Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abstracts
The Charcoal Filter As a Coarse Filter for Coarse Woody Debris
James K. Agee
Fire played an important role in maintaining and creating conditions suitable for native flora and
fauna in the forests of western North America. Recent coarse filter conservation strategies have
advocated creating future landscapes that incorporate historic or natural ranges of variability,
including fire regimes. Fire varied in frequency, intensity, extent, season, and interactions with
other disturbance processes. In so doing, it had quite different effects on production/consumption
of coarse woody debris (CWD). In low-severity fire regimes, fire limited increases in forest basal
area, and consumed logs at 5-15 year intervals. Coarse woody debris was stable was low at a
local ! sc!!!!ale. At the other end of the spectrum, in the high-severity fire regime, fires were
infrequent but killed most of the trees across large areas, creating a pulse of coarse woody debris
that declined over time and later increased. The most complex CWD dynamics were in the
moderate-severity fire regimes, where fire underburned, thinned, and patch-killed trees at an
intermediate scale. CWD was created and consumed at 25-75 year intervals, maintaining fairly
high levels of CWD on a continuous basis. Implications for management are discussed.
Managing Coarse Woody Debris in British Columbia's Forests: A Cultural Shift for
Professional Foresters?
Andre Arsenault
Coarse woody debris (=cwd) is recognized as an important component of our forest ecosystems
linked to biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Cwd are high centres of biological interaction
and energy exchange symbolizing in many ways the complexity of forest ecosystems. Our
research on lichens and bryophytes demonstrates that many species are either partially or entirely
dependent on cwd. Long-term management of this resource is vital to maintain ecosystem
integrity. Previous attempts to recommend province-wide cwd management practices were not
successful because of potential increased logging costs and conflicts between utilization
standards and recommended cwd volume targets. In ! th!!!!is presentation I will demonstrate that
small changes to existing forest practices will go a long way in minimizing impacts on the cwd
resource without affecting logging costs or timber access. I propose that a cultural shift in how
foresters perceive cwd is a necessary ingredient to improve present practices. I will attempt to
initiate this cultural shift by explaining key cwd management principles and by providing some
operational examples.
The Pileated Woodpecker As a Keystone Habitat Modifier in Coastal Forests of the Pacific
Northwest
Keith B. Aubry and Catherine M. Raley
The pileated woodpecker is the largest North American woodpecker and the only species capable
of creating large cavities in hard snags and decadent live trees. Pileateds excavate multiple
cavities or cavity-starts during the breeding season and excavate openings into hollow chambers
for roosting throughout the year. A wide array of species, including many that are of management
concern in the Pacific Northwest, use old pileated nest and roost cavities. In addition, pileateds
excavate deep into both sapwood and heartwood to forage on invertebrate prey, providing access
to such prey for other species. Pileated excavations also accelerate decay processes and nutrient
cycling by crea! ti!!!!ng openings in decadent live trees, snags, and logs, and breaking apart both
fresh and decaying wood; they may also facilitate inoculation of heartwood decay fungi by
exposing fresh wood in live trees to airborne spores. Keystone species are species whose effects
on ecosystems are disproportionately large relative to their abundance, and include habitat
modifiers whose activities create habitat for many other species and strongly influence key
ecological processes. We propose that the pileated woodpecker is a keystone habitat modifier in
Pacific Northwest coastal forests and argue that their habitat needs should be afforded special
attention in forest management plans and monitoring activities.
Estimating Snag and Large Tree Densities and Distributions on a Landscape for Wildlife
Management.
Lisa J.Bate, Edward O. Garton, and Michael J. Wisdom
We provide efficient and accurate methods for sampling snags and large trees on a landscape to
conduct compliance and effectiveness monitoring for wildlife in relation to the habitat standards
and guidelines on National Forests. Our USDA Forest Service General Technical Report (PNW-
GTR-425) includes spreadsheets, macros, and instructions to conduct all surveys and analyses
pertaining to estimation of snag and large tree densities and distributions on a landscape.
Methods focus on optimizing sampling effort by choosing a plot size appropriate for the specific
forest conditions encountered. Two methods are available for density analysis. Method one
requires sampling until a desired! p!!!!recision level is obtained for a density estimate. Method
two is intended for use in areas that have low snag densities compared to management plan
targeted densities. After taking a minimum of 60 samples, one may test for a significant
difference between the estimated and targeted densities. In addition, data can be used to calculate
a distribution index. The value obtained from the distribution index indicates whether the current
distribution of target snags and large trees across a subwatershed is adequate to meet the habitat
needs of territorial cavity-nesters and other wildlife species. The methods can also be used to
evaluate wildlife use of snags in an area.
Estimating the Density, Length, and Percent Cover of Downed Logs on a Landscape for
Wildlife Management.
Lisa J.Bate, Torolf R. Torgersen, Edward O. Garton, and Michael J. Wisdom
We investigated which sampling methods were best for obtaining estimates of the density, total
length, and percent cover of logs important to wildlife species on a landscape. We sampled 18
mixed-conifer stands, one to seven hectares in size, in the Blue Mountains of Oregon and the
Salish and Mission Mountains of Montana. These stands contained a gradient of log resources
based on their density, total length, and percent cover. Stand conditions also varied based on their
harvest history, seral stage, shrub cover, and topography. Complete counts of logs were first
conducted; subsequently, variations of the strip-plot and the line-intercept method were
employed. Each method was then! e!!!!valuated for its precision, accuracy, and efficiency.
Results from our analysis were used to create all the necessary spreadsheets, macros, and
instructions to conduct log surveys on a landscape. Log sampling methods will be compatible
with previously developed sampling methods for snags and large trees. This will allow resource
specialists to simultaneously sample for all three habitat components on a landscape: large trees,
snags, and logs.
Primary Cavity Excavator Birds in Managed and Unmanaged Grand Fir Forests of
Eastern Washington
Kenneth R. Bevis
Populations of Primary Cavity Excavator (PCE) birds are hypothesized to vary with availability
of standing dead trees (snags). This hypothesis was tested in a grand fir (Abies grandis) forest, a
dominant east cascades forest type in 1991 and 1992. Characteristics of snags utilized by these
birds were also examined. Seven plots in a continuum of forest management intensity were
measured for PCE bird abundance, habitat variables and snag selection. PCE birds selected larger
diameter snags with advanced decay for feeding and nesting. PCE species composition shifted
across the range of plots. Regression models showed total populations as best predicted by
densities of large! d!!!!iameter snags. Forest management implications involve long term
maintenance of snags in adequate densities and advanced decay states in order to maintain PCE
birds.
Maintenance and Improvement of Snags and Logs for Pollinating and Predaceous Insects
Timothy Kent Brown
A myriad of insects can be found inside snags and downed woody debris. Some are primary
cavity excavators like beetles, and ants that create cavities for protection and rearing their young.
Some cavities in living trees and snags may be caused by wood rotting fungi. Many insects are
opportunistic,...using cavities of all kinds for their own reproduction or for overwintering habitat.
Predaceous and pollinating insects like ants, wasps, bees and ladybugs contribute to forest health
and productivity. Ants and ladybugs, for instance prey on a number of forest insect pests. Solitary
and colonial bees pollinate a variety of flowers and berry-producing shrubs. Special structures
and ins! ta!!!!llations for pollinating and predaceous insects in standing and downed wood
materials may be created by various mechanical means. Techniques to maintain and create insect
habitat structures in trees, snags and downed wood in forests and urban woodlots are presented.
Maintaining, Placing and Creating Suitable Logs for Wildlife in Aquatic Habitats
Timothy Kent Brown
A variety of wildlife use wood in aquatic wetland habitats. Migratory and resident aquatic-
dependent birds, mammals, amphibians, and insects use aquatic logs. Logs can be added to
suitable aquatic habitats to enhance wildlife productivity. A multitude of benefits are derived
from these logs. Aquatic logs provide suitable loafing sites for geese and ducks in urban parks.
Turtles bask on logs. Salamanders secure eggs to fine branches attached to recently deposited
logs. Trees with branches can be secured in estuaries and intertidal areas to provide nest
substrates for herring. Logs have been modified in some scenarios for nesting cover. Water level
fluctuations are mitigated by anc! ho!!!!ring logs properly in safety zones. This talk will discuss
techniques to mitigate water level fluctuations impact on amphibians.
Solid logs provide cover or travel lanes for small mammals. Accumulations of logs stacked on
top of each other provide important habitat in the open spaces formed under the snow where
martens and small mammals spend much of the winter. Large-diameter logs are used extensively
by pileated woodpeckers and black bears for foraging on carpenter ants. Extensively decayed
logs provide habitat for amphibians and reptiles.
Results from Sampling Dead Woody Material on the Sierra National Forest
Kevin Casey
In 1997-1998, 1400 individual sample points were measured on the Sierra NF as part of the
National FIA (Forest Inventory and Analysis) Grid. At each sample point, measurements were
made for standing dead trees of all diameter classes, down logs (10 feet by 10 inch minimum),
and small woody debris of three size classes. Dead trees and logs were categorized by decay
class, providing information relevant to wildlife habitat as well as volume and weight
summaries. The data set covers all vegetation types, wilderness & non-wilderness. In total, it
represents the most comprehensive survey of dead wood ever collected on a Sierran forest. These
data have value for analyzing forest struct! ur!!!!e, wildlife relationships and for modeling fire
effects.
Functions of Coarse Woody Debris in Forest Ecosystems
Efren Cazares and James M. Trappe
Coarse woody debris (CWD) in various stages of decay is characteristic of the forest floor in
natural forests. Contributed by breakage, windthrow, fire or standing death of large trees, it
carries over into young forests as a legacy from the preceding old forests. In the Douglas-fir
region, large fallen trees may persist for centuries, slowly decaying and changing in form until
incorporated into the soil. CWD contributes organic matter vital to a healthy soil condition.
Nitrogen and minerals accumulate in CWD over time, providing a substrate important in nutrient
cycling in the forest system. It can absorb up to 6 times its own weight of water to serve as a
reservoir into the sum! me!!!!r dry season, thereby during drought providing a refugium for
myriad organisms and a medium for active functioning of roots, biological nitrogen fixation and
nutrient cycling. It harbors specialized fungi, arthropods and amphibians, including rare and
threatened species, and it provides topographic diversity to the forest floor and essential cover
and habitat for small mammals. Although many functions of CWD are well documented, little
specific information is available on the fungal and nutrient cycling components, especially in
comparison with mineral soil.
Ecological Restoration and the Dead Wood Resource in Ponderosa Pine Forests: Effects on
Vertebrates
Carol L. Chambers
Terrestrial vertebrates are ecologically important in food webs (as foragers, predators, and as
prey), and as dispersers of seed and mycorrhizal fungi. They also have significant influences on
organic matter decomposition and mineral cycling. Vertebrate population densities change in
response to change in vegetation structure and composition. Although some wildlife species are
highly mobile and can move to more favorable habitat (birds), others (small mammals) are often
restricted to relatively small home ranges (2 to 20 ha per population), so forest practices may
have differential effects on vertebrate populations. Ponderosa pine forest ecosystems in the
Southwest have changed o! ve!!!!r the last 130 years as a result of logging, fire suppression, and
livestock grazing. Ecological restoration (thinning and prescribed burning) may help reestablish
structure and function of indigenous ecosystems by recreating pre-settlement (ca. 1870) tree
species composition and size class distribution and reestablishing a frequent, low intensity fire
regime. However, restoration treatments may affect the availability of dead wood to wildlife
(e.g., prescribed fires may incinerate snags and logs). I will discuss potential effects of
restoration treatments on dead wood and impacts on habitat for terrestrial vertebrates. As an
example, I will describe small mammal communities at 3 sites in northern Arizona (south rim of
the Grand Canyon National Park, Camp Navajo Army Depot west of Flagstaff, and Mt.
Trumbull, near the north rim of the Grand Canyon), relate abundance of small mammals to
availability of standing and down wood, and describe how resto! ra!!!!tion may affect dead wood
and impact small mammal communities.
CWD Attributes Before and After Harvesting in Old and Second Growth Forests: Four
Case Studies in the Coastal Western Hemlock Subzone Variant
Gerry Davis
Coarse woody debris (CWD) is an important structural component in forested ecosystems. While
CWD management is required under regulation in British Columbia, Canada, we lack basic
information on CWD demography and the influence of harvesting policy.
I will present pre- and post-harvest data on live standing, dead standing and downed wood in
three old growth (>250 years) stands and one natural fire origin second growth (100-120 years)
stand. The study area is the Coastal Western Hemlock (CWHwh1) biogeoclimatic zone of British
Columbia on the Queen Charlotte Islands. At each site, permanent sample plots (1000 m2 trees;
400 m2 CWD) were established at a density of one per two hectares. The stands were harvested
the following year using current practices and the permanent sample plots were reassessed. In
addition sample plots (50 m2) were established in piles, roadside accumulati! on!!!!s and
backspar trails. The results are discussed within the context of: stand age, future rotation ages,
potential sources of CWD recruitment, and both historical and current provincial harvesting
utilization standards.
Distribution Patterns of Birds Associated with Coarse Woody Debris in Natural and
Managed Eastern Boreal Forests
Pierre Drapeau, Antoine Nappi, Jean-Francois Giroux, Alain Leduc, and Jean-Pierre Savard
In boreal forests, several bird species use dead trees for feeding or nesting and are depending on
them for their survival. Studies on wildlife use of dead trees have shown that the availability of
snags is greatly influenced by the age of the forest and the type of perturbations (natural vs
anthropogenic). Accordingly, cavity nesting birds seem largely affected by these changes in
availability of snags. In North American boreal forests, relationships between birds and dead
wood availability have predominantly been documented in western forests. The dynamics of
dead wood and the distribution patterns of birds associated with this habitat feature remains
largely unknown in eastern! b!!!!lack spruce forests. Distribution patterns of birds associated
with dead wood were documented in the eastern black spruce forest of northwestern Quebec,
Canada. Study areas were composed of four forest landscapes (50-100 km2) that were naturally
disturbed by different fire events (< 2 years, 20 years, 100 years and > 200 years) and two
recently logged (20 years, 80 years) landscapes. Birds were surveyed by point counts. Overall,
348 point counts were distributed over the six forest landscapes. Vegetation plots centered at
each point count were used to sample standing dead trees and logs. The first objective of this
study was to document and explain the distribution patterns of birds associated with dead wood
in naturally disturbed forest landscapes. The second objective was to evaluate the effects of
forest management on this avian guild by comparing bird patterns and dead wood availability
between natural and managed forests landscape! s !!!!of equivalent ages (20 years, 80-100
years). Species richness and abundance of cavity nesting birds reached their peak in the mature
forest landscape. Snag users were also abundant in recently burned forests, especially
woodpeckers. Management implications of our findings for this avian guild are discussed.
Response of Wood-boring Beetles (Coleoptera: Buprestidae, Cerambycidae) to Prescribed
Burning in Southwestern Oregon
Maureen V. Duane, Darrell W. Ross, and Chris Niwa
Wood-boring beetle larvae are important to nutrient cycling, decomposition, and wildlife species
as a source of food. Adult wood-boring beetles are thought to be attracted to fire and burned logs
by heat and smoke. Because prescribed burning is increasingly being used as a management tool
to remove downed wood and other fuels, it is important to understand how these beetles react to
this alteration of habitat. We conducted two studies to monitor response of wood-boring beetles
to prescribed burning. First, individual logs were placed in a prescribed burn and burned to
various degrees of severity. Adult beetles flying to the logs were monitored using flight intercept
traps. Bark s! am!!!!ples were taken to determine percent utilization by beetle larvae. Results
were compared across severity classes of burning. Second, a retrospective study was conducted
by monitoring adult wood-boring beetles in eight sites, spanning one to fifteen years since
burning. Overall abundance and diversity was compared over time with adjacent check plots.
The goal of these two studies is to determine the effect of prescribed burning on the habitat of
wood-boring beetles, and to aid in the development of coarse woody debris and fire management
programs.
Modeling the Delivery of Large Wood to Streams with Light Detection and Ranging Data
(LIDAR)
Cody Fleece
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) devices emit laser pulses in a scanning pattern from
aircraft towards the earth. Objects on the earth reflect some pulses back to the airborne source.
The differing travel distances of these pulses can be transformed into a model of the earth's
surface as well as a three-dimensional characterization of forest structure. LIDAR data have been
shown to accurately predict characteristics of forest structure such as canopy height, basal area,
total above ground biomass, foliage biomass, and canopy reflection. Airborne LIDAR data
acquisition occurred over a 14,000 acre study area at the MacDonald-Dunn Research Forest near
Corvallis, Oregon.. A digita! l !!!!elevation model (DEM) with 6 meter resolution was created
from the last return laser signals. This DEM was then used to generate a stream network for the
forest. Canopy height was generated by subtracting the DEM surface from the elevation surface
generated by the first return signals. The canopy height values generated by the resultant grid
were used in a model predicting the delivery of large wood and coarse particulate organic matter
to streams throughout the forest. The LIDAR data provided a means to predict wood loading to
streams over a much wider area than possible in traditional studies.
Dead Wood and Decadence Characteristics of California Black Oak (Quercus kelloggii) in
the Central Sierra Nevada
Barrett A. Garrison, Robin L. Wachs, Terry A. Giles, and Matthew L. Triggs
Dead wood in live trees is often overlooked by resource managers when assessing dead wood
characteristics of forest habitats. Assessments typically focus on snags and logs while dead
branches in live trees are rarely quantified despite literature demonstrating their wildlife values.
Dead branches are a "hidden" resource that, if ignored, may bias management efforts correcting
deficits in snag abundance. In mid-elevation forests where hardwoods and conifers occur,
hardwoods provide important dead wood resources, such as dead branches, sooner than conifers.
As part of a wildlife community study in the central Sierra Nevada, we measured decadence
components on individually tagged Ca! li!!!!fornia black oak (Quercus kelloggii) 13-152 cm dbh
in four 21.1-ha stands. Acorn production, dbh, oak mistletoe (Phoradendron villosum) infestation
and dead branches have been measured since 1994. Number of dead branches >= 13 cm basal
diameter ranged from 0.0-16.0 per tree (mean = 1.1, SD = 1.8, n = 585). Larger diameter oaks
had more dead branches (P < 0.001), while acorn production (P < 0.003) and number of mistletoe
bunches (P < 0.001) was greater in mid-sized trees. Managers should recognize that live
hardwoods provide many decadence attributes that have wildlife values.
Effect of forest age, structural elements and prey density on the relative abundance of
pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) on south-eastern Vancouver Island
Carol L. Hartwig, Donald S. Eastman, and Alton S. Harestad
The relative abundance of pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus abieticola) in four 1450-ha
landscapes of differing forest ages was correlated with ecological variables using call-playback
surveys, habitat surveys, and GIS in dry Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forests on south-
eastern Vancouver Island in 1996-1997. Pileated woodpeckers did not utilise intensively
managed forests <80 years old due to structures of young forests. The relative abundance of
pileated woodpecker was greatest in a landscape with 51% of >140-year-old stands, although the
relative abundance was not significantly different from an immature forest landscape with 49%
of >80 ! ye!!!!ar-old forests, or a forest landscape with 70% of >140-year-old stands.
Dead Wood and Insects: Function of Insects in the Death Cycle of Conifers
Michael I. Haverty and Patrick J. Shea
Invertebrates play a variety of roles in forest ecosystems, but one of the least understood is their
role in the death cycle of conifers. The death cycle is the process whereby living trees succumb
to the activities of invertebrates, primarily insects, die, then begin to degrade until part or all of
the tree is reintroduced into the same forest ecosystem. Insects play many roles as primary
mortality agents of conifers. Defoliators have ravaged the fir forests of western North America
causing extensive reduction of growth and often mortality. Bark beetles, primarily the genus
Dendroctonus, are among the most dramatic agents of tree mortality. Bark beetles mass att!
ac!!!!k individual trees and colonize the phloem and inner bark then launch the decomposition
process by breaching the protective bark and providing prey base and substrate for the various
trophic levels that follow. Bark beetle activity under the bark of trees results in an increase in
activity of insect predators and secondary wood-degrading insects on the outer surface of the
bark. This sudden increase in activity by bark beetles and associates is mediated by the
semiochemicals released by the bark beetles and the host. During this colonization process
numerous species of Picidae (woodpeckers) and Sittidae (nuthatches) and other bark-gleaning
species visually respond to this activity, feed on external insects, and perforate the bark in search
of insect prey. The wood-degrading insects that follow bark beetles continue the process by
penetrating the sapwood and heartwood and begin to reduce the solid wood to a substrate
pervaded by gallery systems and! f!!!!rass of wood-boring beetles and termites. Most of the
activity by insects is in the early stages of the degradation process, that is, before the bark
sloughs and the larger branches begin to break away from the bole. Insects utilize the degrading
conifers as food and shelter. The tunneling activity of wood-boring beetles are the primary cause
of perforations in wood and provide an avenue of ingress for fungi and other micro-organisms
that accelerate the degradation or death cycle of trees. Carpenter ants utilize wood for harborage,
creating large, open galleries and chambers, but they do not utilize the wood for food. Relatively
few terrestrial animals have the ability to catabolize cellulose, the primary component of wood.
Termites harbor micro-organisms that facilitate the digestion and utilization of cellulose; these
micro-organisms help termites reduce the volume of wood, convert cellulose to primary
biochemical building blocks that termites use for ! nu!!!!trition. Further, the ability of the termite
gut microbiota to fix nitrogen, eventually results in secondary productivity of a high protein/high
fat prey.
Conservation Plans and the Protection of Snags and Coarse Woody Debris on Industrial
Forestlands
Lorin L. Hicks and Henning C. Stabins
Forest practices on private industrial timberlands have steadily progressed to incorporate many
of the issues and approaches currently in use on public forests. One of the most significant
advances for protecting wildlife habitat on private lands has been the development of Habitat
Conservation Plans. Originally developed as a planning process for landowners to mitigate for
the incidental "take" of threatened and endangered species, HCPs have expanded become long-
term, multi-species landscape plans designed to address many aspects of wildlife and fish
management, including the conservation of standing dead trees and downed woody debris. Plum
Creek completed a 50-year HCP fo! r !!!!169,000 acres of company land in Washington’s Central
Cascades in June 1996. The HCP addresses the biological needs of 285 vertebrate species,
including anadromous fish and cavity-dependent wildlife. This paper describes how the HCP was
designed and presents examples and information on implementation of practices to address key
riparian and upland management strategies for retention of dead and dying trees.
The Dynamic Relationship of Woodpecker Habitat Selection and the Successional Decay of
Ponderosa Pine
Kerry L. Hughes, E.O. Garton, Steve Zack, and Patrick J. Shea
Woodpecker foraging and nesting activity is closely tied to tree decomposition stages, yet the
distinct relationships between woodpecker use and the various phases of snag decay are poorly
documented. It is clear, however that particular species are associated with recently killed trees,
whereas others primarily use snags in more advanced stages of decay. In addition, snag
decomposition may be accelerated by foraging woodpeckers which puncture the bark, creating
vectors for the colonization of sapwood decay fungi. In 1998 we initiated a study to examine the
relationships between woodpecker foraging and snag decay processes in an Eastside pine forest
community located in northeast! er!!!!n California. Our objectives were to (1) quantify relative
foraging intensity across a chronosequence of known snag ages, and (2) determine the
relationship between foraging intensity and sapwood decay. To address the first objective, a
foraging intensity index based on the cumulative number of foraging excavations per square
meter was used to compare foraging activity across known snag ages. Preliminary results
revealed no significant difference in cumulative foraging abundance between snags of different
ages, suggesting that woodpecker foraging activity occurred primarily in the younger age classes.
To address the second objective, we are currently recording relative measures of sapwood decay
and woodpecker foraging intensity in ponderosa pine snags experimentally baited with bark
beetle pheromone in 1996 and 1998. These results will be synthesized into a conceptual model
incorporating species-specific woodpecker foraging data, entomological dat! a,!!!! and snag
structural changes. This model is intended to provide further insight into the relationship between
woodpecker habitat selection and successional patterns of decay organisms in ponderosa pine.
The Efficacy of Inoculating Fungi into Conifer Trees to Promote Cavity Excavation by
Woodpeckers in Managed Forests in Western Washington
Martin J. Huss and James C. Bednarz
Cavity-using birds and mammals provide ecological services that benefit and enhance the forest
ecosystem, such as the control of forest-damaging insects and the dispersal of seeds. To develop
management prescriptions to promote the development of a cavity-using community in forests,
we have investigated the relationship that wood-decay fungi play in facilitating nest excavation
by primary-cavity nesting species (i.e., woodpeckers). We located 90 woodpecker nests in
western Washington and examined trees for the presence of basidiocarps or conks (fungal
reproductive structures) and collected wood samples to identify the decay organisms associated
with these trees. The f! !!!!21 ungus most often found to produce basidiocarps on woodpecker
trees was Fomitopsis pinicola (the red-belted conk). Basidiocarps of this fungal species were
found on 41.1% of all woodpecker nest cavities (i.e., 61 hairy woodpecker [Picoides villosus], 26
northern flicker [Colaptes auratus], and 3 red-breasted sapsuckers [Sphyrapicus ruber] nest
trees). This fungus was also recovered from wood samples of 11.5% of all woodpecker nest trees
that did not possess conks. We also identified 32 other fungal types, representing 20 genera from
woodpecker trees, but many probably do not represent primary causes of wood decay but consist
of secondary invaders or colonizers. On the basis of (1) the ability to grow the fungus in culture,
(2) the type of decay caused, and (3) the degree of pathogenicity, we selected F. pinicola as the
organism to inoculate into trees experimentally to promote colon! iz!!!!ation by woodpeckers.
During the summers of 1997 and 1998, we inoculated 65 clusters of 10 trees (total = 650 trees) in
34 separate managed forest stands in western Washington. The experimental design of
inoculations that we followed will allow us to examine the effect of blank (control) vs. fungal
inoculations, the influence of tree species (i.e., Tsuga heterophylla, Pseudotsuga menziesii), the
effect of available snags, and the effect of size/age classes on trees on future colonization by
woodpeckers. Of 20 randomly selected trees that we inoculated in 1997, we retrieved F. pinicola
from 14 (70%) of these in 1998. As we collected only one wood sample from each tree, it is
likely that the fungus was present and not detected from a least some of six trees that yielded
negative results. Vegetative compatibility analyses confirmed that, in every case, the F. pinicola
isolated was the same genetic type inoculated ! th!!!!e year previously. Thus, our results
indicated that at least 70% of the inoculations performed in 1997 were successful in establishing
the fungus in the intended tree. Follow-up monitoring of experimental inoculation sites will
continue at 3-yr intervals to determine if woodpeckers begin using these trees.
Macroarthropod Fauna Utilizing Coarse Woody Debris of Pinus ponderosa and Abies
concolor in Northeastern California.
Ethan Koenigs, Patrick J. Shea, Michael I. Haverty, and Robert Borys
This study was initiated to determine the diversity and community structure of macroarthropods
found in the coarse woody debris (CWD) of a pine/fir dominated forest. With the changing goals
of the Forest Service, emphasis has been placed upon understanding ecosystem processes that
support long-term sustainability and biological diversity. Most studies on CWD to date have
been associated with mesic Douglas-fir forest of the Pacific Northwest. There is a paucity of
information on the role of CWD in other forest types. Our study site is located northeast of Mt.
Shasta in the Klamath National Forest, Goosenest Adaptive Management Area. For the purposes
of this study CWD consists of f! al!!!!len logs and stumps >6" in diameter. Three types of traps
were constructed to survey the arthropod fauna entering and emerging from CWD: An acrylic
pane trap with a water filled collection basin, a collar trap that wraps around fallen logs, and a
solid plastic cylinder placed over stumps. Equal numbers of traps were placed on Abies concolor
and Pinus ponderosa. Three different stages of decomposition, from recently dead (Class I), to
soft but structurally intact (Class III), were sampled from each tree species. Collections were
made on a biweekly basis in 1997, 1998, and 1999. The insects from all traps were sorted by
order, except for the Coleoptera, which were sorted to the family or species level. The most
numerous groups in almost all cases were the Diptera, followed by the Coleoptera and
Hymenoptera. Of the Coleoptera, the Staphylinidae were the most numerous in all cases
excluding the earliest decay stage in bot! h !!!!species, where Scolytidae are dominant. Adult
termites have been mysteriously lacking from all traps in all years.
Cavity Nesting Bird Use of Snags in Eastside Pine Forests of Northeastern California
William F. Laudenslayer, Jr.
Relations between snags (standing dead trees) and cavity nesting birds in eastside pine habitats
were examined in the breeding seasons of 1989, 1990, 1991 on 24-5 ha strip transects on the
Modoc and Lassen National Forests and Lassen Volcanic National Park, California. Transects
were placed in randomly selected plots of eastside pine habitat dominated by either ponderosa
(Pinus ponderosa) or Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi) with varying densities of existing snags. Cavity
nesting birds generally placed their nests in snags larger in diameter and taller than randomly
selected alternative snags found in the forests studied. Snags with active nests had greater d!
ia!!!!meters and heights than alternative snag
s; both differences were significant. Snags with historical nest cavities generally were of larger
diameter than snags without historical nest cavities. Despite the heavier nesting use of larger
snags, many large snags, with similar visual deterioration characteristics, showed no indication
of historical nesting use.
Ant Abundance, Diversity, and Dependence on Dead Wood in Central Interior British
Columbia
B. Staffan Lindgren and A.M. MacIsaac
Ants are known to be ecologically significant invertebrates in many types of ecosystems. They
affect physical and chemical soil properties, plant distribution, and forest health etc. Ants utilize
dead wood substrates for nesting, starting with species that nest sub-cortically in stumps within a
year of tree death, to species that live in stumps and other wood with advanced decay. Virtually
no information is available on the species diversity and abundance of the ant fauna of the north-
central interior of British Columbia. We surveyed the area around Prince George, B.C., to
determine the species diversity, abundance and dependence on dead wood as nest sites. This
paper gives an ov! er!!!!view of how ant diversity and abundance relates to dead wood
availability and condition in forests of different age and species composition. Nest habitat-
specificity with reference to dead wood utilization is discussed.
Methods for the Quantification of Coarse Woody Debris and the Identification of its Spatial
Patterning
Duncan C. Lutes
Methods for the quantification of coarse woody debris volume and the description of spatial
patterning were studied at the Tenderfoot Creek Experimental Forest in central Montana. The
line transect method was found to be an accurate, unbiased estimator of large down debris (>10
cm diameter) volume on 1/4 hectare fixed-area plots, when perpendicular lines were used. The
Fischer Photo Guide for woody fuels did not quantify large down debris as precisely as the line
transect method on 1/4 hectare plots. Chi-square tests found that down debris had a clumped
spatial distribution in 23% of the tests. Pieces were found randomly distributed in the remaining
77% of the tests. Tests of log! o!!!!rientation showed evidence of directional clumping in 8 of 13
tests. The Paired Quadrat Variance method found no consistent scale of clumping in 24 plots of
variance. Snags were found to have a clumped distribution in 37% of the tests, a random
distribution in 62% of the tests and one test indicated a uniform distribution. The Variable Area
Transect method accurately described snag density, however it was not successful at determining
the density of down pieces.
Large Wood Redistribution and Recruitment from Debris Flows in the Central Oregon
Coast Range
Christine L. May
Debris flows in the Pacific Northwest play a major role in routing wood and sediment stored on
hillslopes and in first- through third-order channels to higher order channels and valley floors.
Field surveys conducted in 1997 documented characteristics of the initiation site, runout zone,
and deposit of 53 debris flows triggered during the winter of 1996 in the Siuslaw Basin of the
central Oregon Coast Range. The volume of large wood in debris flows that traveled through
forested channels was only slightly greater than the volume delivered by debris flows through
clearcuts. This finding reflects the legacy of large wood stored in low-order channels.
Furthermore, size-class distrib! ut!!!!ions of wood in deposits and trees on the hillslope were not
well correlated. The average diameter of wood in the deposit was greater than the diameter of
trees present on the surrounding hillslopes, and the diameter distributions in deposits were
similar among forest age classes. Valley width was the primary control on the type of deposit that
formed, and the degree of interaction with the receiving channel. By increasing the frequency,
magnitude, and altering the composition of debris flows, forest practices can affect the long-term
potential for developing complex channel morphology and aquatic habitat.
Factors Influencing the Dynamics of Large Wood in Headwater Streams of the Oregon
Coast Range
Christine L. May
Factors influencing large wood recruitment and redistribution were investigated in an
unharvested watershed in the southern Oregon Coast Range. Stream size and topographic setting
strongly influenced processes by which wood entered the stream and was subsequently
redistributed. In low-order streams draining steep hillslopes, processes associated with slope
instability dominated large wood recruitment. In the low gradient valley floors of mid-order
streams, windthrow was the dominant recruitment process, but debris flows played an important,
yet temporally variable role in wood redistribution from the headwaters. Headwater streams
received wood from further upslope than mid-order ! st!!!!reams, suggesting that the adjacent
forest exerts a wider zone of influence on the channel in headwater basins. Input and
redistribution processes also influenced piece location relative to the direction of flow and thus,
affected the functional role of wood. Wood recruited directly from local hillslopes and riparian
areas was more abundant throughout the network, was typically positioned along side or spanned
the full width of the channel, and provided a unique framework that functioned to trap sediment
and wood in transport. In contrast, fluvially redistributed wood had a patchy spatial distribution,
pieces were commonly located in mid-channel positions, and were closely associated with
scouring of the stream bed and banks rather than deposition.
A Method for Monitoring the Effects of Prescribed Fire on Key Wildlife Habitat
Components
Richard Miller and Tammy Randall-Parker
A method is needed to gather information and to monitor the effects of prescribed fire on key
wildlife habitat components. After trying and failing with a point based monitoring method, a
grid based mapping method of monitoring evolved. This method is effectual for monitoring live
ponderosa pine, snags, down logs, and live oaks. This project has an eventual target of ten plots
monitored. The presentation will explain the method and something about the lessons learned
along the way.
Our burn program and timber harvesting program are the two main cost effective ways we have
to manipulate cwd. We utilize low intensity burns that allow us to rid the forest of flashy and
small fuels, while retaining the larger logs for wildlife. This method speeds up the nutrient
recycling process and creates a safer situation with respect to wildfire. Our timber harvest
program is an uneven aged single tree selection process, which allows us to retain all snags and
any green snags we choose. We have tremendous flexibility with our logging operation, which is
beneficial to both us and our logging contractors. We have had the ability for many years to let
the loggers leave any un! me!!!!rchantable log species in the forest for wildlife. In return their
quick to do us "favors", like fall trees into meadows for structure, drag leftover logs back into the
forest, or place cull logs in riparian areas. All of these seemingly small practices add up to a
significant contribution to the effect cwd has on the habitat.
The three example areas (composed of 12 contract areas totaling approximately 226 acres)
differed in both vegetation cover and future silviculture. They consisted of:
1. Dense stands of 24-40 year old (8-19"dbh) white fir to be thinned to a 20'X20' spacing, with
all residual "older growth" trees and dead snag retained.
2. White Thorn/Manzanita/Black Oak complex to be cleared for replanting, with all Black Oak,
alive or dead retained.
3. Pine plantations (8-15 years) to be released from competition with White
Thorn/Manzanita/Tan Oak brush.
The costs are broken down into five categories;
1. Labor - faller/cutter, equipment operator, oiler/mechanic.
2. Equipment - excavator/grapple, lowboy, fuel/maintenance truck.
3. Water truck/fire equipment.
4. Administration
5. Total cost/acre for each unit
It was the U.S. Forest Service's decision to require low ground pressure tracked excavators with
brush-rake grapples to insure low ground disturbance (lower compaction, decreased soil erosion,
and keep soil water retention). The piling and windrowing of materials allowed more selectivity
of tree, slash, and brush removal, less ground disturbance during brush removal and log and
brush piling, better protection of the plant species left, and less soil and rocks in the burn piles.
Decay Processes -- Why Simply Managing for Snag and Log Quotas is not Enough
Catherine G. Parks
Wood decay is a significant ecological process affecting forest systems. Pathogenic and
saprophytic fungi that cause disease, death, and decay of trees promote biological and structural
diversity, create critical habitat for wildlife, and act as recycling agents to convert trees to
nutrient-rich organic matter. Forest ecologists have largely ignored that how a tree dies markedly
influences several ecological processes. Trees killed or weakened by fire, drought, defoliation,
beetle attack, or disease, each have a distinct decay trajectory that influences their structure and
potential use by wildlife. Experimental management techniques that promote specific decay
conditions in snag! s !!!!and logs are presented.
The Nutritional Significance of Coarse Woody Debris in Three Rocky Mountain Forests
Cindy Prescott and Raija Laiho
The contribution of CWD relative to other aboveground litter types to nitrogen and phosphorus
cycles was assessed in three Rocky Mountain forests: a self-thinning lodgepole pine forest, a
mature white spruce forest, and an old-growth forest of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir.
Weight loss and changes in N and P concentrations in decomposing log segments were measured
over a 14-year period. Input rates were measured during ten years for CWD, one year for ground
vegetation, and five years for other aboveground litter types. N and P release from each type of
decomposing litter were simulated for a period of 40 years. The role of CWD in nutrient cycling
in these forests was assesse! d !!!!by determining 1) the proportion of the annual aboveground
inputs of C, N and P that is derived from CWD, and 2) the proportion of the C, N and P released
from aboveground litter during the simulated 40-year period that is derived from CWD. During
the 14 years pine logs lost 71% of their original weight, spruce lost 38% and fir lost 40%. If
current trends continued, pine logs would disappear completely in about 35 years, spruce logs in
45 years, and fir logs in 35 years. Nutrient release during log decomposition differed between the
two elements and among the three species of logs. The pine logs gained N, spruce logs released
some N, and the fir logs released almost 30% of their original N content. This pattern was related
to the initial N concentrations in the logs, which were lowest in the pine logs and highest in the
fir logs. A similar pattern was even more striking for P: the fir logs with very low initial P
concentration immobilized addition! al!!!! P equivalent to almost four times their initial content.
These findings suggest that wood decay organisms may be competing with vegetation for
limiting nutrients. The proportion of CWD in aboveground litter input was 19% at the pine site,
3% at the spruce site, and 24% at the fir site. The contribution of CWD to N and P release during
the 40-year simulation was 2% or less except at the fir site where CWD released 5% of the N.
Our findings indicate that CWD is not a significant source of available N and P in these forests;
it may actually compete with vegetation for limiting nutrients. The amounts of woody debris to
be maintained should be based on management objectives related to other functions of CWD,
rather than nutritional considerations.
The Effects of Microsite (Logs Versus Ground Surface) on the Presence of Forest Floor
Biota in a Second Growth Hardwood Forest
Charlotte Pyle and Michelle M. Brown
A study was conducted in the University of Connecticut Forest to determine the significance of
forest floor microsite (logs versus ground surface), log decay class, and log surface substrate for
the presence/absence of representatives of seven broadly-defined groups of biota. A total of 277
logs was sampled along randomly located transects. For each log, an equivalent area of ground
surface was sampled. Chi-square analysis indicated presence/absence of the biotic groups was
not independent of forest floor microsite. Seedlings and (non-seedling) vascular plants occurred
more frequently on the ground surface than on logs while evidence of small mammals and birds,
and algae, fungi, ! an!!!!d bryophytes were present only on logs. Log decay class was significant
only for seedlings. The occurrence of algae, fungi, bryophytes, seedlings, and vascular plants on
each of five log surface substrates was not proportional to the occurrence of those substrates.
Differences between observed and expected values were greatest for the powdery wood substrate
with very high observed frequencies of seedlings and vascular plants on powdery wood but very
low frequencies of algae, fungi, and bryophytes. Reasons for the overall lack of importance of
logs as seedling microsites in this oak-dominated forest are discussed.
Preliminary Results of Monitoring Effects of Five Prescribed Fires on Key Wildlife Habitat
Components
Tammy Randall-Parker and Richard Miller
Five prescribed burns were monitored to assess gains and losses on key wildlife habitat
components. The prescribed burs occurred on the Coconino National Forest, Kaibab National
Forest, and Walnut Canyon National Monument in Northern Arizona. Live ponderosa pine,
snags, down logs, and live oaks were monitored. More than half of the down logs were
consumed by the fires we monitored. Snags were moderately impacted by the burns. Few live
oaks and ponderosa pine were killed or consumed.
The policy decisions that must be made relating to such issues rely on science, but are also
driven by societal considerations. Regulatory policy is shifting from species-specific to
landscape based approaches to wildlife and watershed management. To be effective, such policy
requires stakeholder understanding and support. This is best achieved through education and
incentive-based approaches, although some level of prescriptive regulation is unavoidable.
Girdled vs. Bark Beetle Created Snags: Utilization by Cavity Dependent Species and
Differences in Decay Rate and Insect Diversity
Patrick J. Shea, William F. Laudenslayer, Jr., and George Ferrell
Snags are a natural component of forest ecosystems that have a variety of values. Snags provide
important feeding substrates, nesting sites, and habitat for a variety of vertebrates and
invertebrates and these functions continue after the snag eventually falls and becomes a log.
Logs are also important in nutrient cycling as they decompose and slowly return nutrients to the
soil. Some forest landscapes are "snag deficient" because of direct action by forest managers or
because of natural events such as winter storms or fire. Therefore it is not unusual for forest
managers to create snags by various means. In this study we compared snags created by
mechanical girdling (chain! sa!!!!w) and bark beetle (western pine beetle aggregation
pheromone) attack as to acceptability and suitability to cavity dependent species and insect
diversity. Imbedded within the experimental design were two other factors: size of snag and
season of mortality. A randomized complete block experimental design was used with 6
replications of each treatment resulting in 48 trees. Six years into the study we have found
differences in rate of degradation (tree fading, needle, twig, branchlet retention, top breakage,
bark sloughing), woodpecker feeding activity, cavity building, and insect diversity. In summary
our data indicate that bark beetle killed trees provide an more biological rich snag that is both
suitable and acceptable to cavity dependent species.
Snag Densities and Fuel Loads in Jeffrey Pine-Mixed Conifer Forests Under an
Unmanaged Fire Regime in the Sierra San Pedro Martir Mountains, Mexico
Scott L. Stephens and Samantha J. Gill
Fire suppression has increased fuel loads and may have changed the spatial distribution of snags
and large woody debris in western coniferous forests. Determining snag and fuel management
standards that can be applied to western coniferous forests is difficult because there is very little
prehistoric data in this area. Analysis of data taken from the mixed conifer forests of the Sierra
San Pedro Martir Mountains (SSPM) Mountains of northern Baja California, Mexico, are
presented as a forest ecosystem that can provide information in this area. The SSPM is unique
within the California floristic province in that its forests have never been harvested and are still
influenced by a lig! ht!!!!ning ignited fires. The mixed conifer forests of the SSPM are composed
of Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi), white fir (Abies concolor), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), and
lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). A systematic inventory in a Jeffrey-pine mixed conifer forest
using 49 plots was conducted. Surface and ground fuels were inventoried using 3 Brown
transects at each plot and snags density was determined using 0.4 ha circular plots centered at
each of the 49 plots. Snag density averaged 4.3/ha (range 0 - 23/ha). Surface and ground fuels
averaged 16.47 metric tonnes/ha (range 1-166 metric tonnes/ha). Tremendous variability was
found in forest structure characteristics in a relatively small area (1.44 km2) with no changes in
forest type, elevation, aspect, and soils. Average values were almost never found in any
individual plot and this challenges many current US Forest Service g! ui!!!!delines that require
average densities of snags, large woody debris, and fuels in many habitats.
Evaluating the Effects of Partial Cutting on Wildlife Trees and Coarse Woody Debris
Susan K. Stevenson and Dagmar G. Keisker
In the northern interior wet-belt of British Columbia, where stand-destroying events occur
infrequently, uneven-aged management is expected to produce stands that are more natural in
structure than those that result from clearcutting. The contention that biodiversity can be
maintained through the use of ecologically-appropriate silvicultural systems requires testing. We
have begun a long-term replicated study of the effects of several partial cutting prescriptions on a
variety of structural attributes and ecosystem processes, including the loss and creation of
wildlife trees and coarse woody debris. That component of our study focuses on comparing the
occurrence of damage agents ! an!!!!d of structural attributes that are functionally important to
wildlife in undisturbed and post-harvest stands. We employ a new classification of functional
types of wildlife trees and coarse woody debris. A Type is a configuration of habitat features
required by one or more wildlife species for specific functions. For example, Type 1 wildlife
trees, which have hard outer wood surrounding decay-softened inner wood, appear to be required
by strong primary cavity excavators for nesting. We present preliminary data on the occurrence
of disturbance agents, Wildlife Tree Types, and Coarse Woody Debris Types in unharvested
cedar-hemlock and Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir stands in the interior wet-belt of British
Columbia.
Standing Dead Tree Dynamics Extracted from Growth and Yield Permanent Sample Plots
in British Columbia
Jeff Stone and John Parminter
Permanent sample plots (PSPs) of the growth and yield (GY) of live trees can provide valuable
information on standing dead tree dynamics. GY PSPs traditionally documented the death of a
live tree but failed to follow trees beyond death. Fortunately, the repeated measures nature of
PSPs enable information on the past dynamics of dead trees to be extracted following an
assessment of the standing dead trees. This cohort based information is readily analyzed (e.g., by
logistic regression) and can be incorporated into GY models for the prediction of snag dynamics.
In British Columbia, the Ministry of Forests administers over 5,500 GY PSPs. These plots which
are distributed throughout the province were established for research and inventory purposes. We
measured a subset of the plots for standing dead tree breakdown and incorporated this
information into the Ministry's GY models TASS and TIPSY. To determine the feasibility of
measuring the full PSP program, a pilot study was undertaken to evaluate the time and cost
requirements. In this paper, we discuss the dead tree information obtainable from GY PSPs, the
time and costs to obtain that information, findings on standing dead tree dynamics, and the
development of snag dynamic models in Brit! is!!!!h Columbia.
Coarse Woody Debris in Wyoming Lodgepole Pine Forests after Fire and Clearcutting
Daniel B. Tinker and Dennis H. Knight
CWD was measured in burned, clearcut, and unburned/uncut lodgepole pine stands in the
Medicine Bow National Forest (MBNF) and in Yellowstone National Park (YNP), Wyoming.
Estimates of the amount of CWD consumed or converted to charcoal by fire were made from a
recently-burned stand in YNP, and a spatially-explicit simulation model, DEADWOOD, was
created to simulate various clearcutting and fire regimes over a 1000-year period. Measurements
following a single clearcut or fire revealed that downed CWD > 7.5 cm in diameter did not differ
between the two, but fires created more potential CWD as standing-dead trees. Notably, 35% of
the CWD in clearcut stands was inherited wood from th! e !!!!previous stand-replacing fire; this
source of CWD will decrease with successive harvests. Only 8% of downed CWD was
consumed during a single fire; an additional 8% was converted to charcoal. Following a single
disturbance event, clearcutting resulted in an average net loss of 83 Mg/ha, while natural fires
created an average net gain in CWD of 95 Mg/ha. After 1000 years of simulation, 100-year fire-
return intervals produced CWD that occupied more of the forest floor than did 200- or 300-year
intervals. The time required for 100% occupancy of the forest floor by CWD was 1125, 1350,
and 1300 years for 100-, 200-, and 300-year fire-return intervals, respectively. Simulations
revealed that current harvest regimes will require at least four centuries longer for 100% of the
forest floor to be occupied by wood (1800-3600 yr) than under fire regimes. Only when post-
harvest CWD slash was simulated at double the present amounts did clearcutting produce suffi!
ci!!!!ent CWD to maintain forest floor CWD within the range of variability for naturally-
developing stands.
Overview of Agents and Patterns of Coarse Woody Debris Recruitment in Western Forests
Michael R. Wagner and Brytten E. Nelson
This paper will present an overview of agents of tree mortality in western coniferous forests that
are responsible for coarse woody debris recruitment under natural conditions. The patterns and
scales of occurrence of these mortality agents will be reviewed. Recognition ofthese factors and
how they can be used to assess historic disturbance patterns and improve management of coarse
woody debris will be discussed. Finally risks associated with management activities designed to
create coarse woody debris and their mitigation are summarized.
Snag and Down Wood Relationships with Fire in Western Hemlock Forests of Oregon
Diane E. White, Tom Atzet, Lisa A. McCrimmon, and Patricia A. Martinez
This paper describes the relationships between fire and density of snags and down wood (51 cm
+ DBH) at a landscape level in the Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) Plant Series in
southwestern Oregon. Data were collected from 14 plant associations on the Rogue River,
Siskiyou, and Umpqua National Forests. A wide range of environments was covered, with mean
annual temperatures between 6oC and 12oC and mean annual precipitation between 127 cm and
292 cm. The variables collected were live tree, snag, and down wood densities, fire disturbance
information, and elevation, aspect, slope and slope position. Large, live trees were plentiful,
supp! ly!!!!ing a pool from which snags and down wood could be created. The median number of
snags per hectare ranged from 2.1 to 15.3. The median number of pieces of down wood per
hectare ranged from 0 to 14.9. In all plant associations, the variation in both snags and down
wood was large. Snag density was negatively correlated with average fire severity and positively
correlated with the length of the last fire interval. Multiple regression showed over half the
variation in snag density was explained by these two variables. Down wood density was not
significantly correlated with either variable.
The Effect of Fire Regime on Coarse Woody Debris in the West, Central Cascades, Oregon
Pamela Wright
This study examined the effect of fire regime on coarse woody debris (CWD) mass using a
combination of field data and modeling. The objectives were to use field sampling to determine
how CWD differs between two areas that have had different fire regimes (120 to 300 year mean
fire return intervals), and investigate how fire frequency and severity, stand growth and
development, decomposition, and mortality rates affect the amount of CWD for sites
experiencing two different fire regimes. A mass-budget model was developed to compare field
data and model results, and better understand the dynamics of CWD. While fire frequency and
severity established the pattern of CWD succession, the! i!!!!nteraction of fire regime with the
other controlling factors is responsible for the differences in CWD mass. CWD mass was almost
twice as high in stands having an infrequent, stand-replacing fire regime (173 Mg/ha) compared
with stands having a moderately frequent, mixed-severity fire regime (95 Mg/ha). Factors that
appear to have the greatest influence are decomposition rates, fire severity, fire frequency, and
fuel consumption, suggesting that environment and stand structure control CWD mass more than
fire regime per se. CWD levels have greater temporal variability in the infrequent, stand-
replacing fire regime, and mortality occurs during long periods between fire events; whereas, in
the mixed-severity regime mortality is more associated with events than with stand mortality
over time.
Forest Insect Defoliation and Tree Mortality: The Role of Disturbance Factors in the
Creation of Dead Wood
Andrew Youngblood and Boyd E. Wickman
Knowledge of natural disturbance factors that influence ecosystems over large temporal and
spatial scales is essential for understanding the interaction between various ecosystem processes.
Disturbance often results in long-term changes that are not readily apparent until long after the
disturbance event. Assessing the long-term changes from past disturbance events may aid in
identifying ecosystem processes and components most resilient. In northeastern Oregon, one
such disturbance that occurs over large temporal and spatial scales is defoliation by
phytophagous insects. Concern over fuel accumulation and failed stand regeneration after tree
mortality from insect defoliation ofte! n !!!!led to management decisions resulting in stand and
ecosystem "restoration" prescriptions for harvesting and planting in mixed conifer stands. These
practices were initiated without fully understanding the long-term impacts and implications of
defoliation, mortality, snag creation, and dead wood. We describe studies to assess stand
structure in long-term study plots originally established after Douglas-fir tussock moth and
spruce budworm outbreaks in northeastern Oregon. After Douglas-fir tussock moth defoliation in
the Wenaha-Tucannon Wilderness in 1972, and spruce budworm defoliation beginning in 1984 in
Starkey Experimental Forest, all trees in 250 m2 plots were tagged and their survival or death
and transition to snag or down log monitored. We report on the current stand composition and
structure including snags, the density of down logs, and the change in associated vegetation. We
believe this work provides valuable in! si!!!!ghts into the role of large insect outbreaks and the
dynamics of dead wood in these mixed conifer stands.
Are There Snags in the System? Comparing Cavity Use among Nesting Birds in "Snag-
Rich" and "Snag-Poor" Eastside Pine Forests
Steve Zack, T. Luke George, and William F. Laudenslayer, Jr.
The habitat structure and ecological processes for our western coniferous forests have changed
dramatically in the past century primarily because of extensive logging and fire suppression; the
forests of today often are denser, have a larger component of shade tolerant species, and have
fewer large, older trees. The density of large snag trees and their generation has been greatly
altered. Snags with cavities are needed as nesting sites for many species of birds, and are used by
other wildlife. We have been studying wild
life-forest relationships at two sites in Northern California. The eastside pine forests at the
Goosenest Adaptive Management Area in the Klamath NF are "typicial!!!!" in that they have
been logged and fire suppressed this past century resulting in a dense forests with few large tree
and few snags. In contrast, the eastside pine forests of the Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest
in the Lassen NF, particularly those in the Research Natural Areas, have not been logged (but
have been fire suppressed), and so contain many large pine trees and snags. Here, we compare
the abundance and diversity of cavity-nesting birds and snag cavity use at these sites from 1999
and discuss the implications of our results for eastside pine forest management and wildlife.