CONTENTS

PART I - FUNDAMENTALS Introduction, 1 1. SOLAR RADIATION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 The Sun, 3 The Solar Constant, 5 Spectral Distribution of Extraterrestrial Radiation, 7 Variation of Extraterrestrial Radiation, 9 | Definitions, 10 Direction of Beam Radiation, 13 Angles for Tracking Surfaces, 21 Ratio of Beam Radiation on Tilted Surface to that on Horizontal Surface, 25 ' 1.9 Shading, 32 1.10 Extraterrestrial Radiation on a Horizontal Surface, 39 1.11 Summary, 44 References, 44 2. AVAILABLE SOLAR RADIATION 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 Definitions, 46 Pyrheliometers and Pyrheliometric Scales, 471 Pyranometers, 51 Measurements of Duration of Sunshine, 57 Solar Radiation Data, 58 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation, 6)% Estimation of Average Solar Radiation, 68 Estimation of Clear Sky Radiation, 73 / Distribution of Clear and Cloudy Days and Hours, 77 \ Beam and Diffuse Components of Hourly Radiation, 801 Beam and Diffuse Components of Daily Rafliation, 83 Beam and Diffuse Components of MonthlyfRadiation, 85 Estimation of Hourly Radiation from Daily ata, 87

Contents

2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25

Radiation on Sloped Surfaces, 91 Radiation on Sloped Surfaces - Isotropic Sky, 94 Radiation on Sloped Surfaces - Anisotropic Sky, 96 Radiation Augmentation, 102 Beam Radiation on Moving Surfaces, 107 Average Radiation on Sloped Surfaces - Isotropic Sky, 109 Average Radiation on Sloped Surfaces - The K-T Method, 113 Effects of Receiving Surface Orientation, 119 Utilizability, 122 Generalized Utilizability, 125 Daily Utilizability, 134 Summary, 141 References, 141 147

SELECTED HEAT TRANSFER TOPICS 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 The Electromagnetic Spectrum, 147 Photon Radiation, 148 The Blackbody - a Perfect Absorber and Emitter, 148 Planck's Law and Wien's Displacement Law, 149 Stefan-Boltzmann Equation, 151 Radiation Tables, 151 Radiation Intensity and Flux, 154 Infrared Radiation Exchange Between Gray Surfaces, 156 Sky Radiation, ) 57 Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient, 158 Natural Convection Between Flat Parallel Plates, 160 Convection Suppression, 164 Vee-Corrugated Enclosures, 167 Heat Transfer Relations for Internal Flow, 169 Wind Convection Coefficients, 173 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in Packed Beds, 176 Effectiveness - NTU Calculations for Heat Exchangers, 178 References, 181

RADIATION CHARACTERISTICS OF OPAQUE MATERIALS 184 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Absorptance and Emittance, 185 Kirchoffs Law, 187 Reflectance of Surfaces, 189 Relationships Among Absorptance, Emittance, and Reflectance, 193 Broadband Emittance and Absorptance, 194 Calculation of Emittance and Absorptance, 196 Measurement of Surface Radiation Properties, 198 Selective Surfaces, 199

Contents

xvii

4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13

Mechanisms of Selectivity, 204 Optimum Properties, 208 Angular Dependence of Solar Absorptanee, 209 Absorptanee of Cavity Receivers, 210 Specularly Reflecting Surfaces, 211 References, 213

5 . RADIATION TRANSMISSION THROUGH GLAZING; ABSORBED RADIATION 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 Reflection of Radiation, 216 Absorption by Glazing, 220 Optical Properties of Cover Systems, 221 Transmittance for Diffuse Radiation, 226 Transm ittance-Absorptanee Product, 228 Angular Dependence of (xa), 230 Spectral Dependence of Transmittance, 231 Effects of Surface Layers on Transmittance, 234 Absorbed Solar Radiation, 235 Monthly Average Absorbed Radiation, 239 Absorptanee of Rooms, 246 Summary, 248 References, 248

216

6. FLAT-PLATE COLLECTORS 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 Description of Flat-Plate Collectors, 250 Basic Flat-Plate Energy Balance Equation, 251 Temperature Distributions in Flat-Plate Collectors, 252 Collector Overall Heat Loss Coefficient, 254 Temperature Distribution Between Tubes and the Collector Efficiency Factor, 268 Temperature Distribution in Flow Direction, 276 Collector Heat Removal Factor and Flow Factor, 277 Critical Radiation Level, 281 Mean Fluid and Plate Temperature, 282 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product, 283 Effects of Dust and Shading, 286 Heat Capacity Effects in Flat-Plate Collectors, 287 Liquid Heater Plate Geometries, 291 Air Heaters, 296 Measurements of Collector Performance, 301 Collector Characterizations, 302 Collector Tests: Efficiency, Incidence Angle Modifier, and Time Constant, 303 Test Data, 312

250

tviii 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 Thermal Test Data Conversion, 316 Flow Rate Corrections to FR (xa)n and FR UL, 317 Flow Distribution in Collectors, 320 In Situ Collector Performance, 322 Practical Considerations for Flat Plate Collectors, 323 Summary, 326 References, 327

Contents

7. CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 Collector Configurations, 331 Concentration Ratio, 333 Thermal Performance of Concentrating Collectors, 336 Optical Performance of Concentrating Collectors, 341 Cylindrical Absorber Arrays, 343 Optical Characteristics of Nonimaging Collectors, 345 Orientation and Absorbed Energy for CPC Collectors, 351 Performance of CPC Collectors, 356 Linear Imaging Concentrators - Geometry, 358 Images Formed by Perfect Linear Concentrators, 362 Images from Imperfect Linear Concentrators, 367 Ray-Trace Methods for Evaluating Concentrators, 369 Incidence Angle Modifiers and Energy Balances, 370 Paraboloidal Concentrators, 376 Central Receiver Collectors, 377 Practical Considerations, 378 References, 379

330

8. ENERGY STORAGE 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 Process Loads and Solar Collector Outputs, 383 Energy Storage in Solar Process Systems, 384 Water Storage, 385 Stratification in Storage Tanks, 388 Packed Bed Storage, 393 Storage Walls, 400 Seasonal Storage, 403 Phase Change Energy Storage, 405 Chemical Energy Storage, 410 References, 412

382

9. SOLAR PROCESS LOADS 9.1 9.2 9.3 Examples of Hourly Loads, 415 Hot Water Loads, 416 Space Heating Loads; Degree Days; Balance Temperature, 417

414

Contents

xix

9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7

Building Loss Coefficients, 420 Building Energy Storage Capacity, 422 Cooling Loads, 423 Swimming Pool Heating Loads, 423 References, 426 427

10.

SYSTEM THERMAL CALCULATIONS 10.1 Component Models, 428 10.2 Collector Heat Exchanger Factor, 429 10.3 Duct and Pipe Loss Factors, 431 10.4 Controls, 434 10.5 Collector Arrays; Series Connections, 436 10.6 Performance of Partially Shaded Collectors, 439 10.7 Series Arrays with Sections with Different Orientation, 441 10.8 Use of Modified Collector Equations, 444 10.9- System Models, 447 10.10 Solar Fraction, 450 10.11 Summary, 451 References, 452

11.

SOLAR PROCESS ECONOMICS 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 Costs of Solar Process Systems, 454 Design Variables, 457 Economic Figures of Merit, 458 Discounting and Inflation, 461 Present Worth Factor, 463 Life Cycle Savings Method, 466 Evaluation of Other Economic Indicators, 471 The P],P2 Method, 474 Uncertainties in Economic Analyses, 480 Summary, 483 References, 484

453

PART II - APPLICATIONS Introduction, 485 12. SOLAR WATER HEATING - ACTIVE AND PASSIVE 487 12.1 Water Heating Systems, 487 12.2 Freezing and Boiling, 492 12.3 Auxiliary Energy, 494

Contents

12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13

Forced-Circulation Systems, 496 Low-Flow Pumped Systems, 498 Natural Circulation Systems, 499 Integral Collector Storage Systems, 502 Retrofit Water Heaters, 505 Water Heating in Space Heating and Cooling Systems, 506 Testing of Solar Water Heaters, 506 Economics of Solar Water Heating, 507 Swimming Pool Heating, 510 Summary, 512 References, 512

13. BUILDING HEATING - ACTIVE 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 Historical Notes, 515 Solar Heating Systems, 516 CSU House III Flat-Plate Liquid System, 521 CSU House II Air System, 525 A Heating System Parametric Study, 527 Solar Energy-Heat Pump Systems, 531 Phase Change Storage Systems, 537 Seasonal Energy Storage Systems, 540 Solar and Off-Peak Electric Systems, 544 Solar Heating Economics, 545 Architectural Considerations, 549 References, 550

514

14. BUILDING HEATING: PASSIVE AND HYBRID METHODS 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 Concepts of Passive Heating, 556 Comfort Criteria and Heating Loads, 557 Movable Insulation and Controls, 557 Shading: Overhangs and Wingwalls, 558 Direct-Gain Systems, 564 Collector-Storage Walls and Roofs, 569 Sunspaces, 573 Active Collection-Passive Storage Hybrid Systems, 575 Other Hybrid Systems, 577 Passive Applications, 578 Heat Distribution in Passive Buildings, 583 Costs and Economics of Passive Heating, 584 References, 586

555

Contents

xx i 58 8

15. COOLING 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 Solar Absorption Cooling, 588 Theory of Absorption Cooling, 591 Combined Solar Heating and Cooling, 597 A Simulation Study of Solar Air Conditioning, 599 Operating Experience with Solar Cooling, 602 Applications of Solar Absorption Air Conditioning, 605 Solar Desiccant Cooling, 606 Ventilation and Recirculation Desiccant Cycles, 609 Solar-Mechanical Cooling, 611 Solar-Related Air Conditioning, 614 Passive Cooling, 616 References, 617

16.

INDUSTRIAL PROCESS HEAT 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 Integration with Industrial Processes, 620 Mechanical Design Considerations, 621 Economics of Industrial Process Heat, 622 Open Circuit Air Heating Applications, 623 Recirculating Air System Applications, 627 Once-Through Industrial Water Heating, 630 Recirculating Industrial Water Heating, 632 Shallow Pond Water Heaters, 634 Summary, 636 References, 636

620

17.

SOLAR THERMAL POWER SYSTEMS 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 Thermal Conversion Systems, 638 The Gila Bend Pumping System, 639 The Luz Systems, 641 Central Receiver Systems, 644 Solar One Power Plant, 646 References, 649

638

18.

SOLAR PONDS; EVAPORATIVE PROCESSES 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 Salt-Gradient Solar Ponds, 651 Pond Theory, 654 Applications of Ponds, 655 Solar Distillation, 657 Evaporation, 663 Direct Solar Drying, 664 Summary, 665 References, 665

651

xxii

Contents

PART III - THERMAL DESIGN METHODS Introduction, 667 19 SIMULATIONS IN SOLAR PROCESS DESIGN 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 20. Simulation Programs, 669 The Utility of Simulations, 671 Information from Simulations, 672 TRNSYS, a Thermal Process Simulation Program, 674 Simulations and Experiments, 679 Meteorological Data, 681 Limitations of Simulations, 683 References, 683 686 669

DESIGN OF ACTIVE SYSTEMS BY /-CHART 20.1 Review of Design Methods, 686 20.2 The/-Chart Method, 687 20.3 The/-Chart for Liquid Systems, 692 20.4 The/-Chart for Air Systems, 698 20.5 Service Water Heating Systems, 702 20.6 /-Chart Results, 704 20.7 Parallel Solar Energy-Heat Pump Systems, 707 20.8 Summary, 710 References, 711

21.

DESIGN OF ACTIVE SYSTEMS BY UTILIZABILITY METHODS 712 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 Hourly Utilizability, 713 Daily Utilizability, 716 The ft /-Chart Method, 720 Summary, 731 References, 732

22.

DESIGN OF PASSIVE AND HYBRID HEATING SYSTEMS 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 Approaches to Passive Design, 733 The Solar-Load Ratio Method, 734 The Unutilizability Design Method: Direct-Gain, 743 The Unutilizability Design Method: Collector-Storage Walls, 750 Hybrid Systems: Active Collection with Passive Storage, 759 Other Hybrid Systems, 766 References, 767

733

Contents

xxiii

23. DESIGN OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 23.9 Photovoltaic Converters, 769 PV Generator Characteristics and Models, 770 Cell Temperature, 779 Load Characteristics and Direct-Coupled Systems, 781 Controls; Maximum Power Point Trackers, 784 Applications, 785 Design Procedures, 786 High-Flux PV Generators, 792 Summary, 793 References, 793

768

APPENDICES

A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I

Problems, 795 Nomenclature, 824 International System of Units, 828 Monthly Rh as Function of 0 and(0 - fi), 830 Properties of Materials, 835 Present Worth Factors, 840 Meteorological Data, 843 Solar Position Diagrams, 882 Average Shading Factors for Overhangs, 888 905 913

Author Index Subject Index