to have an influence on
the ventilation, sun protection, visor, temperature, regulation of daylight and artificial light.
C24 10p Roof Design the aim is to design roofs, which can reduce the CO
2
emissions, improve
the microclimate, offer suitable areas like green places, solar active areas or socio cultural utilities.
C25 10p Safety and Failure Risks the aim is to avoid danger, accidents and catastrophes and to
ensure the sensation of safety in case of accidents offering operation instructions, escape routes, etc.
C26 20p Barrier free Accessibility the aim is to build barrier free buildings that allow the
access and operation for all population groups concerning people with disabilities.
C27 10p Area Efficiency the aim is to handle the areas as economical as possible. The goals are:
optimization regarding costs, environmental and social optimization.
C28 20p Conversion Feasibility the aim is design buildings that can be converted with as little
time and effort as possible. The main aspects for a flexible and adaptable building are the modularity,
spatial structure, electricity and heating supply and disposal of water.
C29 20p Accessibility the aim is to establish buildings, which can be used for different
preferences, have access to a large public or can be rented for third party.
C30 10p Bicycle Comfort the aim is to encourage people to use bicycle instead of cars for short
distances. In this way a building has to ensure safe bicycle storages, utilities for shower and dressing.
C31 30p Assurance of the Quality of Design and Urban Development in Competition the aim is
to ensure planning competitions to choose the best solution for the architectonical and constructive
tasks. In this way the architectural diversity is assured.
C32 10p Art within Architecture the aim is to increase the architectonical quality of a building.
This creative task should establish a direct relationship between building and public and should
update the profile of the location.
Technical Quality 5 Criteria
C33 20p Fire Protection the aim is to increase the quality of fire protection. Measures should
exceed the fire protection regulations and should consider also the economic impact and additional
emissions caused by the additional amount of raw materials and supplies.
C34 20p Noise Protection the aim is to improve the noise protection, exceeding the minimum
requirements. Additional requirements like: protection of privacy and confidentiality, avoiding loss of
concentration, consideration for people with limited hearing, should also be taken in consideration.
C35 20p Energetic and Moisture Proofing Quality of the Buildings Shell the aim is to reduce
the energy demand for space conditioning, assure thermal comfort and avoid structural damage. The
most important role plays the buildings envelope and its parameters: Average heat transmission
coefficient, thermal bridges, permeability of joints, and formation of condensate and air change rate.
C40 20p Ease of Cleaning and Maintenance of the Structure the aim is to ensure the access to
clean and maintain the parts of the building. It has a high economical and environmental impact on
the building, because the materials can be operated for the maximum useful lifetime.
25

C42 20p Ease of Deconstruction, Recycling and Dismantling the aim is to increase the ease of
deconstruction, recycling and dismantling in order to reduce waste generation and to increase the
recycling of building materials for future materials.
Process Quality 9 Criteria
C43 30p Quality of the Projects Preparation the aim is to prepare the project optimally. That
means a serial of aspects, like: quality oriented planning for the needs, discussion about the
objectives, considerations for Sustainable Building and user behavior, should be verified and
evaluated.
C44 30p Integral Planning the aim is to reduce energy consumption and environmental
pollution, to improve users comfort and to be economical. All these can be realized with an integral
planning, which includes the entire lifecycle of the building and interdisciplinary consulting.
C45 30p Optimization and Complexity of the Approach to Planning the aim is to guarantee a
quality and complex planning, which verify and evaluate different concepts like: Energy, Water,
Waste, etc. and offer alternative comparisons.
C46 20p Evidence of Sustainability during Bid Invitation and Awarding the aim is to formulate
sustainability targets for products and technologies during the bid invitation and awarding phases.
Decisions should be taken not only on economical quality, but also on environmental and social
quality.
C47 20p Establishing Preconditions for an Optimized Use and Operation the aim is to provide
proper documentation for the building during its entire life time cycle in order to be controlled and
improved during the utilization phase, instructions for maintenance, operation, which reduce the life
cycle costs, design documentation of the building structural conditions and users guide.
C48 20p Construction Site/ Construction Process the aim is to protect the environment and the
health of the participants with low waste, dust and noise construction sites and environmental
protection.
C49 20p Quality of the Executing Contractors/ Pre Qualification the aim is to assure
competence and quality of the executing contractors through the pre qualifications procedure.
C50 30p Quality Assurance of Construction Execution the aim is to reach a high quality of the
construction executions by a detailed documentation of the used materials and products and by
measurements and analyses realized for the quality control.
C51 30p Systematic Commissioning the aim is to realize long lasting and efficiently operating
building automation. After a specific period adjustments and recalibrations will be done on the
buildings technical equipments.
Quality of the Location -6 Criteria
C56 20p Risks at the Micro-location the aim is to choose a location, where the risks of Man
Made Hazards, terrorism and natural catastrophes are low.
26

C57 20p Circumstances at the Micro-location the aim is the choose a location with low impact
of the ambient air quality, noise level, ground circumstances and pollution, electromagnetic field, etc.
C58 20p Image and Condition of the Location and Neighborhood the aim is to create a positive
image and condition of the site, because in this way the site can be better commercialized.
C59 30p Connection to transportation the aim is to reduce the traffic flow caused by the
building use. This can be realized by selecting a location for the building with traffic connections to
various means a public transportation.
C60 20p Vicinity to usage specific facilities the aim is to choose sites, near to user specific
facilities like: catering, local suppliers, parkways, education, medical care, sport facilities, etc, in
order to satisfy their personal needs.
C61 20p Adjoining Media, Infrastructure Development the aim is to achieve property
sustainability, so every owner contribute to the ecological and financial release of the city and
community with the support of the local authorities.
3.1.3. Evaluation
The evaluation of the topics and criteria is based on an evaluation matrix with a scoring
system. Each criterion mentioned above, calculated or only qualitative evaluated, can be scored with
up to 10 points. Depending on their importance and relevance, they are weighted with a factor from 0
to 3. After each criterion is scored and weighted a score is obtained, that represent the fulfillment of
the respective topic. Summarizing the partial fulfillments the total fulfillment is achieved, called
Degree of Compliance. In Fig 2 an example of the evaluation matrix is shown.
The bronz, silver or golden building certificate is awarded in function of the total degree of
compliance, according to Table 2.
Table 2 DGNB building certification scale
Bonze From 50%
Silver From 65%
Gold From 80%

Alternatively, the total Degree of Compliance is
indicated by a grade according to Table 3:
Table 3 Grade of the building
Grade Degree of Compliance
1,0 95%
1,5 80%
2,0 65%
3,0 50%
4,0 35%
5,0 20%
Figure 2 Evaluation diagram of the DGNB
27

3.2. LEED 2009 for New Construction and Major Renovations
3.2.1. General
Founded in 1993, the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is a national nonprofit
organization with over 19000 member companies and organizations, including corporations,
governmental agencies, nonprofits and others from the industry. The aim of the USGBC was to define
and measure the performances of green buildings. The building industry needed an instrument that
was able to measure sustainability of green buildings in order to change the concept of design,
construction and operation of buildings. The buildings should be energy and cost efficient, durable,
environmental friendly, comfortable and healthy.
The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System
is an internationally recognized green building certification system that evaluates environmental
performances of a whole building over its life cycle. LEED constitutes a set of performance standards
that are based on energy and environmental issues and are used to certify the design and construction
of commercial and residential buildings. The first LEED Pilot Project Program, LEED Version 1, was
launched in 1998, followed, after some modifications, by the LEED Version 2 in March 2000. LEED
Version 2.1 appeared in 2002, followed by LEED Version 2.2 in 2005. The newest version is LEED
Version 3, released on 27 April, 2009. Flexible and transparent, the LEED 2009 takes the advantages
of the technologies and advancements in building science and is concentrated on energy efficiency
and CO
2
reduction.
The LEED 2009 Green Building Rating System for New Construction and Major
Renovations was designed mainly for new commercial buildings, but can be applied also for other
building types. Beside the certification of new buildings, LEED 2009 certifies design and construction
activities for major renovations of existing buildings.
In order to earn a LEED Certification for the building, first the project must be registered at
the Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI). At the next step the prerequisites must be satisfied
and a minimum of points should be attained. After fulfilling the minimum conditions, the projects are
rated according to their degree of compliance within the rating system.
Like every LEED rating system, LEED 2009 covers 5 environmental topics and 2 additional,
which consider innovative solutions and local conditions. Table 4 shows the environmental topics
with the available credit points, criteria and weightings.

28

Table 4 The main sections and weightings of the LEED
Topics LEED No of
criteria
Max
points
Weighting % per
point
Sustainable Sites (SS) 15 criteria 26p 26% 1
Water Efficiency (WE) 4 criteria 10p 10% 1
Energy & Atmosphere (EA) 9 criteria 35p 35% 1
Materials & Resources (MR) 9 criteria 14p 14% 1
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) 17 criteria 15p 15% 1
Innovation in Design (ID) 2 criteria 6p Additional -
Regional Priority (RP) 1 criteria 4p Additional -
Total 57 100(110) 100 1

A short overview and description of the topics and requirements for: LEED 2009 for New
Construction and Major Renovations is presented in the following section.
Sustainable Sites (SS)
SSP1 Req Construction Activity Pollution Prevention the aim is to reduce the pollution generated
by construction activities, through an adequate control of the soil erosion, waterway sedimentations
and airborne dust generations.
SSC1 1p Site Selection the aim is to reduce the environmental impact of a building, by selecting
a site location that has not been defined as prime farmland, habitat for any threatened species, etc.
SSC2 5p Development Density and Community Connectivity the aim is to construct or renovate a
building on a site that is still developed, with existing infrastructure and located near to basic services
like: Bank, School, Medical Office, etc.
SSC3 -1p Brownfield Redevelopment the aim is to build on damaged and contaminated sites,
defined as Brownfield, in order to rehabilitate the location and to reduce the consumption of
undeveloped land.
SSC4.1. 6p Alternative Transportation Public Transportation Access the aim is to situate the
building near to bus or rail stations, in order to reduce the impacts from car use.
SSC4.2. 1p - Alternative Transportation Bicycle Storage and Changing Rooms the aim is to
provide secure bicycle storage and/or dressing facilities for the building users, in order to reduce the
impacts from car use.
SSC4.3. 3p Alternative Transportation Low Emitting and Fuel Efficient Vehicles the aim is
to encourage the use of environmental friendly vehicles, offering different benefits for the user, in
order to reduce the impacts from car use.
SSC4.4. 2p - Alternative Transportation Parking Capacity the aim is to facilitate the use of
shared vehicle such as carpools, vanpools, by offering minimum parking capacity, in order to reduce
the impacts from car use.
29

SSC5.1. 1p Site Development Protect or Restore Habitat the aim is to provide habitat for
different species and to promote biodiversity, by conserving and restoring existing areas.
SSC5.2. 1p Site Development Maximize Open Space the aim is to provide vegetated open
spaces in the site area, in order to promote biodiversity.
SSC6.1. 1p Storm water Design Quantity Control the aim is to implement a storm water
management plan, that is able to reduce impervious cover, contaminants, pollution from storm water
runoff, to increase on site infiltration, in order to limit disruption of the natural hydrology.
SSC6.2. 1p Storm water Design Quality control the aim is to manage the storm water runoff,
with different technologies, such as alternative surfaces, nonstructural techniques, etc., in order to
limit de disruption and pollution of the natural water flows.
SSC7.1. 1p Heat Island Effect Nonroof the aim is to implement shading strategies, such as:
existing trees, solar panels, solar reflecting devices or structures, etc., in order to reduce impacts on
microclimate.
SSC7.2. 1p Heat Island Effect Roof the aim is to use roofing materials with high solar
reflectance index, to install vegetated roofs, or vegetated and high Albedo roof surfaces, in order to
reduce impacts on microclimate.
SSC8 1p Light Pollution Reduction the aim is to optimize the interior and exterior lighting
systems, in order to minimize light trespass from the building and site, improve nighttime visibility
through glare reduction, reduce sky glow, etc.
Water Efficiency (WE)
WEP1 Req Water Use Reduction the aim is to implement strategies that use less water than the
calculated water use baseline, in order to increase water efficiency and to reduce water supply and
wastewater systems.
WEC1 2 4p Water Efficient Landscaping the aim is to reduce or eliminate the use of potable
water or other water resources for landscape irrigation and other site activities, implementing systems
for the capture and recycling of rain - and wastewater, etc.
WEC2 2p Innovative Wastewater Technologies the aim is to use high efficiency fixtures and
wastewater treatment systems, in order to reduce the demand for potable water and wastewater
generation on the construction site.
WEC3 2 4p Water Use Reduction the aim is to implement strategies, in order to further
increase water efficiency (up to 40%) within buildings and to reduce water supply and wastewater
systems.
Energy & Atmosphere (EA)
EAP1 Req Fundamental Commissioning of Building Energy Systems the aim is to verify the
energy related systems, such as heating, ventilating, air conditioning, hot water, refrigeration,
lighting and renewable energy systems, if they perform according to the project, in order to reduce
energy, operating costs, etc.
30

EAP2 Req Minimum Energy Performance the aim is to establish the minimum level of energy
efficiency of the building, through energy simulations and compliance with guidelines, in order to
reduce the environmental and economic impacts associated with excessive energy use.
EAP3 Req Fundamental Refrigerant Management the aim is to eliminate the use of
chlorofluorocarbon based refrigerants in new heating, ventilating, air conditioning and refrigeration
systems, in order to reduce the stratospheric ozone depletion.
EAC1 1 19p Optimize Energy Performance the aim is to achieve higher levels of energy
efficiency than the prerequisite standard, to further reduce the environmental and economic impacts
generated by excessive energy use.
EAC2 1 7p Onsite Renewable Energy the aim is to reduce the environmental and economic
impacts of energy produced with fossil fuel, by using on-site self supply systems with renewable
energy.
EAC3 2p Enhanced Commissioning the aim is to accomplish further commissioning, started in
the design process, for a higher efficiency.
EAC4 2p Enhanced Refrigerant Management the aim is to further reduce ozone depletion, by
eliminating the use of refrigerants, or using only refrigerants with low emissions.
EAC5 3p Measurement and Verification the aim is to develop and implement a measurement
and verification plan, that provides, over time, information on the buildings energy consumption.
EAC6 2p Green Power the aim is to encourage and to use renewable technologies for a part of
the buildings energy demand.
Materials & Resources (MR)
MRP1 Req Storage and Collection of Recyclables the aim is to provide places, where the
recyclable materials for the entire building, such as paper, glass, plastics, metals, etc., can be collected
and stored, in order to reduce waste generation that is disposed of in landfills.
MRC1.1. 1 3p Building Reuse Maintain Existing Walls, Floors and Roof the aim is to
maintain the existing building structure and envelope, in order to extend the lifespan of the building.
Reusing an existing building reduces the environmental, economic, and social impact of new
buildings generated by the extraction, manufacturing and transport of new materials.
MRC1.2. 1p Building Reuse Maintain Interior Nonstructural Elements the aim is to reuse the
interior nonstructural elements, in order to reduce the impacts related to new elements.
MRC2 1 2p Construction Waste Management the aim is to establish a consistent waste
management plan, in order to sort the type of waste, whether they are recyclable or will be disposed in
landfill. In addition nonhazardous construction and demolition debris should be recycled, while others
should be incinerated.
MRC3 1 2p Materials Reuse the aim is to reuse salvaged or refurbished materials, in order to
reduce the demand for virgin materials and all the impacts related to extraction and manufacturing of
virgin materials (cost, waste, energy, etc.).
31

MRC4 - 1 2p Recycled content the aim is to encourage the use of building products that
incorporate recycled materials, in order to reduce the impacts of virgin materials.
MRC5 1 2p Regional Materials the aim is to increase the use of building materials that are
extracted and manufactured within the region, in order to reduce the environmental and economic
impacts related to transportation.
MRC6 1p Rapidly renewable Materials the aim is to use materials with short lifecycle, such as
materials and products made from plants, in order to reduce their long time impacts.
MRC7 1p Certified Wood the aim is to protect the environment by using only certified wood for
the wood building components, in accordance with the Forest Stewardship Councils principles and
criteria.
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
IEQP1 Req Minimum Indoor Air Quality Performance the aim is to assure the comfort and well
being of the occupants in naturally or mechanically ventilated spaces, establishing minimum indoor
air quality with correctly designed ventilation systems according to standards.
IEQP2 Req Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) Control the aim is to prohibit smoking in the
building or allow it only in special designed areas, in order to protect the building occupants and
indoor surfaces from environmental tobacco smoke.
IEQC1 1p Outdoor Air Delivery Monitoring the aim is to install monitoring systems that give
information about the air quality (CO
2
level), in order to assure occupants comfort and well being.
IEQC2 1p Increased Ventilation the aim is to increase the occupants comfort and well being
providing addition outdoor air ventilation systems (natural or mechanical) to improve indoor air
quality.
IEQC3.1. 1p Construction Indoor Air Quality Management Plan During Construction the aim
is to develop and implement an IAQ management plan for the construction phase that takes measures
to protect the workers and occupants from unwanted IAQ problems.
IEQC3.2. 1p Construction Indoor Air Quality Management Plan Before Occupancy the aim is
to develop an IAQ management plan, for the phase after all finishes have been installed, that provide a
good IAQ by performing a building flush out or conducting air testing.
IEQC4.1. 1p Low Emitting Materials Adhesives and Sealants the aim is to use adhesives and
sealants with low VOC limits, in order to reduce or eliminate indoor air contaminants, that are
odorous or have harmful effects on the occupants.
IEQC4.2. 1p Low Emitting Materials Paints and Coatings - the aim is that the paints and
coatings applied on the interior of the building do not exceed the VOC limits, in order to reduce or
eliminate indoor air contaminants, that are odorous or have harmful effects on the occupants.
IEQC4.3. 1p Low Emitting Materials Flooring Systems the aim is to use only the flooring
elements that meet the testing and product requirements, in order to reduce or eliminate indoor air
contaminants that are odorous or have harmful effects on the occupants.
32

IEQC4.4. 1p Low Emitting Materials Composite Wood and Agrifibre Products the aim is to
use composite wood and agrifiber products for the interior of the building that do not contain added
urea formaldehyde resins, in order to reduce or eliminate indoor air contaminants, that are odorous
or have harmful effects on the occupants.
IEQC5 1p Indoor Chemical and Pollutant Source Control the aim is to minimize the building
occupants exposure to potentially hazardous particulates and chemical pollutants by implanting
different strategies for the control and elimination of pollutants, gases or chemicals.
IEQC6.1. 1p Controllability of Systems Lighting the aim is to provide accessible lighting
systems controls, adjustable to individual needs and preferences, in order to increase the productivity
and comfort of the occupants.
IEQC6.2. 1p Controllability of Systems Thermal Comfort the aim is to design buildings with
comfort controls adjustable to individual needs and preferences, in order to increase thermal comfort
and indeed productivity and well being of the occupants.
IEQC7.1 1p Thermal Comfort Design the aim is to design heating, ventilation and air
conditioning systems and the building envelope in accordance with the standers, in order to provide a
comfortable thermal environment.
IEQC7.2. 1p Thermal Comfort Verification the aim is to permanently monitor the buildings
performance determined by IEQC7.1, in order to provide for the occupants of the building thermal
comfort over time.
IEQC8.1 1p Daylight and Views Daylight the aim is to demonstrate with simulations,
prescriptive or measurements that most of the occupied areas of the building achieve a minimum level
of daylight.
IEQC8.2. 1p Daylight and Views Views the aim is to provide occupants a connection to the
outdoor environment by ensuring direct line of sight to the outdoor.
Innovation in Design (ID)
IDC1 1 5p Innovation in Design the aim is to give the opportunity to design teams to achieve
exceptional performance above the requirements, if they use strategies not mentioned in the guideline
or if they achieve exemplary performance based on the existing guideline.
IDC2 1p LEED Accredited Professional the aim is to reach the required quality of the LEED
application and certification process obtaining at least 1 LEED Accredited Professional in the project
team.
Regional Priority (RP)
RPC1 1 4p Regional Priority the aim is to encourage the projects that have an importance for
the regional environment.
33

3.2.3. Evaluation
The LEED 2009 evaluation system is based on the allocation of credit points based on a set of
impact categories with potential environmental effects and human benefits. For the fundamental
impact categories are 100 base points available. Additional 10 credit points can be allocated for
Innovation in Design and Regional Priority. Every credit point is a whole and positive number and
each criterion is minimum 1point worth, in order to assure a consistent and useable rating system. To
persuade a LEED certification of any level, the prerequisites (SSP1, WE1, EAP1, 2, 3, MRP1, EQP1,
2) are mandatory. The LEED 2009 credit weightings process involves 3 main steps:
1. The environmental impacts of a reference building will be estimated in 13 categories,
typically to a LEED certified building;
2. The relative importance of the building impacts in each category will be compared with the
weightings developed by the National Institute of Standard and Technology (NIST);
3. The building impacts are quantified by modeling, life cycle assessments, transportation
analysis and simulations and are used to allocate points to individual criteria.
The final score is obtained by summarizing the points accorded for each criterion. The LEED
2009 for New Construction and Major Renovations certifications are awarded according to Table 5.

Table 5LEED building certification scale
Certified 40-49 points
Silver 50-59points
Gold 60-79points
Platinum 80points and above

34

3.3. BREEAM for Offices 2008
3.3.1. General
With a history of over 90 years, the Building Research Establishment is a Governmental
establishment in the UK. Since 1997 it has been completely privatized by the building industry. The
main activities of BRE were researches, consultancies and testings for the construction and the built
environmental sectors of the UK. Beside these, BRE contributes to the preparation of national and
international standards and building codes, including the UK Building Regulations. Being
independent of the Government, BRE was able to approve and certify the products it tested. In 1999
the BRE Certification, renamed later to BRE Global, was borne. Bre Global owns and operates very
important environmental rating schemes, such as BREEAM and EcoHomes.
BREEAM (BRE Environmental Assessment Method) is one of the worlds leading and most
widely used assessment methods for buildings. It was conceived by BRE and was first used in 1990.
BREEAM offers a set of standards for sustainable design, construction and operation of buildings.
Furthermore BREEAM evaluates and assess the environmental performances of a building. Aim of
BREEAM is to reduce the impact of buildings on the environment, to enable buildings to be
recognized according to their environmental benefits, to provide a credible, environmental label for
buildings and to stimulate the demand for sustainable buildings.
The BREEAM schemes can be used for different types of projects, such as new constructions,
major refurbishments of existing buildings, or fit outs at design or post construction stages. They
cover a variety of developments, such as industrial, residential, office, healthcare, education, etc.
In order to get a building BREEAM assessed, two possibilities are available: Standard
BREEAM version and Bespoke BREEAM Certification, for less common building types. The
Standard Certification is based on 6 stages:

BREEAM certification
Quality assurance
Information
Contact a licensed assessor
Have an idea of the level of rating you would like to achieve
The BREEAM Pre-Assessment Estimator
35

BREEAM Office 2008 is one of the worlds most used tool of evaluating and improving the
environmental performances of office buildings. The scheme can be applied on new buildings,
refurbishments and fit outs, but only on building that consist of office areas and associated
functions/areas. Like every BREEAM scheme, BREEAM Office covers 10 categories of
sustainability, which consist in a number of environmental issues. The issues tend to reduce the
impact of buildings on the environment by defining a performance target and assessment criteria that
has to be met, in order to receive credit points. Each category is defined by a number of criteria and
available credit points with different contribution to the final score (Table 6). In most of the cases, to
achieve a high rating level, the performance targets go beyond the minimum standards defined by the
Building Regulation or other legislation. They represent good practice in the field of sustainability.
Table 6 The main sections and weightings of the BREEAM
Topics BREEAM No of criteria Max credits Weighting % per credit
Management (Man) 5 criteria 10c 12% 1.2
Health and Wellbeing (Hea) 13 criteria 13c 15% 1.15
Energy (Ene) 7 criteria 24c 19% 0.79
Transport (Tra) 6 criteria 10c 8% 0.8
Water (Wat) 4 criteria 6c 6% 1.0
Materials (Mat) 7 criteria 13c 12.5% 0.96
Waste (Wst) 4 criteria 7c 7.5% 1.07
Land Use and Ecology (LE) 6 criteria 10c 10% 1
Pollution (Pol) 7 criteria 12c 10% 0.83
Total 59 105 100 0.95

A short overview and description of the categories and requirements for: BREEAM 2008 is
presented in the following section.
Management
Man1 2c Commissioning (M) the aim is to realize an adequate commissioning of the building
services, with a comprehensive and well-coordinated plan, carried out in line with current regulations
and guidelines, in order to ensure an optimal performance for the buildings occupants.
Man2 2c Considerate Constructors (M) the aim is to encourage construction sites managed in a
considerate manner to minimize social and environmental impacts. Thereby the main contractor has to
comply with the Considerate Constructors Scheme (CCS) or other alternative and independently
assessed scheme.
Man3 4c Construction Site Impacts the aim is to reduce the environmental impacts of the
construction sites related to resource use, energy consumption and pollution by monitoring, reporting
36

and setting targets for different items such as CO
2
emissions, water consumption, etc. and using only
certified timber.
Man4 1c Building User Guide (M) the aim is to offer a guidance for the building users that
contains information about building services, water use, energy and environmental strategy,
emergency, waste policy, etc., in order to understand and explore the building efficiently.
Man8 1c Security the aim is to reduce the risk and fear of crime with the implementation of
effective design measures.
Health and Wellbeing
Hea1 1c Daylighting the aim is to offer sufficient access to daylight for the building occupants
with appropriate daylight factor and room geometry.
Hea2 -1c View Out the aim is to ensure direct line sight to the outdoor, to provide the occupants a
connection to the external environment, in order to reduce the risk of eyestrain and to break the
interior monotony.
Hea3 1c Glare Control the aim is to provide the most occupied areas with user controlled
shading systems, in order to reduce the problems related to glare.
Hea4 1c High frequency lighting (M) the aim is to fit all the fluorescent and compact fluorescent
lamps with high frequency ballasts to reduce the risks caused by the flicker of fluorescent lighting.
Hea5 1c Internal and external lighting levels the aim is to design lighting systems in accordance
with the standards, in order to ensure best visual performance and comfort for the building occupants.
Hea6 1c Lighting zones and controls the aim is to provide easy accessible controls for the
lighting systems in the most relevant building areas to ensure occupants a better comfort.
Hea7 1c Potential for Natural Ventilation the aim is to encourage the use of natural ventilation
to provide adequate cross flow of air and to reduce air conditioned/mechanically ventilated
buildings in the future.
Hea8 1c Indoor Air Quality the aim is to assure a good air circulation in order to reduce the risks
to health related to poor air quality.
Hea9 1c Volatile Organic Compounds the aim is to use products, applied on the interior of the
building, that do not exceed the VOC limits, in order to reduce or eliminate indoor air contaminants
with harmful effects on the occupants.
Hea10 1c Thermal Comfort the aim is to achieve appropriate levels of thermal comfort using
advanced softwares for modeling and simulation.
Hea11 1c Thermal Zoning the aim is to design buildings with controls which allow the
adjustment of the heating/ cooling systems after individual needs and preferences.
Hea12 1c Microbial Contamination (M) the aim is to verify if the building utilities are designed
correctly, in order to reduce or eliminate the risk of legionellosis diseases during exploitation.
Hea13 1c Acoustic Performance the aim is to demonstrate that the buildings acoustic
performance is according to the standards accomplishing measurements and testings.
37

Energy
Ene1 15c Reduction of CO
2
Emissions (M) the aim is to design buildings with high energy
efficiency and low CO
2
emissions.
Ene2 1c Sub metering of Substantial Energy Uses (M) the aim is to provide energy sub
meters labeled with the end energy consume for systems such as heating, cooling, humidification,
lighting, etc, in order to monitor and improve the energy consumption.
Ene3 1c Sub metering of High Energy Load and Tenancy Areas the aim is provide the building
with accessible sub meters, labeled with the end energy consuming use of the tenants and end users.
Ene4 1c External Lighting the aim is to encourage the use of energy efficient light fittings for
external areas in order to reduce the energy consumption.
Ene5 3c Low Zero Carbon Technologies (M) the aim is to encourage the use of renewable
energy sources, installed locally or provided by an energy supplier, in order to supply a proportion of
the energy demand and to reduce emissions and pollutants.
Ene8 2c Lifts the aim is to encourage the use of transportation systems, which were carefully
designed, in order to save energy.
Ene9 1c Escalators and travelling walkways the aim is to encourage the use of energy efficient
transportation systems.
Transport
Tra1 3c Provision of Public Transport the aim is to encourage the use of public transport,
indeed buildings should be placed near to good public transport networks. In this way emissions
related to individual means of transport and traffic congestion can be reduced.
Tra2 1c Proximity to amenities the aim is to locate the building near utilities like ATM, post box
or food outlet, in order to avoid long travel distances.
Tra3 2c Cyclist Facilities the aim is to encourage building occupants to use bikes instead of
cars, providing them secure bicycle storage and facilities to take shower, change or dry the wet
clothes.
Tra4 1c Pedestrian and Cyclist Safety the aim is to ensure safe and secure routes for the
pedestrians and cyclists.
Tra 5 1c Travel Plan the aim is to provide the occupants with an elaborated plan of transport,
which consider all types of travel, in order to encourage them to abandon the individual means with
high environmental impacts.
Tra 6 2c Maximum Car Parking Capacity the aim is to offer only minimum parking places for
private car, in order to encourage the use of alternative means of transport, which has lower
environmental impacts.
Water
Wat1 3c Water Consumption (M) the aim is to use sanitary fittings and cooling systems with a
water efficient technology, in order to minimize the consumption of potable water.
38

Wat2 1c Water Meter (M) the aim is to install water meters on the mains water supply to be able
to monitor and manage the water consumption and thereby to reduce it.
Wat3 - 1c Major Leak Detection the aim is to install a leak detection system that is capable to
detect major leaks on the water supply in order to reduce the impacts from undetected leaks.
Wat4 1c Sanitary Supply Shut Off the aim is to minimize the minor leaks in toilet facilities by
installing solenoid valves on the water supply, controlled by infra red movement detector or sensors.
Materials
Mat1 4c Materials Specification (Major Building Elements) the aim is to use for the major
building elements construction materials which has a low environmental impact over the entire life
cycle of the building.
Mat2 1c Hard Landscaping and Boundary Protection the aim is to encourage the use of
materials, with low environmental impact over their entire life cycle, for boundary protection and
external hard surfaces.
Mat3 1c Re Use of Facade the aim is to encourage to reuse in situ the existing building
facades.
Mat4 1c Re Use of Structure the aim is to encourage reusing the existing structures in - situ
without significant strengthening works.
Mat5 3c Responsible Sourcing of Materials the aim is to use responsibly sourced materials, with
certifications achieved by the supplier, for the main construction elements.
Mat6 2c Insulation the aim is to achieve an insulation of the building envelope, with good
thermal properties, but realized with responsibly sourced materials with low embodied environmental
impact.
Mat7 1c Designing for Robustness the aim is to protect the vulnerable and exposed elements of
the building to pedestrian, vehicle or trolley traffic in order to minimize the damages and to reduce the
need of material replacements.
Waste
Wst1 4c Construction Site Waste Management the aim is to promote the resource efficient
construction sites, through an adequate management of the construction waste. Thereby a site waste
management plan must exist that contains target benchmark for resource efficiency, strategies for
reducing, sorting reusing and recycling of nonhazardous waste.
Wst2 1c Recycled Aggregates the aim is to encourage the use of secondary aggregates obtained
on site, from processed construction, demolition and excavation waste or from non construction
consumer sources, in order to reduce the demand for virgin materials.
Wst3 1c Recyclable Waste Storage (M) the aim is to provide the building dedicated storage
spaces for the recyclable waste material generated during exploitation, in order to divert such waste
from landfill or incineration.
39

Wst6 1c Floor Finishes the aim is to select the corresponding fitting of floor finishes for the
building occupant, in order to reduce the waste of materials.
Land Use and Ecology
LE1 1c Reuse of Land the aim is reduce the development on previously undeveloped land and to
encourage the reuse of still developed or discharged areas for building.
LE2 1c Contaminated Land the aim is to build on contaminated land which otherwise would not
have been used, in order to identify the degree and source of contamination and to take options to
remediate them.
LE3 1c Ecological Value of Site and Protection of Ecological Features the aim is to build on
land with low ecological value and to take measures in order to protect the existing features from
serious damages related to site preparation and construction activities.
LE4 2c Mitigating Ecological Impact (M) the aim is to develop but without having an impact on
the existing site ecology.
LE5 3c Enhancing Site Ecology the aim is to encourage developments that not only maintain,
but also enhance the ecological value of the site.
LE6 2c Long Term Impact on Biodiversity the aim is to fulfill mandatory criteria in order to
minimize the long term impact of the development on the local and regional biodiversity.
Pollution
Pol1 1c Refrigerant GWP Building Services the aim is to reduce the impact of refrigerants to
climate change by no use or use of refrigerants with low global warming potential.
Pol2 2c Preventing Refrigerants Leaks the aim is to detect the leak and recover the refrigerant,
in order to reduce the environmental emissions related to leakages in the cooling plant.
Pol4 3c NO
x
emissions from heating source the aim is to use heating systems that has low dry
NO
x
levels and reduce therefore the pollution of the local environment.
Pol5 3c Flood Risk the aim is to situate the building in areas with low flood risks and to take
measures to minimize the impact of flooding on the constructions where the risks of flooding are
medium or high.
Pol6 1c Minimizing Watercourse Pollution the aim is to reduce the pollution of watercourses
with heavy metals, chemicals, oil or silt related to surface water run off from buildings.
Pol7 1c Reduction of Night Time Light Pollution the aim is to ensure a well designed external
lighting strategy that considers an optimal use, in order to reduce unnecessary light pollution, energy
consumption and nuisance to neighboring properties.
Pol8 1c Noise Attenuation the aim is to reduce noise related to the new buildings, not to affect
the noise sensitive buildings in the neighborhood.

40

Innovation
Inn1 10c Innovation the aim is to provide additional issues in the field of sustainability, beside
the ones recognised and rewarded within standard BREEAM issues or to achieve excellent
performances for the existing issues.
3.3.3. Evaluation
The BREEAM rating is determined by a number of elements such as the BREEAM rating
benchmarks, minimum BREEAM standards, environmental weightings and credits for Innovation.
The rating benchmarks for BREEAM 2010 is shown in Table 7 and is applicable to new
buildings, major refurbishments and where possible to fit out projects.
Table 7BREEAM 2010 rating benchmarks
BREEAM Rating % Score
Unclassified <30
Pass 30
Good 45
Very Good 55
Excellent 70
Outstanding 85

To achieve a BREEAM rating of any level, mandatory credits has to be met for different
criteria, complied with the rating level, as shown in Table 8.

Table 8Minimum BREEAM standards
Pass Good Very Good Excellent Outstanding
Man 1 1c Man 1 1c Man 1 1c Man 1 1c Man 1 2c
Hea 4 1c Hea 4 1c Hea 4 1c Hea 4 1c Hea 4 1c
Hea 12 1c Hea 12 1c Hea 12 1c Hea 12 1c Hea 12 1c
Wat 1 1c Wat 1 1c Wat 1 1c Wat 1 2c
Wat 2 1c Wat 2 1c Wat 2 1c Wat 2 1c
Ene 2 1c Ene 2 1c Ene 2 1c
LE 4 1c LE 4 1c LE 4 1c
Man 2 1c Man 2 2c
Man 4 1c Man 4 1c
Ene 1 6c Ene 1 10c
Ene 5 1c Ene 5 1c
Wst 3 1c Wst 3 1c
41

Beside the regular credits, additional innovation credits can be provided for a building. The
innovation credits are rewarded for buildings with excellent performances in the field of
sustainability, above and beyond the current level available and recognized in the BREEAM issues.
An additional 1% score can be added to the final score for each innovation credit achieved. Maximum
innovation credits assessable are 10, so maximum 10% can be awarded to the final BREEAM rating.
The way in which a building can achieve innovation credits is shown at section Innovation.
The final rating is calculated by a BREEAM assessor using the BREEAM Assessors
Spreadsheet Tool and associated calculators. 5 steps have to be done to determine the BREEAM
rating level:
1. The number of credits for each BREEAM category are determined;
2. The percentage of the achieved credits are calculated for each BREEAM category;
3. The percentage achieved in step 2 is weighted with the corresponding section weighting,
obtaining the category score;
4. The category scores are summarized to give the overall BREEAM score, which is compared
to the benchmarks in Table 7 and verified if all minimum standards for the complied level are
met;
5. Additional innovation scores can be added to the final score.
To achieve an Outstanding BREEAM rating level, the building must achieve a final score
85% , has to meet the mandatory standards for this rating level and must provide material for
the production and publication of a case study on the Outstanding related building. In addition
the building has to obtain a BREEAM in Use Certification of Performance within the first three
years of operation and use in order to keep this rating.

42

4 Authors Proposals for the Building Sustainability
A measurement of sustainability must combine the individual and collective actions to sustain
the environment as well as to improve the economy and satisfy societal needs [22], [66].
The sustainability of buildings is a very complex issue. It includes a lot of factors with clear
defined relations. The authors proposed a structure of the building sustainability, which shows its
main components and their connections. This structure is defined by five major components:
principle, goals, dimensions, requirements and the life cycle phases. Fig. 3 shows the complete
structure.
Current studies, researches and developments are mostly related to sustainability. This is the
principle that has to be followed by all our activities. Elkington (1977) [17] developed the principle of
the triple bottom line and refers to the social, environmental and financial performance, which are
directly tied to the concept and goal of sustainable development.
The goals of sustainable development are the actual and the future generation, as according to
the definition of the Brundtland Report. The three dimensions are: ecological, economic and social, as
it is visible on figure 1, where sustainability is represented at the confluence of these three pillars.
These first three components are generally available for all the domains, independent on the
area of activity. The particularities of the construction sector in general are characterized by the
requirements and criteria that buildings have to meet trough their life cycle phases. For this reason
sustainability is appreciated as a management tool which evaluates the ecological, economic and
social concerns related to new or existing constructions.
Being considered a decision making support tool, the requirements and criteria have to be
evaluated and materialized either at a specific phase or through the entire life cycle in order to be able
to appreciate and determine the sustainability of a building.
The authors proposed two evaluation models, a global and a specific one, which help to
determine the sustainability index of a building. In the following chapters the models are described in
detail and are also exemplified on case studies.

43

Figure 3Structure of building sustainability
4.1. Global model
The global model is an evaluation tool, which combine the specific requirements of the three
dimensions. It is based on a scoring system but the data used for accordance of points can be either
qualitative or quantitative.
To materialize the effects of the specific requirements, each of them is quantified with a
score. The scores are accorded in function of calculated or evaluated value of each criterion. Table 9
shows all the requirements with their corresponding scores.
The sum of the scores is 100 for each dimension, but they represent different percentages
from the global score. So the ecological part contributes with 40% and the economic respectively
social part with 30%.
44

The sustainability is obtained with a simple equation:
BSI=0.4xE +0.3xF + 0.3xP (1)
Measurement is based on a point awarding system and the total score obtained for the
evaluation reflects the performance of a building in achieving sustainable goals.
Table 9Topics and scores of the global model
B
u
i
l
d
i
n
g

S
u
s
t
a
i
n
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x

Criteria
Nr. of points from
each dimension
Weighting
Nr. of points (%)
from entire model
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t

Initial embodied energy
20p
40%
(0.4)
8.0
Operational energy
20p 8.0
Envelope
20p 8.0
Renewable energy
8p 3.2
Water consumption
12p 4.8
Recycled materials
8p 3.2
Renewable materials
4p 1.6
Waste generation
4p 1.6
Heat island effect
4p 1.6
TOTAL
100p 40p
E
c
o
n
o
m
i
c

Initial costs
25p
30%
(0.3)
7.5
Operational costs
25p 7.5
Erection time
15p 4.5
Long service life
17p 5.1
Ease of Cleaning and
Maintenance of the Structure
8p 2.4
Construction site and project
management
10p 3.0
TOTAL
100p 30p
S
o
c
i
a
l

Thermal comfort 16p
30%
(0.3)
4.8
Daylight 8p 2.4
Air quality 8p 2.4
Noise and acoustic comfort 8p 2.4
Structure safety 20p 6.0
Fire protection 15p 4.5
Adaptability and area efficiency 15p 4.5
System efficiency and control 10p 3.0
TOTAL 100p 30p

For a better understanding of each requirement, here comes an explanation what they refer to
and how the scores are given:
45

Environment
Initial embodied energy 20p the aim is to reduce the initial embodied energy and the emissions of
CO
2
related to the extraction, manufacturing, transport and demolition of building materials. The
accordance of points is based on the energy demand per square meter of built area. In general the total
initial energy incorporated in a building is a function of the main structural material. So buildings with
a timber framed structure can obtain maximum points, followed by reinforced concrete, masonry and
steel structures. For exact evaluation calculations have to be done.
Operational energy 20p the aim is to reduce the operational energy consumption and the CO
2

emissions associated with them. This parameter is related to the energy consumption for heating,
cooling, air conditioning, hot water, refrigeration and lighting during the service life of the building. It
can be evaluated in function of the necessary energy demand compared to the target value the
building, taken from the Energy Performance certificate. Benchmarks have to be set in order to accord
the credit points.
Envelope 20p the aim is to minimize the energy demand for the space conditioning, to assure high
thermal comfort and to avoid structural damage. Therefore materials with high quality shall be used
for external walls, roofs and floors. The building envelope can be evaluated based on proper
parameters like: Average heat transmission coefficient, Permeability, Air change rate, etc. If the
envelope meets the minimum requirements 10points can be allocated. Additional points will we
rewarded proportional.
Renewable energy 8p the aim is to encourage the use of renewable energy sources as solar, wind,
geothermal, etc. in order to supply a part of the nonrenewable energy. In this way environmental and
economic impacts related to fossil fuel energy sources can be reduced. For a percentage of 24%
renewable energy used, the maximum points will be allocated.
Water consumption 12p the aim is to reduce the on site and indoor potable water consumption
from all sources, through the use of water efficient fittings, appliances and water recycling systems.
Up to 12 points are awarded for achieving the performance target. The calculations are based on the
predicted average water consumption calculated in liter/person/day but also on the initial water
consume for the erection of the building.
Recycled materials 8p the aim is to reduce the environmental and economic impacts related to
extraction and manufacturing of virgin materials. For materials with a recycled content of at least 24%
the maximum points will be allocated.
Renewable materials 4p the aim is to reduce the consumption and depletion of finite raw materials
and long-cycle renewable materials by replacing them with rapidly renewable materials. This kind of
materials are made from plants that are typically harvested within a 10-year or shorter cycle. On the
other hand, major construction materials can be reused after demolition in the composition of new
materials. If at least 8% of the total amount is renewable materials or 100% of the main structural
materials can be reused, 4 points are allocated.
46

Waste generation 4p the aim is to reduce waste generation, related to construction site works and
to assure an efficient waste management plan. The plan must include measures which diverts
construction and demolition debris from disposal in landfills and incineration facilities. One criterion
for the allocation of points is based on the quantity of waste generated on site during construction and
the second criterion is related to the existence of a waste management plan.
Heat island effect 4p the aim is to reduce the impact on microclimate and human environment.
The type of roof and faade materials plays an important role in the enhancement of the heat island
effect. Roofing materials with a high solar reflectance index (SRI) will be scored with 4 points.
Economic
Initial costs 25p the aim is to reduce the overall costs of a building. Initial costs are related to the
manufacturing of building materials, transport and manpower, but also to the acquisition of the
installation systems. For a new building the initial costs are expressed in Euro/ square meter floor
area. Higher initial costs resulting from the investment in materials or systems with better quality may
be recovered during the operation stage. Benchmark values have to be set for different types of
buildings and the points can be accorded proportional.
Operational costs 25p operational costs are as important as the initial costs. They are in strong
relation with the operational energy consumption. The less energy is consumed for heating and
cooling the less money is paid for the bills. Beside this, the costs for maintenance and minor
reparations also contribute to the overall cost. Life cycle cost analysis has to be performed in order to
evaluate the expenditures and to find alternatives to improve the cost effectiveness. Points will be
allocated if the reduction of operational costs, due to low energy consume and proper material
selection, are proved.
Erection time 15p beside good price and high quality the erection time is also very important for
the beneficiary. The aim is to encourage the acceleration of construction works, but without affecting
their quality. Buildings using prefabricated elements reduce the erection time, so maximum points can
be accorded.
Long service life 17p the aim is to realize buildings with long service life, in order to reduce all the
impacts related to new constructions. It represents the life span of a building, or in case of
rehabilitation the increase of its resistance. Typically the life span of a building is assumed to be 50
years without any refurbishments. In such circumstances the masonry and RC structures used to have
a longer service life, so they get the maximum of 17p.
Ease of Cleaning and Maintenance of the Structure 8p the aim is to extend the useful lifetime of
building parts and layers of building parts, which can lead to lower maintenance costs. Proper
documentation and a good technical planning of the building are needed to enable efficient cleaning
and maintenance. If a user guide and instructions for maintenance and operations are available, 8
points can be allocated.
47

Construction site and project management 10p the aim is assure an environmental friendly
construction site and a well prepared project. To protect the environment and the health of all
participants, construction sites must fulfill some important criteria: low waste, noise and dust
generation. Proper documentation and plans has to be realized which take measures in order to limit
this aspects. On the other side, in order to achieve a quality work, all the design projects have to be
prepared optimally. An integral planning, which considers the entire life cycle of a building, is
necessary to be realized. Already in the design stage the quality has to be guaranteed by a complex
planning that includes issues about energy, water, waste, and other aspects related to sustainability,
but also offers alternative comparisons. If all the documentation exists 10 points can be accorded.
Social
Thermal comfort 16p the aim is assure an optimal thermal comfort for the occupants of the
building. The main criteria which are needed to evaluate thermal comfort are: inner temperature,
relative humidity, thermal gradient, air change. In this sense the envelope plays an important role
because of its insulation, permeability and air tightness properties, but also the heating and cooling
systems should be taken in consideration. The points will be accorded in function of the calculated
PMV (Predicted mean vote) and PPD (Predicted percentage of dissatisfied)
Daylight 8p the aim is to let natural lighting inside the building. In this way the monotony of the
indoor environment can be disrupted and the consumption of electricity for lightning systems can also
be reduced. Points will be allocated in function of the average daylight factor achieved in each room
of the building. For example, a building, with an average daylight factor of 6% and direct access to
natural light in each room, will gain 8 points.
Air quality 8p the aim is to assure a good indoor air quality for the buildings occupants. In order
to provide a good air quality, the materials used for finishing, paintings, adhesives and coatings must
be odourless and with low emissions of volatile organic compounds VOCs. Another important factor
is related to the ventilation systems. They have to provide a good air circulation, in order to eliminate
all the unwanted smells and contaminants and to bring in fresh air. The points will be allocated in
function of the total volatile organic compounds TVOCs concentration, which is based either on
measurements or on product documentation and on the documentation of the ventilation systems.
Noise and acoustic comfort 8p the aim is to create proper conditions assuring low level of
interference and background noise. On the other hand it is also important to reduce the noise related to
new buildings which can affect other buildings in the neighborhood. Two important parameters are
evaluated: the airborne sound insulation values and the impact sound insulation values. These can be
determined either by testing or by Robust Details. Maximum points will be allocated for buildings
which improve the values set in the performance standards. For example, if the airborne sound
insulation value is with 9dB higher and the impact sound insulation value with 9dB lower, 8 points
will be allocated.
48

Structure safety 20p the aim is to protect the building occupants in case of extreme situations.
After an earthquake most of the buildings will suffer some damages. The appearance of
displacements, cracks or deflections in the building elements can lead to the destruction of the
building. Structures have to be designed in such way, that they does not collapse under extreme loads.
To analyze their safety they will be evaluated after specific standards. For existing structures built
before 1970, as well for strengthening structures, the resistance to all actions (including extreme
loads) should be over a minimum limit value, to be considered as safety. The failure probability P
f
or
reliability index
E
can be considered as main parameters. For an optimal value of P
f
= 10
-6
or
E
=
4.75 the maximum of 20 points will be allocated.
Fire protection 15p the aim is to protect the occupants from the fire in buildings and from the
toxic smoke caused by the fire. To allocate points, the quality of fire protection measures should be
increased. The fire resistance of each element has to be in accordance with the performance standards,
but also other issues as alarm, sprinkler, smoke evacuation systems and evacuation plans has to be
taken in consideration. Generally masonry and concrete structure have a good fire resistance, while
steel and wooden structures need additional coatings to assure the performance targets. This can lead
to additional costs and emissions due the increased use of materials.
Adaptability and area efficiency 15p the aim is to design buildings which can be adapted to
different requirements and destinations without high investments. It is important to create structures
with high area efficiency, flexibility and adaptability. A good adaptability offers the possibility to
modify the inner architecture, in order to have an optimal place use. The buildings with framed
structures may get a maximum score (15p) for adaptability, because the separation walls can be
placed optional, without risking the structure safety.
System efficiency and control 14p the aim is to provide systems with high efficiency in order to
reduce the impacts related to their use and to assure an optimal control of these systems for the
buildings occupants. All energy systems should be in accordance to the CEE directives and should
present an energetic certificate. On the other hand, heating, lighting and cooling systems should be
provided with individual controls in order to be adjustable for personal needs and preferences.
Maximum points will be allocated if the optimum values for each criterion are met. The
optimal reference values are given in Table 12, as an example applied to a family dwelling.
Achieving these targets would result in an ideal solution, which would meat all the sustainability
performances of a building. The values presented in the example are only indicative and may be
different from case to case.

Compared to the other certification tools, the global model proposed by the authors has the
aim to ease the decision making of a civil engineer. The criteria evaluated in the global model are
mostly related to the tasks that a civil engineer has to do. Other aspects, like site selection and
architectural value of site are also important, but not for a civil engineer. Architects, ecologist and
49

structural engineers have to collaborate in order to take the optimal solution. The authors considered
that the decision regarded to the requirements presented before are strongly related to the civil
engineer, even if in some aspects consulting may be necessary.
A comparison has been realized between the three certification tools (DGNB, LEED and
BREEAM) and the global model. The aim of the study was to see how these models consider the
three pillars of sustainability (ecological, economic and social) and in which way these are in a civil
engineer approach. Table 10 shows the results.
Table 10 Comparison of the evaluation models
Model\Dimension Ecological Economic Social Total
DGNB 29.2% 31.3% 21.8% 82.3%
LEED 58% - 18% 76%
BREEAM 49.85 10.8 23.82 78.22%
Global model 40% 30% 30% 100%

4.2. Specific model
A building sustainability index S, based on the global model presented in the previous chapter
has been established. The building sustainability index includes the quantification of measurable
objectives that characterize the full life cycle of buildings. To combine the effects of the three
dimensions ecological, economic and social, on the entire building sustainability, a simple
quantitative equation has been proposed [7], [8]. Similar approach has been proposed also by other
authors [22]:
P
P
F
F
E
E
S S S BSI
R
p
R
f
R
e p f e
o o o + + = + + = (2)
Where:
BSI building sustainability index;
S
e
, S
f
, S
p
, - building sustainability indexes for the ecological, economic and social dimensions;
e
,
f
,
p
, - coefficients indicating the percentage of participation to the building sustainability
of the three dimensions;
E
R
, F
R
, P
R
, - reference values for the components of the ecological, economic and social
dimensions;
E, F, P the values of the components taken into account for the three dimensions.
To calculate the absolute quantities from formula (1) there is necessary to split each term in
measurable values.
For instance the building sustainability index for the ecological dimension can be considered as
follows:
50

e
R
e
eb
R
l
l
ec
R
ew
n
R
n
en e
B
B
M
M
W
W
E
E
S o o o o + + + = (3)
With the correlation:
e
=
en
+
ew
+
em
+
eb
( 4)
where:
R
n
E and E
n
total embodied energy (initial and operational) of the reference and studied
building;
W
R
and W water consumption of a reference and studied building;
R
l
M and M
l
renewable materials used by the reference and studied building;
R
e
B and B
e
specific parameters of the reference and studied building envelope
en
,
ew
,
em
,
eb
coefficients indicating the percentage of participation to the building
sustainability of the total energy, water consumption, renewable materials and building envelope.

The building sustainability index for the economic dimension can be considered as follows:
R
fl
R
ft
R
fc f
L
L
T
T
C
C
S o o o + + = (5)
With the correlation
f
=
fc
+
ft
+
fl
(6)
where:
C
R
and C total costs (initial and operational) of a reference and studied building;
T
T
and T the erection time of a reference and studied building;
L
R
and L long service life of the reference building as compared with the studied building;

fc
+
ft
+
fl
coefficients indicating the percentage of participation to the building
sustainability of the total costs, erection time and long service life.

The building sustainability index for the social dimension can be considered as follows:
R
pf
R
pr
R
pq
h
R
h
pth p
F
F
R
R
Q
Q
T
T
S o o o o + + + = (7)
With
p
=
pt
+
pq
+
pr
+
pf
(8)
where:

R
h
T and T
h
thermal comfort for a reference and studied building;
Q
R
and Q includes the interior comfort (daylight, air quality, noise and acoustic comfort) of
a reference and studied building;
R
R
and R structure safety of a reference and studied building;
51

F
R
and F fire protection of a reference and studied building;

pt
+
pq
+
pr
+
pf
- coefficients indicating the percentage of participation to the building
sustainability of the thermal comfort, interior comfort, structure safety and fire protection.
The reference values E
R
, F
R
and P
R
can be taken either as the minimum values of the
calculated solutions or as optimal and mandatory values according to standards or other sources.
The distribution of the coefficients was established arbitrary, in function of the importance of
the parameters:
e
=40% (0.4);
f
=30% (0.4);
p
=30% (0.3); (9)

For an analysis with smaller number of measurable values than it has been presented (4 for
ecological, 3 for economic and 4 for social dimension) the sum of coefficients indicating the
percentage of participation will be the same as for all number of values (see 9).
In accordance with the global model the specific coefficients are:
e
=
en
+
ew
+
ec
+
eb
= 0.2 + 0.05 +0.05 + 0.1 = 0.4 (10)

f
=
fc
+
ft
+
fl
= 0.18 + 0.05 + 0.07 = 0.3 (11)

p
=
pt
+
pq
+
pr
+
pf
= 0.07 + 0.09 + 0.08 + 0.06 = 0.3 (12)

The building sustainability index BSI, presented, is a way to use multiple criteria in relation to
project decision making. Even for smaller number of measurable values, using the BSI will simplify
the appreciation of sustainable development and will confer a positive contribution to obtain optimum
design solutions and facility operations.

52

4.3. Application of the evaluation models
4.3.1. Family Dwelling
In order to exemplify the two evaluation models a case study has been realized on a typical
family dwelling, with 256.7 m
2
floor area on a semi-basement, ground floor and attic (Fig 4). Two
alternative external wall systems have been used, in order to realize a comparison.

Figure 4Example House

The first alternative house design was realized with a masonry frame structure with and
external wall system composed of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Brick of 35cm thickness and a
Polystyrene layer of 5 cm as thermal insulation (Fig 5a).
The second alternative is also a masonry frame structure, but the external wall system is a
modern system, known as Argisol. The system is composed of two layers of Polystyrene of 5cm,
which also play the role of form for the concrete (Fig 5b) and a resistance structure of 25 cm
reinforced concrete wall.

a) b)
Figure 5 Wall Systems
The materials and their initial embodied energy, which were different for the two alternatives,
are summarized in Table 11. The values for the embodied energy were taken from two free available
databases and have been calculated manually [67], [68].
53

Table 11Amount of materials required for each external wall alternative
Alternative 1
Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Brick Wall (ACBW)
Alternative 2
Polystyrene layer with RC Wall (PRCW)
Material Quantity
[kg]
Energy
[MJ/kg]
Total
Energy
[MJ]
Material Quantity
[kg]
Energy
[MJ/kg]
Total
Energy
[MJ]
Portland
cement
2295 4.6 10557 Cement 16918 3.52 59551
Cement fly ash 2350 3.52 8272 Lime paste 490 4.62 2264
Lime paste 1820 4.62 8408 Gypsum 35 3.2 112
Hydrated lime 975 1.39 1355 Aggregate 40260 0.035 1409
Simple lime 104 4.31 448 Sand 53200 0.055 2926
Gypsum 35 3.2 112 Water 22000 0.0055 121
Aggregate 5600 0.035 196 Steel 1202 29.5 35459
Sand 29250 0.055 1608 Polystyrene 310 106 32860
Water 14000 0.0055 77 Energy
[kWh]
53.15 3.6 192
Steel 584 29.5 17228
Polystyrene 162 106 17172
AAC Brick 48000 3.5 168000
Bitumen 522 53 27666
Energy [kWh] 18 3.6 64.8
Total = 261 165 MJ Total = 134 893 MJ

The application of the global model has been made based on either quantitative or qualitative
determined values of the criteria. In Table 12 the summary of the accorded scores for each criterion
are presented. There are also some reference values, which will be used for the calculation of the BSI
applying the specific model.

Applying formula (1), the building sustainability indexes are obtained as followed:

BSI
1
= 0.4x68 + 0.3x71.7 + 0.3x56.6 = 65.7%

BSI
2
= 0.4x63.5 + 0.3x74.8 + 0.3x58.6 = 65.42%

54

Table 12 Application of the global model
Alternative 1 (ACBW) Alternative 2 (PRCW)
Criteria Reference
Value
Calculated
value
Accorded
points
Calculated
value
Accorded
points
E
c
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l

Initial embodied
energy
3000
[MJ/m
2
]
4762 [MJ/m
2
] 12p 4310 [MJ/m
2
] 14p
Operational
energy
20000
MJ/m
2
/50y
25020
MJ/m
2
/50y
16p
255560
MJ/m
2
/50y
15p
Envelope <0.20
W/m
2
K
0.26
W/m
2
K
18p
0.35
W/m
2
K
14p
Renewable
energy
24% 0% 0p 0% 0p
Water
consumption
(Initial,
operational)
300 l/m
2
+
120 l/p/d
366 l/m
2
+
90 l/p/d
10p
398 l/m
2
+
90 l/p/d
9p
Recycled
materials
24% 0% 0p 0% 0p
Renewable
materials
100% 85% 8.5p 80% 8p
Waste
generation
No Values Plan incomplete 2p Plan incomplete 2p
Heat island
effect
SRI=100 SRI = 36 1.50 SRI = 36 1.50
TOTAL 68p 63.5p
E
c
o
n
o
m
i
c

Initial costs 300/m
2
571/m
2
13p 525/m
2
14p
Operational
costs
3000
/m
2
/50y
3475
/m
2
/50y
22p
3550
/m
2
/50y
21p
Erection time 50days 75 days 10 69 days 12
Long service life 80 years 55 years 11.7p 60 years 12.8p
Ease of Cleaning
and Maintenance
of the Structure
-
Available
instructions
7p
Available
instructions
7p
Construction site
and project
management
-
Incomplete
project
8p
Incomplete
project
8p
Total 71.7p 74.8p
S
o
c
i
a
l

Thermal comfort PPD, PMV
5%,
[-0.5,0.5]
PPD, PMV
6.9%, -0.3
11.6p
PPD, PMV
6.9%, -0.3
11.6p
Daylight ADF
6%
ADF
2.88%
4p
ADF
2.88%
4p
Air quality TVOC
100g
TVOC
250g
4p
TVOC
250g
4p
Noise and
acoustic comfort
54dB
51dB
48dB
59dB
3p
48dB
59dB
3p
Structure safety
E
=4.75
E
=3.72 14p
E
=4.0 16p
Fire protection 360 min 240 min 5p 240 min 5p
Adaptability and
area efficiency
Modular Inefficient 5p Inefficient 5p
System efficiency
and control
- Efficient 10p Efficient 10p
Total 56.6p 58.6p

To determine the sustainability index with the specific model, we used formula (2), (3), (5), (7),
(9) and the values from Table 12.
55

3 . 0
26 . 0
2 . 0
1 . 0
100
85
05 . 0
366
300
05 . 0
25020
20000
1 . 0
4756
3000
1 . 0
1
= + + + + =
= + + + =
e
R
e
eb
R
l
l
ec
R
ew
n
R
n
en e
B
B
M
M
W
W
E
E
S o o o o

2 . 0
80
55
07 . 0
75
50
05 . 0
3475
3000
09 . 0
571
300
09 . 0
1
= + + + = + + =
R
fl
R
ft
R
fc f
L
L
T
T
C
C
S o o o

2 . 0
360
240
06 . 0
100
70
08 . 0
250
100
54
48
6
88 . 2
03 . 0
9 . 6
5
07 . 0
1
=
(
+ + |
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
= + + + =
R
pf
R
pr
R
pq
h
R
h
pth p
F
F
R
R
Q
Q
T
T
S o o o o

7 . 0 2 . 0 2 . 0 3 . 0
1 1 1 1
= + + = + + =
p f e
S S S BSI
28 . 0
35 . 0
2 . 0
1 . 0
100
80
05 . 0
398
300
05 . 0
25560
20000
1 . 0
4310
3000
1 . 0
2
= + + + + =
= + + + =
e
R
e
eb
R
l
l
ec
R
ew
n
R
n
en e
B
B
M
M
W
W
E
E
S o o o o

21 . 0
80
60
07 . 0
69
50
05 . 0
3550
3000
09 . 0
525
300
09 . 0
2
= + + + = + + =
R
fl
R
ft
R
fc f
L
L
T
T
C
C
S o o o

21 . 0
360
240
06 . 0
100
80
08 . 0
250
100
54
48
6
88 . 2
03 . 0
9 . 6
5
07 . 0
2
=
(
+ + |
.
|
\
|
+ + + =
= + + + =
R
pf
R
pr
R
pq
h
R
h
pth p
F
F
R
R
Q
Q
T
T
S o o o o

7 . 0 21 . 0 21 . 0 28 . 0
2 2 2 2
= + + = + + =
p f e
S S S BSI
In Fig. 6 the comparison of the results determined with the two evaluation models can be
seen:
.
Figure 6Comparison of results applying the two models
56

4.3.2. Strengthened element
The sustainability of strengthening solutions was very little discussed as compared with the
sustainability of new buildings. Four strengthening solutions will be analyzed in the paper (Fig.7).
The consolidated element is an existing RC column with the length of 8 m and a cross section of
600x600 mm. The rehabilitation solutions are:
- The coating by reinforced concrete with 150 mm concrete depth and 320 mm rebar on each
side and stirrups 8/150 mm;
- Steel bracing with four angle irons of 80x80x8 mm, connected by flange plates of 100x8 mm
at 500 mm distance;
- Carbon fiber polymer composites (CFRP) as it is illustrated in Figure 2 with two variants:
- CFRP lamellas (strips) in longitudinal direction and CFRP sheets (wraps) in
transversal direction;
- CFRP sheets in both longitudinal and transversal directions.
Lamellas are with the cross section of 100x1.2 mm (two lamellas on each side) and CFRP
sheets of 600x0.38 mm (one sheet on each side) [15], [1].

Figure 7 Strengthening solutions for a RC column
57

The calculated characteristics of the four strengthening solutions were: the value of the
increasing bending moment M, due to strengthening; the total cost of strengthening solution at the
level of year 2008; the total energy or conventional fuel for each solution; consolidation time. The
results of the analysis are presented in Table 13 and Fig. 8
Table 13Main characteristics of strengthening solutions
Calculated characteristics
Strengthening by coating with
Reinforced
concrete
Steel
profiles
Carbon fibers
Sheets Lamellas + Sheets
Increase of the bending moment
due to strengthening M, [kNm]
220* 235* 194.5**/ 444.7 194.5**/ 444.7
Total cost of strengthening
solutions, []
1633 1342 1158 2878
Embodied energy for
strengthening solutions [MJ]
9555 9457 1414 2268
Consolidation time, [man-hours] 116 69
24
24

Sustainability index, BSI 0.299 0.329 0.737 0.484
Notes: * Bending moment at ultimate stage (failure/yield of strengthening material)
** Bending moment at maximum strain of compressive concrete
16 man-hours for surface preparation before strengthening

Figure 8Sustainability index of strengthening solutions

The main conclusions from this data are:
- The more sustainable solution is the strengthening with CFRP sheets in both directions, be-
cause of the minimum cost of strengthening, energy enclosed and consolidation time.
- The strengthening by CFRP (lamellas and sheets) is sustainable too, due to small energy en-
closed and minimum consolidation time, but the cost is higher.
- The strengthening by RC coating and steel bracing are not sustainable solutions due to high
energy incorporated and big consolidation time at a cost comparable with the solution CFRP
sheets.
58

5 Conclusions
Some important aspects concerning building sustainability were presented and underlined in
this book.
In the first part of the book the concept of sustainable development and its position in the
scientific world is discussed and developed. Sustainable development concerns attitude and judgment
to help insure long term ecological, economic and social growth in the domains of climate,
biodiversity, energy, health, agriculture and others.
Construction is one of the largest users of resources and largest polluters of the natural and
human environment. Due to this fact a voluntary certification system has been proposed in 1990,
which evaluate the sustainable performances of buildings. The development and promotion of
sustainability in the planning, construction and operation process of a building have been developed in
a lot of countries. The main aspects and steps of three certificates for building sustainability (DGNB,
LEED and BREEAM) have been presented in detail. A comparison between the certification tools has
been realized and some important ideas can be underlined:
- The certificates have as target predominantly the new constructions, without
specifications for existing buildings or rehabilitation solutions;
- Some of the certificates do not take in consideration important issues like life cycle
costs and/or technical problems;
- The certificates are mainly qualitative criteria, which do evaluate difficult a building,
because the assessment of building performances include both qualitative and quantitative
aspects;
- For most of the certificates it is not very clear the way in which the points are
awarded for each criterion;
In the second part of the book some important aspects concerning building sustainability were
presented. The authors presented a structure of building sustainability in function of its goals,
dimensions, requirements and phases. Based on this structure two evaluation models have been
proposed, which evaluate the grade of sustainability.
The first one is a global model based on a scoring system for each dimension: ecological,
economic and social. This model was created for a civil engineer approach and includes both new
constructions and strengthening of existing buildings. On the other hand, the model includes both
qualitative and quantitative aspects of the main criteria, which characterize a building; the maximum
number of points awarded for each criterion is also suggested which can lead to an ideal sustainable
building.
The second model, based on a simple formula, which takes into account numerical values, is
also presented: the Building Sustainability Index (BSI). It is based on a multiple dimensional model
that refers to environmental, economic and social issues. This model embraces all advantages
59

presented for the global model and supplementary includes the quantification of main measures that
give a full life cycle analysis of buildings: embodied energy, function of the envelope, water
consumption, life cycle costs, erection time, long service life, protection of health, structure safety,
fire protection, etc. These requirements (criteria) represent over 80% of the total requirements
included into building sustainability. The BSI is the most facile instrument to obtain the most
sustainable solution for a refurbishment of existing buildings.
The two evaluation models were applied on a typical family dwelling, with two different
solutions for the external wall systems and on one strengthened element with four rehabilitation
solutions.
According to both models the two alternative solutions presented similar sustainable
performances and the final BSIs were almost equal.
The results of the specific model applied on the strengthening solution showed that the most
sustainable solution is the one with CFRP materials (sheet and/or lamellas) with the BSI of 0.737 and
0.484; the strengthening by RC coating and steel bracing proved to be less sustainable with a BSI of
0.299 and 0.329.

Acknowledgement
This work was partially supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/88/1.5/S/50783, Project
ID50783 (2009), co-financed by the European Social Fund Investing in People, within the Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007 2013.

60

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