Individual and Society Exam 1 Notes

Social Science

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How do most people perceive "social research"? It is based on facts alone; there is no theory or personal judgment. Only experts with a Ph.D. degree or college professors read it or do it. It means going to the library and finding a lot of magazine articles or books on a topic. It is when someone hangs around a group and observes. It means conducting a controlled experiment. Social research is drawing a sample of people and giving them questionnaires to complete. It is looking up lots of statistical tables And information from official government reports. To do it, one must use computers to create statistics, charts, and graphs.

What's Neuman's point p.2 of text? He was emphasizing the importance of social science What is Neuman's definition of social research? a process in which people combine a set of principles, outlooks, and ideas (i.e., methodology) with a collection of specific practices, techniques, and strategies (i.e., a method of inquiry) to produce knowledge. What are the alternatives to social research? Authority, tradition, common sense, media myths, and personal experience Authority acquired knowledge from parents, teachers, and experts as well as from books, television, and other media. Tradition accept something as being true because its the way things have always been. Common Sense You rely on what everyone knows and what just makes sense.

Media Myths Television shows, movies, and newspaper and magazine articles are important sources of information. Personal experience If something happens to you, if you personally see it or experience it, you accept it as true. Personal experience, or seeing is believing, has a strong impact and is a powerful source of knowledge errors associated with personal experience overgeneralization- when some evidence supports your belief, but you falsely assume that it applies to many other situations, too. selective observation- you take special notice of some people or events and tend to seek out evidence that confirms what you already believe and ignore contradictory information premature closure- when you feel you have the answer and do not need to listen, seek information, or raise questions any longer halo effect- when we overgeneralize from what we accept as being highly positive or prestigious and let its strong reputation or prestige rub off onto other areas How does science actually work? A study in 2001 demonstrated less than 1/3 of Americans could identify scientific methods additionally while some were able to identify the natural science most did not associate this with the social sciences. The general tendency is to dismiss social science as a matter of individual opinion as opposed to observations of patterns of behavior having predictive value. Scientist collect data to support or reject theories. Quantitative data- using numbers to express data Qualitative data- using words, visual images, sounds, or objects to express

Empirical data- observations that people experiences through there senses. Not all can be directly observed and different methods, techniques, research tools are used to make observations. Much of scientific method has to do with standards for conducting research. It is a set of ideas, rules techniques that the scientific community uses. High value is placed on professionalism, craftsmanship, ethical integrity, creativity, rigorous standards, appropriate diligence. Candor and openness about how one conducted the research, honesty about the merit of the research and not on the characteristics of the individuals who conducted the study. Goal is production and dissemination of knowledge This is why Professional journals are important

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Chapter 2- Anthropology
What is anthropology? The study of humanity; including prehistoric origins and contemporary human diversity Almost as many definitions as their are practitioners. Prides itself on breadth and depth in the study of humanity. Has two aspects of study that of scientific study and that as a humanity. It views itself as a bridge between the science and humanities Holism- the idea that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts" participant observation- you write about people from a personal experience point of view. Not merely outside observer. History of the field important in shaping how we currently do our work. Most early attempts at doing anthropology comes from classical heritage reports of travelers, explorers and conquerors We know recognize the nature of power relationships in the creation of the other Your text traces debates on whether we anthropology should consider itself a humanity or a science back to debates between Aristotle and Plato This reflects the origins in the classics. The classical approach is less stringent and less followed in the US than Europe Emphasis on protection but multiple voices and view points in narratives not to exclude one. Major concern about Globalization and development Different fields of Anthropology Biological (Physical) Anthropology- the study of humans as biological organisms, including evolution and contemporary variation (three subfields) Primatology- the study of nonhuman members of the order of mammals called primates, which include a wide range of animals

Paleoanthropology- the study if human evolution on the basis of the fossil record Contemporary human biological variation- the study of the biological factors as DNA within and across populations, body size and shape, human nutrition and disease, and human growth and development Archaeology- the study if past human cultures through their material remains The study of the old (old=human culture) Prehistoric Archeology- before human written record Historical Archaeology- after human written record Cultural Anthropology- the study of living peoples and their cultures, including variation and change Economic psychological, medical, political, and international development anthropology Linguistic Anthropology- the study of human communication, including its origins, history, and contemporary variation and change (three subfields) Historical linguistics- study of language change over time and how languages are related Descriptive linguistics- the study of how contemporary languages differ in terms of their formal structure Sociolinguistics- the study of the relationships among social variation, social context, and linguistic variation, including nonverbal communication

Other termsApplied/practicing/practical Anthropology- the use of anthropological knowledge to prevent or solve problems or to shape and achieve policy goals Culture- peoples learned and shared behavior and beliefs Functionalism- theory that a culture is similar to a biological organism, in which parts work to support the operation and maintenance of the whole Holism- the perspective that cultures are complex systems that cannot be fully understood without paying attention to their different components, including economics, social organization, and ideology

Cultural Relativism- the perspective that each culture must be understood in terms of the values and ideas if that culture and should not be judged by the standards of another Cultural Materialism- a theoretical position that takes material features of life, such as the environment, natural resources, and mode of production, as the basis for explaining social organization and ideology Interpretive Anthropology- the view that cultures can be understood by studying what people think about, their ideas, and the meanings that are important to them Structurism- a theoretical position concerning human behavior and ideas that says large forces such as the economy, social and political organization, and the media shape what people do and think Agency- the ability of humans to make choices and exercise free will even within dominating structures

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Psychology Definition- the scientific study of behavior and mental processes sees itself rooted in science and scientific method psychology unlike the other fields is abundant with theories of the mind and use these like scientific tool kit to test among the alternatives. psychology emphasizes critical thinking which they break into the following three components Independent Thinking Suspension of judgment Willingness to modify or abandon prior judgments based on new information The goals of psychology are: description, explanation, predictions and influence Most of the research is either descriptive emphasizing Naturalistic studies (observational much easier now that cameras are everywhere) or controlled laboratory studies in which variables are controlled by the researcher Other research includes examination of case studies ( for example Freud's work is mainly from his patients) or the use of surveys. Surveys are more common since access to the internet allows large samples to be examined Sampling So important question would be is how representative is the sample? Making sure the sample isn't biased and represent the larger population. You can do this by taking samples randomly from the larger sample Independent variable- a variable that researchers believe cause a change in another behavior or condition Dependent variable- the variable that is affected by the independent variable Confounding variables- Factors or conditions other than the independent variables that are not equivalent across groups

and could cause differences among the groups with respect to the dependent variable (aka. Things that could distort your results) Selection bias- the assignment of participants to experimental or control groups in a way that systematic differences among the groups are present at the beginning of the experiment Random assignment- The process of selecting participants for experimental and control groups by using a chance procedure to guarantee that each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any of the groups; a control for selection bias Placebo effect- The phenomenon that occurs in an experiment when a participants response to a treatment is due to his or her expectations, rather than the treatment itself Experimenter bias- Occurs when a researchers preconceived notions or expectations in some way influence participants behavior and/or the researchers interpretation of the results Ways to prevent to prevent bias are double blind techniques correlation does not prove causation although it's a good start to looking for answers Wundt is considered the father of psychology and his method is called introspection. Titcher with his development of structuralism. Ticher brought psychology as a filed to the US. As structuralism waned in US, functionalism developed which was concerned with how humans and animals use their mental processes to adapt to the environment, basically broadening psychology to see these processes as fluid but also incorporating behavior into the field. Significant theories in psychology are Behavioral,psychoanalytical,Humanistic,Cognitive, Evolutionary,Biological and Sociocultural. See page 83 for excellent summary

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Womens Studies Gender refers the cultural expectations and societal arrangements by which men and women have different experiences in society. These relationships are complex varied and deeply rooted in society. They affect how we think act and interact with each other and effect what opportunities are available for us. Feminism is difficult to to define because there are many theoretical and political perspectives and ideas. No single perspectives, theory nor practice is soley used. This has arisen because previous male theorist and people in academia have "oppressed ideas or female scholars". So an important part of women's studies and feminist scholarship is about providing a safe place to discuss and think about ideas relevant to topics about women and gender. Common elements to all feminist perspectives 1) The premise that all women's and women's position in society are the result of social , not natural or biological factors. Social institutions and social attitudes are the basis of women's position in society. 2) There are structured inequalities in society and it is the goal of feminist to transform society on behalf of women. 3) Women's experiences, concerns and ideas are valuable and should be treated with equal seriousness and respect as those of men. This is not to say women have to behave like men but women's interests should be central in the focus of social change. Liberal is being used differently here than the way it is bandied about in the press. Liberal is a label often applied to those who support social issues such as abortion rights, affirmative action, and gay rights. Liberal has come to mean the opposite of conservative, but this is not the meaning of liberalism in political and social theory nor the idea of a Liberal education. Classical liberal theory. A basic premise of liberalism is that all people should be treated alike, with no formal barriers to

opportunity and equal rights before the law. Consciously or not, liberalism guides many of the changes people advocate in contemporary times in the United States and around the World. The purpose of feminist theory is to help us understand the conditions in society and to envision the possibilities for liberating social changes. Feminist theory is not written about and discussed just for its own sake but rather for what it suggests about political change, as well. While theoretical analyses may seem complex and sometimes abstract, their purpose is to help understand the character of social structure and therefore the possibilities for social change. As we can see by examining the various frameworks of feminist theory and their relationship to feminist politics, different political frameworks in the feminist movement rest on different theoretical assumptions. Epistemology and the construction of knowledge: Careful study of particular feminist frameworks enables us to more accurately answer questions about womens status in society and therefore allows for a better assessment of possible directions for social change. These assumptions also guide how we interpret the empirical observations of social research. Depending on the theoretical position used to understand data, the data may take on a different meaning. Facts do not usually speak for themselves; they are interpreted within the context of assumptions made about their meaning and their relationship to other facts. Theories guide this interpretation and are therefore an integral part of the process of knowledge construction.( think about glass half full half empty senario in lecture or my list of numbers out of context) A Meritocracy is a system in which persons hold their positions allegedly on the basis of their individual talents and achievement. Although meritocracies supposedly allow anyone to succeed, regardless of their class, race, or gender, we know that these factors matter and matter a lot in shaping opportunities. The Mills analysis ignores how social systems are marked by unequal power, privilege, and rewards. In short, their analysis does not overcome inequality.

Theories or perspectives both current and historical; (Scraped from text and previous incarnations of this class) Liberal feminism emphasizes social and legal reform through policies designed to create equal opportunities for women. In addition, it emphasizes gender socialization as the origin of gender differences, thereby assuming that changes in socialization practices will result in more egalitarian gender relations. The origins of contemporary liberal feminism reach back to the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Age of Enlightenment in western Europe (also known as the Age of Reason). This period fostered an array of political, social, and intellectual movements, most of them characterized by an explicit faith in the capacity of human reason to generate social reform. As the setting for the early philosophies of feminism, the Age of Enlightenment is noted for its libertarian ideals, its pleas for humanitarian reform, and its conviction that Reason shall set us Free The liberal perspective assumes that persons can create humanitarian change through the use of human rationality. Injustice is viewed as the result of irrationality and ignorance. Reason and the pursuit of knowledge are believed to be the source of social change; consequently, liberal policies for change rely on a faith in the process of social reform. Liberal feminists practical solutions to inequality include programs that prohibit discrimination (e.g., differential treatment). Given womens reports of continuing discrimination (see Figure 12.2in text), this is clearly an important goal. Liberal feminism also seeks the reform of individuals through, for example, the resocialization of children and the relearning of appropriate social roles for adults. A central emphasis of the liberal perspective is that all peoples abilities are culturally learned; therefore, egalitarian gender relations will follow from relearning traditional gender-role attitudes and behaviors.Important feminist thinkers John Stewart Mills and Harriet Taylor Mills, Mary Wollstonecraft,Hariet Martineau (Perspectives from older material not in Text)

Pychoanalytic approaches use Freudian concepts for insight. Often used in critical literature but look at case studies to make larger generalization. Emphasis on some of Freud's ideas of sexuality in particular Oedipus complex role reversed and look at how gender is impacted by parenting and gender roles we create. Existentialist- take from readings of Simone de Bolivar The Second Sex and The Ethics of Ambiguity and other existentialists. Simone de Bolivar develops the idea that women are contsructed as the "Other " (from Hegel ). de Bolivar developed the ideas of how patriarchy constructs women as inferior or some how lesser men but creates a mystery around them such that males do not actually have to listen to them or address there concerns, similarly creating hierachies like class, race and religion. These ultimately effecting ones sense of identity. Radical feminism analyzes patriarchy as the primary cause of womens oppression. Some other theories are Socialist feminism, radical feminism, postmodernist feminist theory, multiracial feminism, and queer theory. For liberal feminism theme is individual liberty and tolerance. Many probably agree that it is important to tolerate the individuals right to choose his or her lifestyle. The liberal perspective encourages us to say, for example, that gays and lesbians are entitled to live as they please. What liberalism does not do is to recognize that heterosexuality is institutionalized in this society and, thus, is made compulsory, with penalties for those who do not conform. Similarly, the liberal perspective fails to explain the institutionalized basis for race and class oppression. By claiming that all persons regardless of race, class, or gender should have equal opportunities, liberals accept the existing system as valid, often without analyzing the structured inequality on which it is based. As a result, liberal feminism leaves much unanswered. It does not explain the emergence of gender inequality, nor can it account, other than by analogy, for effects of race and class stratification in womens lives.

Class consciousness and false consciousness: Consciousness is determined by class relations, for even though persons will normally try to identify what is in their best interest, under capitalism the ruling class controls the production of ideas. Also, even though humans create practical ideas from experience, most of their experience is determined by capitalist relations of production. The ideas that are disseminated through communication systems, including language, serve to authorize a reality that the ruling class creates. In this sense, ideas become ideology understood to mean a system of beliefs that legitimate and maintain the status quo. Radical feminists define patriarchy as a sexual system of power in which the male possesses superior power and economic privilege (Eisenstein 1979:17). Radical feminism views patriarchy as being its own social, historical, and political force. Whereas socialist feminism emphasizes the economic basis of gender relations, radical feminism emphasizes male power and privilege as the bases of social relations. Sex/gender system is viewed as the set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological sexuality into products of human activity and in which these transformed sexual needs are satisfied. Men exchange women through market place. Multiracial feminism start built feminist theory to include the experiences of women of color i.e. Sojourner Truth Agency refers to the active and creative way that human beings give meaning to their experience and act on their own behalf. People are not just empty vessels into whom social forces are poured. Even under oppressive conditions, people have a consciousness that they use to define their experience; they act in ways that construct a meaningful social existence. This may take the form of accommodating oneself to oppressive social forces, but it also takes the form of resisting oppression or at the very least, adapting to the conditions one faces. The focus on human agency in multiracial feminism has highlighted the active and creative ways that groups resist oppression even at times when oppression seems overwhelming.

Postmodernism recognizes that socially constructed assumptions are built into the knowledge frames that are characteristic of any given historical period or cultural context (Nicholson 1990). Postmodernist theory goes beyond simply understanding the influence of culture (a view common to all social sciences) by arguing that there is not a singular, monolithic social order (i.e., society); rather, society is a series of images and meaning systems over which people struggle (Fraser 1989). Postmodernists see reality as constituted through a broad range of discourses, that is, all which is written, spoken, or otherwise represented through language and communication systems. Whether it is science, the media, or other cultural artifacts, postmodernists see these discourses as framing knowledge and reality; in addition, these discourses are systems of social control. Gender ideology, as an example, is a form of social control represented in the discourses (science, language, cultural images) that embed specific representations of what it means to be male and female. Postmodernism has arisen largely from the field of literary criticism and also from the critiques of science symbolized by feminist standpoint theory. Multicultural/Global Feminism- focuses on perspectives of women from different points of the world, of differing races,ethnicities and religious backgrounds and how this effects how people are subordinated or marginalized. Ecofeminism- not only focuses on the oppression of women, but sees this as a greater male oriented or paternal orientation towards the world. Male domination is extended to our relationship with the natural world. Connections or correlations are made between oppression and attitudes toward the environment Dominance over nature versus us being part of nature. Aspects include obviously environmentalism but also aspects of female spirituality and anti-militarism. Queer theory, like postmodernist feminism, criticizes traditional empirical studies of sexuality for being

unreflective about the categories upon which such research is based. According to queer theory, studies of sexuality that compare men and women or gays, bisexuals, transsexuals, and straights presume that these different types have some fixed meaning. Instead, queer theory interprets these as highly fluid categories (Seidman 1994, 1996). People change over time change dependant on circumstances they are in. This mode of thinking shifts the analysis of sexuality away from dualistic categories to a more fluid understanding of difference. At the same time, it challenges the assumption (one even made within the gay and lesbian community) that there is some natural basis to homosexuality (although there is some evidence to this as well). From this point of view, no one sexual identity is privileged over another; rather, sexual identity is all performance and meaning (Butler 1990). Phallic DriftJust as a compass needle always heads north regardless which way you turn it, in the area of feminism and gender studies there is a similar kind of reaction by society and the public which inevitably goes back to the status quo which is the male point of view. Examples The issue of violence or sexual assaults on women is a serious issue in our society. Most television shows or media try to maintain some sense of "objectivity or sense of lack of Bias." Unfortunately, the media rather than maintaining focus on this issue and what needs to be done, very often the media sidesteps the problem by creating a false problem. For example if the problem was a discussion of sexual assault. The media might present a male who claims to have been falsely accused of the crime. This does not happen very often statistically but presentation in the forum disarms or damages any head way the discussion may of had as to the degree of problem in one's community and the need to address it. This is an example of what is called phallic drift.

If you think about it, maybe women have right to be upset or disturbed by what's going on in their communities. Here again you can focus on the reaction as not being logical rather then the reason why people are upset. Again leaving the situation unchanged, again favoring the male bias in society. Lastly you often see this on talk shows, you bring people out that are considered "Radical" allow them to present there views and then present the more main stream "enough already argument" Look how far you come as opposed to taking the concerns seriously again favoring the middle of the road male oriented philosophy. The idea here is to get you to think about other peoples arguments and concerns. I would like you to think about how by using or not using your ability to listen to a person's concerns you are making a choice to empower or disempower them. Accumulatively, this effects the course of their life chances, opportunities and satisfaction with their lives Those groups looking at Media issues might think about this how this applies to other issues, problems in society. Newest Ideas Intersectionality- the idea of how we construct ourselves and others perceive us. Multiple dimensions allows for individualism and agency

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Sociology Whereas anthropology studies small societies and numbers of peoples, anthropology has the concept of Holism and participant observation as a unifying principles. Sociology studies so much larger entities, so partitioning society into managable territories and topics is critical. Sociologists use the Sociological Imagination as a way of critically thinking about society and culture. The Sociological Imagination involves envisioning different perspectives of what society is and what it could be. Like the other social sciences Sociologists examine how social context influence people's lives. Sociology perspective stresses the social context in which people live (Henslin). It questions how groups influence people, how people are influenced by their society. Society's are defined by groups of people that share a a common territory. Important people/ important concepts/ history of ideas Auguste Comte father of Sociology applied science to the study of society. His work was a reaction to French Revolution. He advocated for a new science of society. Herbert Spencer- Known for Social Darwinism- applying survival of fittest to industrial area. He was very pro business and suggested business people not concern themselves with the working conditions of their laborers. Like many early social scientist Spencer made important contributions to our understanding differences in types of organization of society, but main importance was the construction of better social theory by social scientist in reaction to Spencer's ideas. Karl Marx- Idea of society problems rooted in class conflict. Theory very different than most American's perception of theory because use by totalitarian regimes ie USSR, Communist China.

Many European and other places like Australia, Canada, places in S. America have planned economies ( therefore either communist or socialist governments) but still allies because of freedoms and democratic governments. Need to separate ideas of politics, economic ,social and from each other. Important aspects of Marxist theory as he intended-differences in economics or power root of conflict in society. He believed there would be conflict in society until people control means of production. Other important concept Masking ideology developed by Engels with Marx. People create ideologies to explain there current conditions and lifestyles masking what is really going on in society. Emile Durkheim- Studied differences in rates of suicide by different religion groups. He related the amount of social integration a group had to suicide rates (more contact less suicide) therefore rates of suicide not merely an issue of individual choice but of social influence Max Weber- Like Durkheim, Weber looked at the influence of religion on social outcomes. Weber looked at differences in belief He found two important patterns related to how people behaved. Main stream Christian denominations have differing opinions as to what happens to you after you die. This effects how people invest and act during their lives. Fundamentally it boils down to whether good deeds in this life lead you to heaven. So need to invest in the hereafter by doing charitable work now and invest current money doing good deeds for others now ( less money now investment in here after). The alternate pattern of investing is the idea in some Protestant and Calvinist religions where the belief is predestination. People who are well off is because God is bestowing favor on you during your during lifetime. This leads to differences in investing patterns leading to difference in income and social status between religious groups. (still works today) Harriett Martineau translated French Sociologist Cote to English making it available to British and American sociologists. this unfortunately was typical roles of early women academics. She also wrote insightful commentaries on life in US

Jane Addams worked in Chicago and created Hull House which sought to help immigrant workers provide safe working conditions, changed housing laws , worked to get labor laws and minimum wage. This applied sociology would win her Nobel prize in 1931, only sociologist to do so. She is also considered the founder of Social Work. Part of larger debate between applied versus theoretical sociology work. What is role of sociologist in changing society? WEB Dubois- First African American Sociologist. His work chronicles difficulty of living in segregated America. Unable to stay at hotel with fellow sociologists or dine with them even though he was delivering the annual address to the American Sociological Association. He was major contributor to Race and Ethnic studies and inspiration for many in the Civil Rights movement. Talcott Parsons vs C Wright Mills argument about theory versus applied work in general both still have significant impact in field Debate abut role for scientific unbiased observation versus role of social scientist as advocate for social change. C. Wright Mills very influential still but particularly in the relm of theory and activism in the 1960' and 70's. He coined the term sociological imagination

Know definition of the three major sociological theories p. 176 and be able to identify an example