UNIWERSYTET GDASKI WYDZIA FILOLOGICZNY INSTYTUT ANGLISTYKI

Krzysztof wierczyski

Kierunek studiw: Filologia Specjalno: Filologia angielska Numer albumu: 172186

Praktyczne zastosowanie modelu tumaczeniowego Newmarka na przykadzie wspomaganego Tumaczenia fragmentw z ksiki Dlaczego ludzie nienawidz Ameryki.

Praca licencjacka napisana w Instytucie Anglistyki UG pod kierunkiem dr Justyny Giczeli-Pastwy

Gdask 2010

THE UNIVERSITY OF GDASK FACULTY OF LANGUAGES INSTITUTE OF ENGLISH

Krzysztof wierczyski

Degree: Filologia Specialisation: Filologia angielska Matricula number: 172186

Practical application of Newmark's translation model on the example of a guided translation of fragments from the book 'Why do people hate America'.

BA Thesis Written in the institute of English, University of Gdask under the guidance of dr Justyna Giczela-Pastwa

Gdask 2010

Table of contents ABSTRACT * 2

1 . Introduction (na kocu) 2. Literature Review (bardziej obiektywne, szczegy) 2.1. Uzalenione od tendencji/nazwisk 2. 2. Kwieciski ! Vernuti 3. Opis ksiki, pokazanie, e nie mieci si w granicach modelu. 4. Model Newmarka jako baza OK 5. Metod (?) focused-communicative. 6. Typy metod I pasujce prodedury. 7. Tumaczenie pierwotne 8. Porwnanie z oryginaem (na kocu) 9. Badania componential 10. 11. Dyskusja Wyniki

Introduction The translation theory is generally seen as a means of describing a translation, not as a tool to be consciously applied during the process. The aim of the present paper is to verify whether the translation methods, and procedures proposed by Newmark can be used with a benefit to the final product. The fragment of a book Why do people hate America by Ziauddin Sardar and Merryl Wyn Davies will be translated from English to Polish using the aforementioned model. The translation of this book already exists on the Polish market and both translations will be briefly compared in terms of procedures used.

Literature review.
1: Terms describing the process: Methods, procedures. In study of the translation process, one needs means to classify the actions of a translator. The names of the notions used for this purpose and what they stand for have widely been argued about by translation scholars. Chesterman () Even devoted a whole part of his article to the terminological problem which affects strategies. The basis of distinction is the unit on which the translatory action is performed. Generally, there are levels of text, and level of a particular collocation, word, or even morpheme that poses a problem to the translator. There are also sets of smaller actions which aim at dealing with a particular type of problem. 1.1 Methods The most general unit is the text, and the notion used to describe the general approach to the text is method. Popular names for Newmark (1991) gives two methods fit to be used: semantlic and communicative translation. The other pair is foreignisation and domestication, introduced in 18 th century by Schleiermacher, and advocated zealously by Venuti (2008), who chose to classify translations as foreignizing or domesticating, and favour the former. To foreignise is to

maintain foreign elements, even at the cost of lower intelligibility of the TT and

to

domesticate is to put stress on the TL culture and values, and accommodate the ST to them, with loss of the original cultural elements. However, some translation scholars regard Venutis views as a bit extreme, and propose their own classifications based on his ideas. Kwieciski (2004), instead of giving two extremes, expands the theory and introduces the scale of exoticism and foreignisation. The first emergence of notions which might resemble what we call methods nowadays dates with publishing of the work Stylistique compare du franais et de langlais by Vinay and Dalbernet (1977). Authors listed methods covert and overt translations and is created by Vinay and Dalbernet. Method is a general approach to translation which affects the whole text (Newmark 1988:81), and procedure is a way of dealing with one particular problem. Newmark proposed his selection of translation methods. He gives two predominant methods: semantic and communicative. The first method is oriented towards the author/source text and the other towards the reader/ target language. Communicative method is more likely to change register, word order and even undertranslate to convey the message, intention of the author of the text. Semantic translation has more to do with the though-processes, not results. It would sooner overtranslate, in fear of losing nuances of meaning. First aims to be accessible to the reader, while the other does not. What is interesting, is Newmark's claim that in both methods literal,translation is to be the base (Newmark, 1988:70). His definition of literal translation, though, requires further explanation. He writes that it means 'one-to-one' translation on levels of word, collocation, or even sentence. He is aware that when a translator encounters a problem, literal translation is rarely the correct option. 1.2 Procedures The discussions started with the research of Vinay and Darbelnet (1977), who introduced a term procedure which represents actions taken during translation. Procedures could be active on three levels (but not in a sense of the size of a unit): lexis,

distribution and message. Additionally, they are divided into direct (literal) or oblique (these two terms were later proposed as names for translation methods, which we will discuss later). Seven basic procedures were proposed, and a number of others, which are mostly gathered into opposing pairs, such as concentration and dissolution, explicitation and implicitation. Additionally, every procedure can be either of servitude (obligatory) or of option, which is an interesting view, although not seen as useful nowadays. Catford also decided to use one term for all the translatory actions and introduced shifts (1965) . They occur on linguistic levels such as word class, structure etc. Nida (1964) in turn used the notion 'procedure' to describe text analysis and organization of the translator's work and introduced 'techniques of adjustment' to deal with cultural differences and proposed using only four: addition, subtraction and alteration, plus notes. Vinay and Dalbernet also decided to introduce two types of strategies, direct and oblique. They are meant to be complementary: one should translate directly (literally), that is, use direct procedures, and when it is impossible or would produce an awkward effect, resort to the oblique procedures. Direct procedures are: borrowing, calque and literal translation, oblique strategy comprises modulation, equivalence and adaptation. Spme theorists include the notion of translation method. Newmark describes method as a general approach to translation which affects the whole text (Newmark 1988:81). The task of building a model of conscious translation requires that the tools be differentiated according to the level on which they operate. We shall make use of the Newmarks division into methods and procedures, as the level of text each of them covers facilitates establishing their hierarchy: methods concern the whole text and may promote the application of certain procedures on the smaller level..

Different translation methods propagate the use of different translation procedures to deal with problems in text. The unit for procedure, or technique, which term is popular thanks to the works of Molina and Hurtado Albir (2002). However, they use the term

procedure as an umbrella term for all kinds of translatory actions

- Componential analysis: for this procedure, one needs to see the fragment to be translated as containing sense components. This procedure consists of comparing SL term and a possible term in TL by their disassembly into single sense components. Newmark supports the use of this method in cases when accuracy, not economy of translation is important. He lists seven cases when it can be used: lexical words that has no TL equivalent, cultural words, synonyms used for emphasis, cultural sets or series (e.g distinguishing between meanings of kinship terms, forms of bread, types of windows, clothes etc.), conceptual terms that represent slightly different concepts in cultures, neologisms and words as myths that, again have different realisation in various cultures. Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar, mostly in terms of perspective e.g: more widespread use of passive in English than in Polish. Descriptive equivalent: Abandoning the specific term for a descriptive one. Example: Polish uszka translated as dumplings with mushroom filling Functional equivalent: replacement of the term with term of similar function. Cultural equivalent: using a more fitting term from the Target Culture to substitute a Target Culture term vague to the TL audience. Synonymy: In Newmark's view synonym represents an approximate equivalent, rather than a traditional synonym. Recommends it for terms of lesser importance. The TT expression is shorter, but not necessarily accurate. Paraphrase: A way of transferring the meaning using completely different words. Newmark first stressed that it should be used at the last resort, but in his last book (1991) agrees that it can indeed be a valuable tool in translation of 'anonymous' texts

(see subchapter on text function assessment) Transference: it is introduction of the 'loan words', including the ones produced by transcription of a foreign term into language. It may later be incorporated into the TL or not. Examples: factoring, faktoring; image, image (pron. imid). Naturalisation: means transfering the term and adapting it to TL pronounciation and morphology. Examples: Business, biznesowy. - Through-translation: it is a literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called: calque or loan translation. - Recognized translation: it occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term." - Compensation: it occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part. Translation label: an approximate equivalent, sometimes proposed as a collocation in inverted commas, which may later be accepted as a good term. Transposition: It is the replacement of one grammatical unit by the other Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two different procedures, often literal translation or translation label plus transference. Notes, additions, glosses: Newmark embarked on a task to categorise additional information in the translation. He distinguishes: information within the text (various kinds of it), notes at the bottom page, notes at the end of the chapter and notes or glossary at end of the book. Newmark proposes the information within the text as the best option. When encountering problems with translation, one theoretically could pick and choose from the procedures available, though the practical application of procedures and their relationship with methods will be evaluated in the later research. 2. Componential analysis

Componential analysis is not new, it was used in linguistics as early a in the 50, while its application in translation is rather scarce. 3. Text function assessment theories In order to create a groundwork for conscious translation and comparison of translations, one needs to pinpoint the type of a text. Needless to say, a translation of a poem would require different approach than translation of film subtitles of an academic text. There are two major tendencies in the field of text function typologies: one aims at describing text functions on different levels ?such as mode, tenor and context, while the other depicts functions as coexistent, and mostly overlapping. Bhler created a distinction into three text functions in 1933, which had important influence on function theories of Jakobson and Newmark. In Approaches to translation, Newmark advocates the use of Bhler's typology of texts and their functions and expands it further. According to him there are three functions of language: Expressive, informative and vocative. Fig 1. Functional characteristics of text types (from Newmark, 1981:15) Expressive Typical examples Literature and authoritative texts Informative Scientific and technical reports and textbooks Vocative Polemical writing, publicity, notices, laws and regulations, propaganda, popular literature 'Ideal'style Individual Neutral, objective Persuasive or imperative Focus Writer (1st person) Situation (3rd person) Type of language Figurative Factual Compelling Reader (2nd person)

Keywords (retain) Text emphasis

Leitmotivs Source language (SL)

Theme words Target language (TL) Equivalent effect translation

Token words Target language

Method

Literal translation

Equivalent effect translation Large Text Paragraph Dependent on cultural differences

Unit of translation

Small

Medium Sentence Collocation Small

Maximum Collocation Minimum Word Loss of meaning Considerable

New Words and meanings

Mandatory if in SL text

Not permitted

Yes, except in

unless reason given formal texts Give sense Slightly longer Recreate No norm

Unusual metaphors Reproduce Length in relation to original Approximately the same

The points contained in fig. 1 are numerous, and give much information about the texts and how they should be dealt with. Expressive text type is meant to underline the individual character of the text. Informative has to convey the extralinguistic information of the text. Vocative text type aims at eliciting desired response in reader. These can be, to give examples, a scene of eating fried bugs, which is to cause disgust, has to be drastically modified for Thailand audience, where fried locust is considered a kind of regional dish. Newmark claims that there are virtually no pure texts, each of them usually have one prevailing function. All texts essentially have informative function (Newmark, 1981). Texts with predominant expressive function are in his books called sacred, while the communicative are named anonymous. The model for assessment which function of the

text is predominant shall take into account various text types characteristics. Some elements from the table in fig.1 give details that describe the text function and the others the course of action that shall be taken during translation, what can make Newmark's findings partly descriptive, and partly prescriptive. The elements of the table that can be useful in text function assessment are: Typical examples, 'ideal' style, focus, and type of language. The characteristics to be taken into consideration during translation process are: Text emphasis, method, unit of translation, loss of meaning, new words and meanings, unusual metaphors, length in relation to original.

The approaches listed here may suffice for the purpose of the paper, which is practical evaluation of translation techniques (general term used for translation methods and procedures) proposed by Newmark.

Chapter I

3.1 Why do people hate America is a work about politics, culture and society. As such, it contains a number of terms related closely to the American culture and expressions that are closely connected with the context of the subject. This chapter will present the elements of the model and argumentate their use. The base theories are rooted in Newmark's views. 1.2 Appropriating text function typology to the model. First step in creating the framework for guided translation is establishing which text function is predominant in the text, according to the classification of text function proposed by Newmark described in the literature review of the present paper. Relating the text to the qualities of the text enumerated in fig 1 over the thicker line in the table will present us with a number of indications pertaining to the function of the text.

1. Typical examples (choosing which example the ST resembles the most) The ST is the closest to polemical writing, but at times it contains just dry data, making it similar to historical or social research. 2. 'Ideal' style What the authors strive to achieve is to change the reader's way of thinking, but this is not achieved solely by persuasion, but in the biggest part by presenting relevant data and providing logical arguments and conclusions. Again text function in this aspect is somewhere between informative and vocative. 3. Focus The amount of pressure put on the reader is minimal and personal style of the author is very slightly marked (only by occasional remainder that the authors are British). The text is focused almost entirely on the situation (content) and on facilitating the reception of information. 4. Type of language The style is not essentially marked and this excludes the use of overtly figurative language. The language is very slightly persuasive, sometimes it is clearly visible that the authors try to shock the reader. The language is closest to fulfil the informative function.

From this evaluation we may deduce that informative function is predominant in the text, with vocative function coming a close second. The expressive elements, although present, are not the main focus of the text. Newmark's observations contained in fig. 1 under the thicker line suggest, that in this case translation emphasis shall be put on TL. The freedom to reorganise the text should be watched closely, as the smallest unit of translation is collocation, suggesting that the meaning loss may occur even on this level. However, cultural differences present in the text may make it hard to avoid meaning loss.

3.3 Methods and their procedures

The next step is to choose the translation method according to which we are to conduct the process. Although in the table in fig. 1 methods have their place, the term 'equivalent effect translation' is rather vague. In his publications, Newmark steadily claims that at all times literal translation (in the sense described in the literature review) shall be the general method, but distinguishes between communicative and semantic translation (semantic is to be used with expressive texts and communicative with vocative and informative). As with most of binary divisions in translation studies, e.g. Venuti's division into foreignisation and domestication, it is hard, and often pointless to follow one of the methods entirely throughout translation career. What is needed, is rather a redefinition of these terms as the extremes between which one manoeuvres closer to one extreme or the other. Kwieciski (2004) attempted to introduce this kind of gradation based on Venuti's approach concerning the two extremes domestication and foreignization, but it was done so for the purpose of descriptive studies. Here we will attempt to introduce at least one intermediate term that would make translation methods more applicable. Let us look closely what features are contained in the definition of communicative translation (Newmark, 1981): focus on the reader, difficulties and obscurities minimalised, transfer of foreign elements to the target language and culture, when in conflict, force over content, clear, simple, more direct, more conventional would sooner undertranslate Semantic: remains in the original culture, difficulties can be present, but connotations can be explained, complex, more awkward,

more detailed and concentrated, would sooner overtranslate Here we can agree that vocative function is best fulfilled by communicative method, and expressive by the semantic one (Newmark claims so relating to the text function typology) Although Newmark thinks that in the case of informative text, communicative method is a wise choice, one can't help but notice, that an informative text could not be translated in exactly the same way. On the one hand the communicative act has to be successful, and on the other no relevant information should be omitted. Translator has to decide which extralinguistic information cannot be lost to fulfil the purpose of the translated text. I propose the term 'focused communicative' to describe a communicative translation, where there are some 'sacred' pieces of information which cannot be tampered with in order to achieve the equivalent effect. In other words, the vocative element is subservient .to the general goal of the text. What are the 'sacred' items of information? It should be left to translator's competence, and his or her feeling of the intention of an author and the goal behind the text. Creating a system for recognition of main subjects in text types would be too extensive a task to involve in, certainly too complicated to deal with it in present study. Lists of procedures present in Newmark's books were often organised by the principle of closeness to the ST. It is doubtful, however, whether all of them can be used in a conscious way to improve the translation, instead of being merely an obvious choice. Naming a, for example, established equivalent in a text may be practical in descriptive studies, but in prescriptive translation studies, which present model aspires to be a representant of, it is not of much use. There are a good few pages devoted to shifts in Newmarks books, mostly concerning shifts between English and French, but more extensive study of shifts between English and Polish would require delving into another field of linguistics. Comparative stylistics may certainly be a invaluable tool for a

translator, but for the present moment it should not divert our attention from the main model and other procedures. It would require much reading into the nature of the stylistic differences between Polish and English to be able to describe and use particular shifts consciously. Let us ignore the shifts as a deliberately applied procedure for now. Modulation also used rather intuitively and we often do not have much choice about whether or not to use them.

What the model we create needs now is establishing the correspondence between methods and procedures. Here the procedures shall be listed, with recommendation about the method they would be most effective in, with brief argumentation. The procedures named as 'intuitive' will not be taken into account here, as they typically do not depend on text function. The letters at the end of each point will stand for the methods that propagate the use of each procedure S - semantic, F Focused communicative, C Communicative. Small letter means that the procedure use is limited only to certain cases.

Componential analysis: Newmark's most favoured procedure is componential analysis. Seeing from the perspective of methods, it can be applied to either of them. However, as it was mentioned before, the nature of informative function in the text requires that, using the vocabulary of componential analysis, some semantic components (chefly extra-linguistic ones) be more explicit than the others (in many cases semantic components may be 'active' only in certain context: e.g in The Godfather trilogy the presence of oranges foretold great trouble, while in a book or a report from a party, the sentence She brought in the oranges might not contain the semantic component of this sort), and some have to be omitted, otherwise the translation would be unreadable because too many nuances are included. The task of deciding which components are relevant in the text is one of the most difficult in translator's work. In the model proposed here, this shall be the main procedure for problematic terms and small translation units that breed

difficulties. Descriptive equivalent: This procedure is used when there is no immediate equivalent in the target culture. It can hardly be seamlessly fitted in translation of any type, except for the less-relevant elements in Communicative and Focused Communicative methods. (f, c) Functional equivalent: The procedure is especially useful in communicative translation, and if the meaning loss is not considerable other types of translation. However, it often causes considerable loss of meaning. (s, f, C) Cultural equivalent: This type of equivalence is quite close to the functional one, but the range of its use is narrow. Cultural equivalents are hardly ever accurate, but may be useful, for example in some vocative texts, such as comic ones, where explaining the joke would certainly ruin it. (C) Synonymy: The procedure is inaccurate, but makes an act of communication easier and shorter. Only the communicative method is good to risk using synonyms. It can be applied to the less-relevant components from focused translation. ( f, C) Paraphrase: Used on the level of sentence, is to be avoided because of inaccuracy. Newmark argues that it is the last resort, but also mentions that it can be used in anonymous texts which are poorly written. It may prove to be useful in communicative and focused method on elements which are less relevant in the text. (c, F) Transference: Transference could be labelled as coining a term in a new language, while retaining the source language culture flavour, and as any coinage it should not be used too eagerly. It could be used in any method, provided there is justification for it, awkwardness is minimal, and it does not impair the communicative function of the text. It remains very close to the ST, so it fits best into the semantic method. (S, f, c) Naturalisation: This procedure, closely related to transference, can be used more widely, because it brings the transferred term closer to the TL. (S, F, C)

 Through-translation: Newmark claims (Newmark, 1991) that this procedure should be used only when the effect of through-translation is already an recognised translation, but it could be noticed that it may also be a tool for creating translation label. (see point on translation label) - Compensation: As this procedure enables a translator to make up for some imperfections of one text element, it disrupts the structure of the text. The use of the procedure in the semantic translation is different than in the other methods, e.g. the alliteration in a poem may be compensated by a series of rhyming words. Focused and Communicative translation go well with this method, as the most important task is to express the meaning and the force, no matter by which means. (F, C) Translation label: This procedure may come in handy in all translation methods, but the motivation may be different in each case. The 'rough and ready' term may be used in a semantic method to convey neologisms or author's manner of expression. In communicative or focused translation it may be used to express complex ideas in the most accessible manner, and kept in a text if if facilitates the communicative process. (S, F, C) Couplets: Each case of couplets need to be assessed individually, as various combinations of procedures may have different impact on the text and different aims. Notes, additions, glosses: This is a curious procedure that at the same time provides information contained in the text and maintains its structure, at the expense of reader's convenience, because he has to stop reading to turn to the note. Newmark states, that in an expressive texts such information should normally be included outside the translation, while explanation of minor cultural details should be brought to the level of the text (Newmark, 1991:91). Focused communicative method can make heavy use of this procedure, while in case of vocative texts sometimes descriptive equivalent may be a better option, as it saves the readers' effort and neither hinders the flow nor the force of the message. (s)

After literal translation, the main procedure to be used during guided translation would be componential analysis. As we can observe, the most permissive method is the communicative one, and the least one is the semantic method. Fig. 2. Translation procedures and their correspondence with translation methods. Semantic translation Focused communicative translation Modulation Descriptive equivalent Functional equivalent Cultural equivalent Synonymy Paraphrase Transference Naturalisation Throughtranslation Compensation +/+ + + + + + +/+/+ +/+ +/+ +/+/+ +/+ +/+/+ + + +/+ +/Communicative translation

Translation label +

3. Presenting translation
The text as a whole is already roughly described in terms of function and the suitable method has been chosen. Now the choice of texts fragments shall be presented, where methods and procedures will be put to use. It should be noted that Newmark claimed that text function may change in the text, and basing on that, we may assume that when in doubt, the function assessment can be performed for each fragment separately. The choices were made with the allotment of procedures in mind if informative function is vital, procedures from this semantic field were of preference. Other important terms are under- and overtranslation, semantic components and componential analysis. The guided translation is compared with the official, published translation of the book in terms of procedures used. Part I: Translation of the chosen passages

Just as America dumps cheap commodities on developing countries, thus forcing locally

produced commodities and goods to the wall, so television programmes are dumped on the Third World. The system works like this. A single episode of a hit television show such as Alias or Dark Angel may cost up to $5 milion to make. This money is recouped by selling the show to 5a single network in the United States and Canada. The European sales are pure profit. Once the American and European markets are sewn up, the programmes are dumped on Third World television stations according to long-established formula for payment. The higher a country's per capita income, the higher it is on a ladder of 'development', the more it pays. Thus, while a British channel will pay something in the region of 200-250,000 for an episode of a high-10rating show like The Simpsons, Malaysia may acquire the same show for less than US$70,000 and Bangladesh for only US$25,000. Thus a programme with exceptionally high production values is sold for peanuts, making it impossible for local programming, working on modest to miniscule budgets, to compete.

GENERAL PROBLEMS

Intention: To present how American programs are dumped on the Third World markets. Type of text: Informative Readership (recipients): Educated laymen. 'Setting': Conclusion of a book on social studies. Language: Many colloquialisms, rather easy to understand. Intention of translator: To convey the information in an accessible way. Method: Focused communicative. Preferred size of translation unit: collocation to sentence. SOME PARTICULAR PROBLEMS Syntax: Sentences are of medium lenght, occasionally longer. Possible grammatical shifts:Thus a programme ... to compete. [13-16] Metaphors: force commodities to the wall[2] Repetitions: Dumping

W taki sam sposb, w jaki Ameryka stosuje dumping tanich towarw do krajw rozwijajcych si, tym samym stawiajc lokalnych producentw pod cian, tak programy telewizyjne s dumpingowane do krajw Trzeciego wiata. System dziaa tak. Wyprodukowanie jednego odcinka serialowego hitu, takiego jak Agentka o stu twarzach czy Cie Anioa moe kosztowa nawet pi milionw dolarw. Te pienidze zwracaj si przy sprzeday serialu do jednego operatora w Stanach Zjednoczonych i Kanadzie. Sprzedae do Europy to ju czysty zysk. Po zdominowaniu rynkw europejskich i amerykaskiego, programy s sprzedawane po dumpingowych cenach do stacji telewizyjnych Trzeciego wiata wedug formuy patnoci ustalonej ju dawno temu. Im wyszy dochd brutto na osob, czyli im tym wyej jest ten kraj na drabinie rozwoju, tym wicej paci. W ten sposb, podczas gdy brytyjski kana telewizyjny zapaci okoo 200-250 000 funtw za odcinek popularnego serialu, jak na przykad Simpsonowie, Malezja moe dosta ten sam odcinek za mniej ni 70 000 dolarow, a Bangladesz nawet za 25 000. I tak program z bardzo wysokimi kosztami produkcji jest sprzedawany za grosze, sprawiajc, e lokalne wytwrnie, posiadajce skromne, a czsto nawet bardzo skromne rodki, nie stanowi konkurencji.

Official translation:

Podobnie jak Ameryka rzuca tanie artykuy ywnociowe na rynki krajw rozwijajcych si, niszczc w ten sposb lokaln ywno i towary, tak te programy telewizyjne s dumpingowane do Trzeciego wiata. System dziaa nastpujco. Wyprodukowanie jednego odcinka takiego przeboju telewizyjnego, jak Agentka o stu twarzach czy Cie Anioa moe kosztowa nawet do 5 milionw dolarw. Pienidze te zwracaj si dziki sprzeday serialu jednej sieci telewizyjnej w Stanach Zjednoczonych i Kanadzie. Sprzeda do Europy przynosi ju czysty zysk. Kiedy rynek amerykaski i europejski odczuj przesyt, programy rzuca si po cenach dumpingowych stacjom telewizyjnym Trzeciego wiata, zgodnie z dawno ustalon formu patnoci. Im wikszy jest w danym kraju redni dochd na mieszkaca, tym wyej znajduje si on na drabince rozwoju i tym wicej paci. I tak, podczas gdy brytyjska stacja musi wyoy za odcinek takiego przeboju jak Simpsonowie kwot 200-250 tysicy dolarw, Malezja dostaje ten sam odcinek za mniej ni 70 tysicy, a Bangladesz za jedynie 25 tysicy dolarw. Tak wic program o bardzo wysokich kosztach produkcji jest sprzedawany za grosze, uniemoliwiajc tym samym konkurencj lokalnym programom, krconym za wyjtkowo skromne budety

Stawiajc lokalnych producentw pod cian/ niszczc w ten sposb lokaln ywno i towary - forcing locally produced commodities and goods to the wall: Literal translation of this collocation would be terribly awkward, so synonym was used, while the official translation proposes descriptive equivalent. The ST presents us with animalisation of some sort, which was hard to render and is not present in any of the versions

stosowa dumping, dumpingowa, rzuca na rynek dump: In this case both translators tried using a transferred term 'dumpingowa', but resorted to slightly formal recognised translations (1st version) and descriptive equivalent (2nd version), most likely to avoid repetitions.

Po zdominowaniu/Kiedy rynek amerykaski i europejski odczuj przesyt - sewn up: When a market is sewn up, it is dominated by some organisation etc. version proposed by the other translation seems to be a synonym for 'fed up'

Lokalne wytwrnie/lokalnym programom - local programming: The Polish word 'program' in TV context poses immense difficulty in distinguishing if it means a TV channel, or a programme in TV. Both translators opted for functional equivalents, but different ones.

Skromne, a czsto nawet bardzo skromne/wyjtkowo skromne - modest to miniscule budgets: Literal translation is out of question here, so both versions contain paraphrases. Text 2:

But how can knowledge be 'knowledgeable ignorance? Orientalism is not exactly unique. For

centuries, scholars asserted that Africans were an 'inferior' race, natural slaves, hewers of wood and drawers of water'. It was not prejudice that created the 'peculiar institution', as slavery in the Southern states of the US was euphemistically known slavery was supported 5by science and structured scientific investigation of the anatomy, biology and then the genetic make-up of different races. The legacy of this discredited body of knowledge has not evaporated, as we saw in the controversy surrounding The Bell Curve (1994), which argued that there is a natural class of Americans, mainly blacks, who are deficient in intelligence and the cognitive abilities required to deal with the information society. Such ideas are now
10

generally accepted as wrong, not only

wrong-headed but a clear misuse of science and knowledge. The political and social consequences of attitudes that depended on this knowledge, however, still bedevil race relations between black and white in America. Unpicking the racism woven into the fabric of American society has been a long and painful process and still an unfinished business. Muslim Americans, along with the Muslims the
15

world over, have another item to add to the agenda of necessary business:

surmounting the legacy of history, undoing the political, social and cultural consequences of Orientalism.

GENERAL PROBLEMS Intention: Present what the Orientalism is rooted in Type of text: The mix defined before for the book: informative with strong vocative element Readership (recipients): educated laymen 'Setting': Book on social sciences Language: Rather accessibly written, few examples of more sophisticated language, metaphors present, but can be understood fairly easily. Intention of translator: To convey information in a convincing and accessible way, bring the readers to the author's point of view. Method: Focused communicative translation. SOME PARTICULAR PROBLEMS Syntax: Long sentences exist, but are rather easy to follow. Possible grammatical shifts: It was not.[3], it is both harder and more necessary[17] , The bell curve, which argues[7] Metaphors: the legacy... has not evaporated[6-7], Unpicking racism woven into the fabric of American society[13]

W jaki jednak sposb wiedza moe sta si uczon ignorancj? Orientalizm nie jest zjawiskiem unikalnym. Przez stulecia naukowcy dowodzili, e Afrykanie s ras 'podrzdn', naturalnymi niewolnikami, 'drwalami i noszcymi wod', jak napisane jest o Gibeonitach w Biblii. To nie uprzedzenia utworzyy 'osobliw instytucj', jak byo eufemistycznie nazywane niewolnictwo w Stanach Poudniowych niewolnictwo byo wspierane przez nauk oraz naukowe badania anatomiczne, biologiczne, a potem genetyczne osobnikw rnych ras. Dziedzictwo tej ju skompromitowanej gazi nauki nie wyparowao, jak moglimy zaobserwowa na przykadzie kontrowersji otaczajcych publikacj The bell curve (1994), w ktrej dowodzono, e z istnieje pewna naturalna grupa spoeczna Amerykanw, gwnie czarnych, ktrym brakuje inteligencji i zdolnoci poznawczych potrzebnych do radzenia sobie w spoeczestwie informacyjnym. Tego

typu idee s obecnie oglnie przyjte za bdne; s nie tylko bdne z definicji, ale s te wyranym naduyciem nauki i wiedzy. Polityczne i spoeczne konsekwencje postaw opierajcych si o t nauk wci jednak przeladuj stosunki rasowe midzy czarnymi i biaymi w Ameryce. Wypltanie z tkaniny Ameryki wpltanego tam rasizmu byo i jest dugim, bolesnym procesem i wci pozostaje niedokoczon spraw. Amerykascy muzumanie, wraz z muzumanami na caym wiecie, musz doda kolejny element do zbioru spraw do rozwizania: Przezwycienie historii, odwoanie politycznych, spoecznych i kulturowych konsekwencji Orientalizmu.

This is a chiefly informative text. The informative and vocative elements are the most important and need not be constrained by the duty to present expressive features. According to Newmark's principle, the base of the text was translated literally, and procedures were used when problems arose. The basic question which needs to be asked in communicative translation is: What is the content to be communicated? As it was previously mentioned in the present paper, a translator cannot include all the contextual knowledge one has in translation, so there has to be some focus chosen. In the text above, focus during translation should be placed on presentation of data related to racism and its history. The information should be convincing and for this reason the message has to be grammatically correct and pleasant in style, but the occasional metaphors should be vivid and, if needed, unsettling enough to elicit desired response.

Here is the same fragment by different translator:

Ale jak wiedza moe sta si wszechwiedzc niewiedz? Orientalizm nie jest pod tym wzgldem wyjtkiem. Przez cae stulecia uczeni zakadali, e Afrykaczycy s gorsz ras, naturalnymi niewolnikami, rbicymi drwa i noszcymi wod. To nie uprzedzenia stworzyy osobliw instytucj, jak eufemistycznie okrelano niewolnictwo w poudniowych stanach niewolnictwo wspieraa nauka i systematyczne, naukowe badanie anatomii, biologii, a potem genetycznej konstytucji rnych ras. Spucizna tego zdyskredytowanego korpusu wiedzy nie ulotnia si, czego dowodzi kontrowersja wok ksiki The Bell Curve (1994), utrzymujcej, e istnieje naturalna

klasa Amerykanw, gwnie czarnoskrych, ktrej brakuje inteligencji i zdolnoci poznawczych wymaganych do naleytego funkcjonowania w spoeczestwie informacyjnym. Tego rodzaju idee powszechnie uwaa si teraz za bdne, nie tylko przewrotne, ale stanowice jawne naduycie wiedzy naukowej. Jednak polityczne i spoeczne konsekwencje postaw uzalenionych od tej wiedzy wci przeladuj stosunki rasowe midzy biaymi i czarnymi w Ameryce. Eliminacja rasizmu wplecionego w tkank spoeczestwa amerykaskiego to dugotrway i bolesny proces, ktry jeszcze si nie zakoczy. Amerykascy muzumanie, wraz z muzumanami na caym wiecie, dodaj kolejny punkt do programu niezbdnych dziaa: przezwycienie spucizny historycznej, zniesienie politycznych, spoecznych i kulturowych konsekwencji orientalizmu.

Fig. 5. Problems encountered and chosen solutions for text 2

uczon ignorancj/wszechwiedzc niewiedz knowledgeable ignorance: In both cases through-translation produced a translation label (but different meanings were realised), and putting the expression in brackets is meant to justify its possible awkwardness. zjawiskiem unikalnym/nie jest pod tym wzgldem wyjtkiem unique: here the additional noun zjawiskiem attempts to make the text sound more natural; it is a kind of gloss, added to literal translation of the word 'unique'. The other translation paraphrased the sentence. jak napisane jest o Gibeonitach w Biblii Such gloss may be needed it the translation, as in Polish culture few people may remember where one can encounter Gibeonites. The other translator decided to leave the fragment translated literally and unattended in terms of the cultural contexts. naukowe badania/systematyczne, naukowe badanie Structured scientific investigation: Taking advantage from the fact that communicative translation may sometimes undertranslate, first version left out the structured part, as scientific character of the research seems to be more important than the particulars of it. The

translator attempted to translate the 'structured' part of the phrase, but it is hard to assess whether the semantic component of systematicality is implied in the SL text or not. gazi nauki/korpusu wiedzy - Body of knowledge: The term body of knowledge has no Polish equivalent, so the approximate synonym was chosen. The noun phrase korpus wiedzy exists in Polish, but is used as established translation in more specialised context. Publikacj/ksik Most people in Poland have probably not heard about The bell curve, so the information that it is a book should be supplied. The smoothest way to do it is to insert a gloss, as both the translators did. naturalna grupa spoeczna/naturalna klasa Amerykanw natural class of Americans: The first version rejected the term 'class' as a literal translation, and chose more neutral term 'grupa spoeczna', as 'class' may have some communist connotations . The official translation contains the through translated expression naturalna klasa which is perfectly understandable. Bdna z definicji/przewrotna the term Wrong-headed is hard to render in Polish, so componential analysis was employed: Fig. 6. Componential analysis of the term wrong-headed
Wrongheaded Not willing to change Based on wrong ideas Negative meaning Used about ideas deliberately perverse in judgement twardogowy + Uparty Bdny z definicji Szkodliwy Przewrotny + + + + + + + +/+ + + + + -

The option which, according to CA, retains the most of the meaning is bdna z definicji. The little loss of meaning in communicative translation is tolerable, so in this case it need

not be compensated. The option chosen by the other translator retains other semantic components and the two terms clearly are not equivalent, but are different, apparently equally privileged interpretations of the SL word.

Wypltanie z tkaniny ... wpltanego/Eliminacja ... wplecionego w tkank Unpicking the racism woven into the fabric: Here, the first version contains literally translated components, with slight shift on the level of collocation. In the other version the metaphor itself was paraphrased and a familiar term 'tkanka spoeczestwa' was used. byo i jest in Polish, perfect tenses are non-existent, so this meaning was compensated by addition of terms relating to past and present. The other translation contains 'jeszcze' to indicate the same. Spraw/punkt do programu niezbdnych dziaa the English word business has much broader meaning than the Polish naturalised term biznes. The functional equivalent sprawa was used in the first version. The other translator changed the words used and the surroundings of the sentence.

III Text:

Hatred is sustained by wilful, 'knowledgeable ignorance'. Transcending hatred and its perverse

expressions is a work of knowledge, of rethinking the limitations of what we have learnt and what we think we know. For centuries, Muslims, Indians, Chinese and many others have been told that theirs are traditional civilisations, stultifying, atrophied and rendered incapable by 5their traditional world-views. In truth, the West too, and America in particular, has become the traditional civilisation, with all the rigidity and sanctimonious sense of its inherent rightness that it has been so ready to condemn in other civilisations. The challenge for everyone is to make the transition from dead transitionalism the substitution of the opinions of dead good men for doing one's own thinking to living tradition, using cherished values and concepts as systems 10of critical questioning and adaptive devices to create meaningful change. The debates and ideas

about revitalising tradition in the non-West are usually invisible and audible, but they have a great deal to teach the West. Dead traditionalism closes minds, fossilises ideas and can end by subverting, counteracting and diminishing the very values invoked as most sacred. The West in general, but America in particular, must also face up to this challange. America 15demonstrates this character flaw more than any other Western society.

The final fragment is located at the end of the book and again we shall use function assessment to see the results. Typical examples: This fragment seems to be the closest to the writing of political pamphlets, trying to present the new vision of the reality. 'Ideal'style: This time style is even more persuasive and individual. This points to the vocative and expressive functions. Focus: The focus is definitely on the side of the reader, as the goal of this text is to conclude the reader's journey throughout the author's mindview. For this excursion to be mind-altering, as the authors would probably want it to, it needs to be memorable and catchy, so the metaphors are used to bring ideas closer to the reader. Type of language: A bit figurative, but mostly compelling.

The text is mostly vocative, with expressive elements resurfacing more often than in the previous parts.

GENERAL PROBLEMS Intention: To sum up the ideas contained in a book and leave some effect on the readership. Type of text: Vocative Readership (recipients): Educated laymen. 'Setting': Conclusion of a book on social studies. Language: Rather simple, larger amount of metaphors than in the previous passages,

some are recurring throughout the text. Intention of translator: To preserve the force nad the vividness of metaphors at the same time. Method: Communicative, with focus sliding towards individuality at certain places in the text. SOME PARTICULAR PROBLEMS Syntax: Sentences are long, fairly complex. Possible grammatical shifts: Transcending ... is a work of knowledge, of rethinking (12) , have been told (4), theirs are... traditional civilisations(4) Metaphors: dead traditionalism, stultified, atrophied, incapable civilisation, dead good men, fossilise ideas Repetitions: dead traditionalism.

Nienawi jest podsycana przez rozmylnie hodowan, uczon ignorancj. Wyjcie poza nienawi i jej przewrotne manifestacje to zadanie wymagajce wiedzy, ponownego zastanowienia nad ograniczeniami tego, czego si nauczylimy oraz tego, co wydaje nam si, e ju wiemy. Przez wieki Muzumanom, Hindusom, Chiczykom oraz wielu innym wmawiono, e ich cywilizacje s tradycjonalistyczne, ogupiajce, zanike i uznane za niezdolne do istnienia z powodu ich tradycyjnego spojrzenia na wiat. Naprawd jednak Zachd, a szczeglnie Ameryka, take przeksztaciy si w cywilizacj tradycjonalistyczn. Posiada ona surowo oraz witoszkowate poczucie inherentnej prawoci, ktre z takim zapaem potpia u innych cywilizacji. Dla wszystkich cywilizacji wyzwaniem jest przejcie z martwego tradycjonalizmu przyjmowania opinii nieyjcych ideaw zamiast samodzielnego mylenia do ywej tradycji; stosowania tak bardzo cenionych wartoci i koncepcji jako sposobu na ocen rzeczywistoci oraz jako mechanizmy adaptacyjne, dziki ktrym moliwa bdzie znaczca zmiana. Debaty i idee dotyczce rewitalizacji tradycji w cywilizacjach innych ni zachodnia s zazwyczaj niewidoczne i niesyszalne, lecz Zachd mgby wiele si z nich nauczy. W martwym tradycjonalizmie umys jest zamknity, idee kostniej. Moe on doprowadzi do obalenia, pomniejszenia i przeciwstawienia si tym wanie wartociom uznanym za najwitsze. To wyzwanie stoi przed krajami Zachodu, a szczeglnie

przed Ameryk. W Ameryce ta wada charakteru jest widoczna wyraniej ni w kadym innym spoeczestwie Zachodu.

Here is the official published version:

Nienawi jest podtrzymywana przez umyln wszechwiedzc niewiedz. Przekroczenie nienawici i jej zwyrodniaych wyrazw wymaga wiedzy, ponownego przemylenia ogranicze tego, czego sie nauczylimy i co wydaje si nam, e wiemy. Muzumanom, Hindusom,Chiczykom i wielu innym nacjom wmawiano przez stulecia, e s tradycyjnymi cywilizacjami, omieszanymi, podkopywanymi i ubezwasnowolnionymi przez swoje tradycyjne pogldy na wiat. W rzeczywistoci, take Zachd, a szczeglnie Ameryka, sta si tradycyjn cywilizacj, z ca przynalen temu sztywnoci i witoszkowatym poczuciem wrodzonej susznoci, ktre tak ochoczo potpia u innych cywilizacji. Wyzwaniem stojcym przed wszystkimi jest przejcie od martwego tradycjonalizmu zastpowania wszystkiego opiniami nieyjcych autorytetw do ywej tradycji, ktra stosuje cenione wartoci i pojcia jako systemy krytycznego zapytywania i narzdzia adaptacji tak, aby spowodowa istotn zmian. Debaty i pomysy dotyczce rewitalizacji tradycji w krajach nie-zachodnich s zazwyczaj niewidzialne i niesyszalne, jednak Zachd moe si z nich bardzo wiele nauczy. Martwy tradycjonalizm zamyka umysy, zeskorupia idee i moe si skoczy obaleniem, zneutralizowaniem i umniejszeniem tych wartoci, ktre uwaa za najwitsze. Zachd oglnie, za Ameryka w szczeglnoci, take musi stawi czoa temu wyzwaniu. Ameryka objawia t skaz na charakterze bardziej ni jakiekolwiek inne spoeczestwo zachodnie.

Fig. 7. Problems encountered and chosen solutions for text 3.

Rozmylnie hodowan/umyln wilful: The question of which version is more appropriate is a matter of what is more natural in the TL. Umylny does not collocate well with ignorancja, while rozmylnie hodowany is a bit of an overtranslation, but it may make the text more powerful. Przekroczenie/wyjcie poza Transcend: There is no synonym, the meaning that is implied needs to be explained by using descriptive equivalent. Przekroczenie nienawici

is literal translation of the original term. przewrotne manifestacje/zwyrodniaych wyrazw: perverse expressions. One more time we have a case of different interpretation of the ambiguous word. Perverse may mean both contradictory to everything and perverted. The tables show how well the semantic components for both interpretations are realised in proposed equivalents to the word perverse Fig.8. Componential analysis for the word perverse Weird, contradictory Perverse Going against the good or proper stubborn Can be used with manifestation (przejaw, wyraz) Przewrotny Zwyrodniay Przekorny Perverted Perverse Przewrotny Zwyrodniay Przekorny Persistent in wrong + +/+/Depraved + +/+ + + + + + -

It seems that for the first meaning the better term would be 'przewrotny', while the second interpretation is represented better with the word 'zwyrodniay' (although there are not enough sememes to confirm it beyond doubt). If there are no ways to specify the exact meaning of the SL term, a translator has to rely on his or her translation capacity alone

Tego, czego si nauczylimy oraz tego, co wydaje nam si, e ju wiemy/tego, czego sie nauczylimy i co wydaje si nam, e wiemy what we have learnt and what we think we know. The only significant difference is the repetition, which stresses that the two items (1.what we have learned and 2. What we think we know) are separate (which is kind of overtranslation), what, I admit, might not be the case. It has, however, a significant effect on the readability of the text (less fluent). Tradycjonalistyczne, ogupiajce, zanike i uznane za niezdolne do istnienia z powodu ich tradycyjnego spojrzenia na wiat/Tradycyjnymi cywilizacjami, omieszanymi, podkopywanymi i ubezwasnowolnionymi przez swoje tradycyjne pogldy na wiat traditional civilisations, stultifying, atrophied and rendered incapable by their traditional world-views: Again, the shift of meaning is considerable because of different realisation of the ST. The civilisations may be stultifying etc. because of the traditional world-views, or just rendered incapable because of world-views. The translation proposed by the first translator defends the former version, as the adjective stultifying (not stultified) suggests so. Here is the componential analysis for the controversial terms: Fig.9. Componential analysis for the word stultify Stultifying a) ridiculing, showing as stupid b) showing as if with unsound mind, not legally responsible c) rendering useless, crippling

Stultifying

Render useless

Make sth appear stupid

Unsound mind, thus Used with abstract not legally responsible + +/nouns

ubezwasnow +/olniajcy

ogupiajcy

+ + -

+ -/+ -

omieszajcy okaleczajcy +

The results of the componential analysis are inconclusive. There is no word that would cover the majority of meanings, thus one has to choose the version, which would support only one of the interpretations. The next problematic element in this sentence, atrophied is rendered as zaniky (which could be named a synonym) and podkopywany, while the second version is clearly translator's feeling of what should be in the text to achieve better effect. When it comes to the third item, both versions have approximately the same meaning and the choice was probably arbitrary in this case.. inherentnej/wrodzonej inherent: the equivalent present in the first version has been chosen to fit the slightly elevated style of the text, while the official translation contains the neutral term. przyjmowania opinii nieyjcych ideaw zamiast samodzielnego mylenia/zastpowania wszystkiego opiniami nieyjcych autorytetw - the substitution of the opinions of dead good men for doing one's own thinking: The points of difference are the translations of the expression good men with different functional equivalents and paraphrase used in the second version. W tradycjonalizmie idee kostniej/Tradycjonalizm zeskorupia idee - Traditionalism fossilises ideas: The shift of agent is present in the first version, mostly to facilitate creation of a good collocation kostnie, my equivalent for fossilize. The other translator had no such problems, as his term, zeskorupia, has an active form, where the noun idea can be an object, which is not possible in the case of the verb kostnie.

Part II: Results and the interpretation of the survey

Conclusion The research shown positive results of the componential analysis use as well as As it can be observed, componential analysis served well so far. The conflict concerning undertranslation and over-translation is visible, as some texts have vocative function predominant and communicative function coming a close second. Glosses are apparently a good procedure to be used, what is in agreement with Newmark's claim. Literal translation served as a solid base method, because survey results shown that versions which chose it were often the better ones, unless there were discrepancies on the level of particular terms. Given the volume of current paper, it is impossible to delve deeper into the subject. The model is not a strict set of rules; it could not be an algorithm for a electronic translator, but rather a certain mindset that the translator can look into during the process.

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