Eras of Human Communication

Dec 6th, 2010 by JayP

Todays society, in general, belongs to the interactive communication era. The dominant form of human communication that exists today is interactive communication. Although we can not discount the fact that some countries still lack the necessary technology to be considered belonging in interactive communication era, the dominant factor in the world now is interactive communication. There are four Eras of Human Communication namely, the Writing Era, Printing Era, Telecommunication Era, and the Interactive Communication Era. The writing era is a period when writing was the principal method of media communication. Books and other media materials are written by a handful of experts in writing. Consequently, distribution and materials available for general public is very limited. The printing era began when the first movable printing press was invented. It created a revolution in the reproduction of media materials such as books, journals, and newspapers because these can now be reproduced faster and on a wide scale. It started the Renaissance because knowledge became widely available to a large number of people and not confined to a few experts and individuals. Science, literature, and arts blossomed and later it paved the way for the emergence of a mass medium called the newspaper. The telecommunication era started when Morse invented the first telegraph. Telecommunication era was characterized by communication at a long distance. It utilized new telecomm technologies such as the telephone, radio and television (airwaves), to transmit information from a far away place to another. The speed of information flow was much faster than the printing era. The world shrank because information and events from one place can now be easily transmitted, watched, and heard to another place in only a matter of hours. The interactive communication era started when the first computer was invented. This era was characterized by high technology in communication tools and methods. It also de-massified the mass media and ushered the individualized, convergent, interactive media. People have greater control on information flow and distribution and feedback mechanisms became instantaneous and done in real-time. Almost all forms of media became or adopted the electronic method for easy accessibility in the information super highway. Todays society, in general, belongs to the interactive communication era. The dominant form of human communication that exists today is interactive communication. Although we can not discount the fact that some countries still lack the necessary technology to be considered

belonging in interactive communication era, the dominant factor in the world now is interactive communication. Media and computer technologies are creating dramatic changes that are producing an explosion of rhetoric and hype touting the benefits of the new information superhighway where individuals will supposedly get data and entertainment on demand, hook up into new virtual communities, and even create new identities. Such ideological hyperbole has accompanied the introduction of all new technologies, but this time the structures of contemporary capitalist economies, politics, society, culture, and everyday life are dramatically changing, requiring radical social theory. Media and computer technologies are among the most advanced forces of production which are creating a new global capitalist society which may well strengthen capitalist relations of production and hegemony, but also contain potential for democratizing, humanizing, and transforming existing inequities in the domain of class, race, and gender. Like most technologies, they can be used as instruments of domination or liberation, and can empower working people, or they can be used by capital as powerful instruments of domination. A critical theory of technology characterizes technologies both as potential instruments of liberation which could be used to democratize and humanize society and empower individuals, or as powerful instruments of capitalist domination and hegemony. The construction and effects of technologies depend in part on how corporations market and use the technologies and in part on the will and intelligence of individuals and social movements struggling to determine the structure, uses, and effects of the new technologies. Which side prevails in specific cases will determine the shape of the future.

Development of Human Communication

The Meaning of Communication Communication is an ever continuing process and an integral part of the world of all living things. The need for communication is as basic as the hunger for food and drink, perhaps even more so. It is an individual as well as a social need. Derived form the Latin word communis , meaning common, communication is a synonym for interchange, dialogue, sharing, interaction or communion. It is the passing of meaningful messages and the receiving of feedback. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines communication as the exchange of meaning between individuals or groups through a common system of symbols or language. Denis McQuail (Towards a Sociology of Mass Communication, 1975) sees human communication as the sending of meaningful messages from one person to another. These

messages could be oral or written, visual or olfactory. He also includes laws, practices, customs, ways of dressing, gestures, military parades and flags as methods of communication. Human communication went through different stages of development. At first this development was driven by the process of mankinds evolution from the lower species, later it was driven by technological human progress.

Historical Survey of Communication:

The Age of Signs and Signals

The Age of Speech and Language

The Age of Writing

The Age of Printing

The Mass Communication Age

The Age of Information Revolution

1. The Age of Signs and Signals Prehistoric humans were physically unable to talk. Communication was limited and determined by instincts. It was the age of signs and signals - drum messages, smoke signals, music, dance etc.

2. The Age of Speech and Language Mans first achievement was speech and language. It gave him an eminent position over others. Growth of different languages gave birth to different expressions that denoted distinctions within communities. Certain languages acquired the traits of others, e.g., the language of conquerors was absorbed into the local dialect. This then became the language of administration and commerce.

3. The Age of Writing

About 5,000 years ago, hieroglyphic writing was developed by the Mayans and the Chinese. They used pictures with a standardized meaning. The Sumerians developed a different form of writing that represented sounds by symbols. This allowed information to be stored and for traditions to be passed on in writing. Clay, stone and later papyrus were developed and used as portable media. Writing gave permanence to the spoken language. Writing was slow to develop because the clergy, who were the seats of power, wanted it to be their sole privilege.

4. The Age of Print

In the 1st century A.D, China invented paper. In the 8th century the Arab world began to manufacture paper. In the 15th century, the Gutenberg press was invented and printing began in Europe. As a consequence, information could be copied much faster and with far fewer mistakes than before. Availability of information was no longer restricted to the Roman Church and to nobility, but open to a wider section of European societies. This was the basis for further historical development that culminated in the Thirty-Years-War. Books were followed by the development of pamphlets and then newspapers in the 17th century. Some newspapers began to be edited by the then subjugated Asians and Africans in spite of severe opposition. Revolutionary journals began to see the light of day and enjoyed wide readership.

5. The Mass Communication Age

In the 19th century, communication was determined by several media forms. Print media, especially newspapers, were supplemented by telegraph and telephone. The introduction of radio, film and television in the 20th century saw the emergence of the Mass Communication era. 6. The Age of Information Revolution At present, we are living amidst an information revolution. Integrated multimedia applications are now possible due to networks established from the development of digital communication technology. Hypertext structures form the basis for communication and navigation within the system.

CONCLUSIONS Communication is a carrier of a social process and man is a social being because of communication.

Communication influences others and in turn is influenced by them. Communication gives people a sense of belonging and reduces loneliness and frustration by helping people adapt to their environment. The communication revolution has marched along with the industrial revolution and the media has been shaped by powerful economic and social forces, such as the rise of democracy. Readings

THE FIVE STEPS OF THE WRITING PROCESS

STEP 1: PREWRITING

THINK
Decide on a topic to write about. Consider who will read or listen to your written work. Brainstorm ideas about the subject. List places where you can research information. Do your research.

STEP 2: DRAFTING

WRITE
Put the information you researched into your own words. Write sentences and paragraphs even if they are not perfect. Read what you have written and judge if it says what you mean. Show it to others and ask for suggestions.

STEP 3: REVISING

MAKE IT BETTER
Read what you have written again. Think about what others said about it. Rearrange words or sentences. Take out or add parts. Replace overused or unclear words. Read your writing aloud to be sure it flows smoothly.

STEP 4: PROOFREADING

MAKE IT CORRECT
Be sure all sentences are complete. Correct spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. Change words that are not used correctly. Have someone check your work. Recopy it correctly and neatly.

STEP 5: PUBLISHING

SHARE THE FINISHED PRODUCT

Read your writing aloud to a group. Create a book of your work. Send a copy to a friend or relative.

Put your writing on display. Illustrate, perform, or set your creation to music. Congratulate yourself on a job well done!

Whether you know it or not, theres a process to writing which many writers follow naturally. If youre just getting started as a writer, though, or if you always find it a struggle to produce an essay, short story or blog, following the writing process will help. Im going to explain what each stage of the writing process involves, and Ill offer some tips for each section that will help out if youre still feeling stuck! 1. Prewriting Have you ever sat staring at a blank piece of paper or a blank document on your computer screen? You might have skipped the vital first stage of the writing process: prewriting. This covers everything you do before starting your rough draft. As a minimum, prewriting means coming up with an idea! Ideas and Inspiration Ideas are all around you. If you want to write but you dont have any ideas, try:

Using a writing prompt to get you started. Writing about incidents from your daily life, or childhood. Keeping a notebook of ideas jotting down those thoughts that occur throughout the day. Creating a vivid character, and then writing about him/her.

See also How to Generate Hundreds of Writing Ideas. Tip: Once you have an idea, you need to expand on it. Dont make the mistake of jumping straight into your writing youll end up with a badly structured piece. Building on Your Idea These are a couple of popular methods you can use to add flesh to the bones of your idea:

Free writing: Open a new document or start a new page, and write everything that comes into your head about your chosen topic. Dont stop to edit, even if you make mistakes. Brainstorming: Write the idea or topic in the center of your page. Jot down ideas that arise from it sub-topics or directions you could take with the article.

Once youve done one or both of these, you need to select whats going into your first draft. Planning and Structure Some pieces of writing will require more planning than others. Typically, longer pieces and academic papers need a lot of thought at this stage. First, decide which ideas youll use. During your free writing and brainstorming, youll have come up with lots of thoughts. Some belong in this piece of writing: others can be kept for another time. Then, decide how to order those ideas. Try to have a logical progression. Sometimes, your topic will make this easy: in this article, for instance, it made sense to take each step of the writing process in order. For a short story, try the eight-point story arc. 2. Writing Sit down with your plan beside you, and start your first draft (also known as the rough draft or rough copy). At this stage, dont think about word-count, grammar, spelling and punctuation. Dont worry if youve gone off-topic, or if some sections of your plan dont fit too well. Just keep writing! If youre a new writer, you might be surprised that professional authors go through multiple drafts before theyre happy with their work. This is a normal part of the writing process no-one gets it right first time. Some things that many writers find helpful when working on the first draft include:

Setting aside at least thirty minutes to concentrate: its hard to establish a writing flow if youre just snatching a few minutes here and there. Going somewhere without interruptions: a library or coffee shop can work well, if you dont have anywhere quiet to write at home. Switching off distracting programs: if you write your first draft onto a computer, you might find that turning off your Internet connection does wonders for your concentration levels! When Im writing fiction, I like to use the free program Dark Room (you can find more about it on our collection of writing software).

You might write several drafts, especially if youre working on fiction. Your subsequent drafts will probably merge elements of the writing stage and the revising stage. Tip: Writing requires concentration and energy. If youre a new writer, dont try to write for hours without stopping. Instead, give yourself a time limit (like thirty minutes) to really focus without checking your email! 3. Revising

Revising your work is about making big picture changes. You might remove whole sections, rewrite entire paragraphs, and add in information which youve realized the reader will need. Everyone needs to revise even talented writers. The revision stage is sometimes summed up with the A.R.R.R. (Adding, Rearranging, Removing, Replacing) approach: Adding What else does the reader need to know? If you havent met the required word-count, what areas could you expand on? This is a good point to go back to your prewriting notes look for ideas which you didnt use. Rearranging Even when youve planned your piece, sections may need rearranging. Perhaps as you wrote your essay, you found that the argument would flow better if you reordered your paragraphs. Maybe youve written a short story that drags in the middle but packs in too much at the end. Removing Sometimes, one of your ideas doesnt work out. Perhaps youve gone over the word count, and you need to take out a few paragraphs. Maybe that funny story doesnt really fit with the rest of your article. Replacing Would more vivid details help bring your piece to life? Do you need to look for stronger examples and quotations to support your argument? If a particular paragraph isnt working, try rewriting it. Tip: If youre not sure whats working and what isnt, show your writing to someone else. This might be a writers circle, or just a friend whos good with words. Ask them for feedback. Its best if you can show your work to several people, so that you can get more than one opinion. 4. Editing The editing stage is distinct from revision, and needs to be done after revising. Editing involves the close-up view of individual sentences and words. It needs to be done after youve made revisions on a big scale: or else you could agonize over a perfect sentence, only to end up cutting that whole paragraph from your piece. When editing, go through your piece line by line, and make sure that each sentence, phrase and word is as strong as possible. Some things to check for are:

Have you used the same word too many times in one sentence or paragraph? Use a thesaurus to find alternatives. Are any of your sentences hard to understand? Rewrite them to make your thoughts clear. Which words could you cut to make a sentence stronger? Words like just quite, very, really and generally can often be removed. Are your sentences grammatically correct? Keep a careful look out for problems like subject-verb agreement and staying consistent in your use of the past, present or future tense. Is everything spelt correctly? Dont trust your spell-checker it wont pick up every mistake. Proofread as many times as necessary. Have you used punctuation marks correctly? Commas often cause difficulties. You might want to check out the Daily Writing Tips articles on punctuation.

Tip: Print out your work and edit on paper. Many writers find it easier to spot mistakes this way. 5. Publishing The final step of the writing process is publishing. This means different things depending on the piece youre working on. Bloggers need to upload, format and post their piece of completed work. Students need to produce a final copy of their work, in the correct format. This often means adding a bibliography, ensuring that citations are correct, and adding details such as your student reference number. Journalists need to submit their piece (usually called copy) to an editor. Again, there will be a certain format for this. Fiction writers may be sending their story to a magazine or competition. Check guidelines carefully, and make sure you follow them. If youve written a novel, look for an agent who represents your genre. (There are books like Writers Market, published each year, which can help you with this.) Tip: Your piece of writing might never be published. Thats okay many bestselling authors wrote lots of stories or articles before they got their first piece published. Nothing that you write is wasted, because it all contributes to your growth as a writer. Conclusion The five stages of the writing process are a framework for writing well and easily. You might want to bookmark this post so that you can come back to it each time you start on a new article, blog post, essay or story: use it as a checklist to help you.

If you have any tips about the writing process, or if you want to share your experiences, tell us in the comments!

Features of academic writing

Introduction

Try this exercise. Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form of the language.There are eight main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately.
Complexity

Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives. Complexity
Formality

Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions. Formality
Precision

In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely. Precision

Objectivity

Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs). Objectivity
Explicitness

Academic writing is explicit about the relationships int he text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words. Explicitness
Accuracy

Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between "phonetics" and "phonemics"; general English does not. Accuracy
Hedging

In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways. A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a hedge. Hedging
Responsibility

In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source tex

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The difference between academic and creative writing

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1 of 7 by Jean Sidden

Created on: May 18, 2010 The differences between academic and creative writing are many though there are also similarities. Writing is writing and to say that one or the other of these genres is more valid is to negate a large body of excellent work. If you have experience in both creative and academic writing you know that each form has its place and its audience. In academic writing the goal is to prove a thesis that is stated early in the work. Whether the piece is a dissertation, a paper or a fully realized book, the thesis is threaded throughout its entirety. The idea is to convince the reader that the author's thesis statement is a valid one. In order to prove the thesis statement pre-existing source material is used to back up the author's logic. These sources are then cited within the body of the document and listed in bibliographical form at the end. The idea in academic writing is to make a worthy addition to an ongoing

historical conversation about a topic. The conversation grows and becomes richer with each author's fresh ideas, which in turn stimulate new responses and ideas to be explored creating a dialogue through time. Creative writing tells a story. Whether in prose or poetry, creative writing has a beginning, middle and end that takes the reader on a journey through the story the author is trying to tell. A creative writing work will follow a course through exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and denouement, or resolution. This structure helps keep the reader engaged throughout the entire story. Creative writing is more the realm of escape and entertainment for the reader. If a work is not entertaining and compelling the reader might very well put it down and move on to something else. It becomes very important for authors to develop style and craft that will take the reader into their world and hold them there for the entire journey. A creative writing work does not need to use outside source material but it could. Historical fiction as a genre is drawing on actual events so research is part of the author's process. Acknowledgements should be made to cite sources just as they would be in the case of an academic work if they are used. There is really no reason to qualify one genre as better or worse than the other. An academic work will be written and read by the audience that is interested in the subject matter. Creative writing will pull its own audience. Both genres share audiences and enrich their reading experience by having that shared knowledge. Academic writing can be highly creative in its approach, with ideas that are presented in a fascinating and engaging way. Creative writing can be so well researched and factual that it is a learning experience as well as entertainment. There is much to recommend both types of writing as a path to expand knowledge and simply enjoy the activity of reading.

One of the great things about the English language is that with its various modes of structure and the wide variety of nuance that can be utilized, there are almost as many styles and sub-genres of writing as there are writers who ply it as a trade. It goes without saying, or rather it should to anyone who has ever studied writing and/or literature, that practically each and every publication from the tiniest of fanzines distributed to only its own particular devotees, all the way to the widest circulated and august periodicals each have their own style and expected linguistic parameters to be followed. Exercises for the express purpose of demonstrating how well, or inadequately, a student is progressing in their chosen field should be even more rigorous. The academic paper, although depending upon the subject at hand being discussed (or in many cases being BSed and I fear that I am not referring to Bachelor of Science here, although many of these have been and will continue to be perpetrated as such in the pursuit of same!) is normally structured to follow the standard format that all bastions of learning utilize and are structured so as to present the most information in the clearest if manners. These exercises, or

papers, are usually confined to a particular subject or topic and in each assigned paper's structure the parameters will be designed to reflect the guidelines of the particular curriculum and/or professor conducting the course for which the paper is intended. Also, the usual overall style parameters utilized for most academic writings follow the MLA (Modern Language Association) formatting and require that attribution be carried out for all resources utilized in the creation of the document at hand. This involves including footnotes which can help to explain or clarify certain passages in which the source material is cited. Following the main bulk of the material being presented will follow the bibliography which is a listing of all information sources that were utilized in the creation of the presentation. Other style guides may be utilized and if so, the instructor assigning the research project will indicate which one is required when the project is assigned. There are usually other aspects of academic writing that are equally as important and depending upon the course being studied and the particular parameters being utilized these are normally delineated by individual instructors depending upon their own individual criteria.

There is a world of difference between writing academically and writing creatively. Academic writing relies on the technicalities of proper grammar, sentence structure, paragraph order, factual information and objectivity; creative writing takes on much more liberty, allowing the author greater freedom in grammar, structure, persona and point of view. Painting a vivid picture in the mind of the reader through the use of descriptive words and imagining the unexpected is the key to good creative writing; clear, concise paragraphs that help readers gain knowledge regarding a specific topic are essential to proficient academic writing. In basic English composition classes, we are taught how to diagram sentences, when to use punctuation marks such as commas, semicolons, colons and periods, what the difference is between a verb, adverb and adjective and the rules that govern the language which we speak (although we tend to speak more street slang than traditional English). In upper level classes, and especially college, we are taught to start the writing process by creating theses and outlines. Then we learn how to write an introductory paragraph, followed by at least three supporting body paragraphs, and then the conclusion. There is little room for any variation in academic writing, although interesting content and word choice help to liven up a paper about a cut-and-dry subject. Also, pretty much all academic writing is written in third person, using he, she and it as pronouns. Creative writing is much more fun. Not only does the writer not have to follow all the English grammar rules, but can make up characters, dialogue, create analogies, play-on-words and develop story lines with plots that twist and turn. Creative writing has many different forms including novels, short stories, poetry, songs, plays and pretty much anything that the author feels compelled to write. Nothing about creative writing is set in stone a story can be completely fictional, or the characters and setting can be based on real-life people, places and situations. The writing does not have to go in any particular order, though there should be a clear beginning, middle and end in the final piece so as not to confuse the reader, or leave them

hanging. Creative writing is subjective rather than objective, allowing the writer to give their own opinions and beliefs. No matter the type of writing, it must always flow correctly, have the right spelling, verb tenses should agree and the basic grammar should make sense. But a student compiling an academic paper is given much stricter guidelines to follow than the writer putting together a creative piece that has the end purpose of entertaining and engrossing readers rather than being educational and factual.

What is the difference between Print Media vs Electronic Media?

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Ads Answer: Print media is being challenged by its electronic counterpart. But there are several unique advantages that help both the mediums to create a niche place in the media industry. Print media is more capable than electronic media to deliver localized news that may interest city or district residents.

Print media allows reader to store away articles that be used any time in the future. But electronic medium is a much more faster way of providing news to people. The standard of television news is deteriorating much faster that that of print media.

Intense competition between electronic media entities lead to broadcast of speculative news. Print media does not suffer from the adverse effects of the "Breaking News" phenomenon. electronic media is better than printed media. because electronic media like computer give us lots of informati

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TYPES OF NEWSPAPER ARTICLES

Most of the articles you see in The Dispatch are news articles. News articles focus only on the facts <ETH> they don't contain anyone's opinion There are several types of news articles. A local news article focuses on what's going on in your neighborhood. An example of a local news story would be an article on a city council meeting. A national news article focuses on what's happening in the United States. An example of a national news article would be an article on the U.S. Senate passing a new bill. An international news article focuses on news that's happening outside the United States. A story on an influenza outbreak in Chile would be considered an international news story. A feature article is an article that is about "softer" news. A feature may be a profile of a person who does a lot of volunteer work in the community or a movie preview. Feature articles are not considered news stories. An editorial is an article that contains the writer's opinion. Editorials are usually run all together on a specific page of the paper and focus on current events. Editorials are not considered news stories. A column is an article written by the same person on a regular basis. A columnist (the writer of the column) writes about subjects of interest to him/her, current events or community happenings. Columns are not considered news stories.

Chapter 10 types of news articles Presentation Transcript

1. Chapter 10 Types of News Articles 2. What is a news article? A news article is an article published in a print or Internet news medium such as a newspaper, newsletter ( ), news magazine, news-oriented website, or article directory that discusses current or recent news of either general interest (i.e. daily newspapers) or on a specific topic (i.e. political or trade news magazines, club newsletters, or technology news websites). 3. Hard News Vs. Soft News News stories are basically divided into two types: hard news and soft news. Hard new generally refers to up-to-the-minute news and events that are reported immediately, while soft news is background information or human-interest stories. Politics, war, economics and crime used to be considered hard news, while arts, entertainment and lifestyles were considered soft news. But increasingly, the lines are beginning to blur. Is a story about the

private life of a politician &quot;politics&quot; or &quot;entertainment&quot;? Is an article about the importance of investing early for retirement a &quot;business&quot; story or a &quot;lifestyle&quot; story? Judging solely on subject matter, it can be difficult to tell. 4. One difference between hard and soft news is the tone of presentation. A hard news story takes a factual approach: What happened? Who was involved? Where and when did it happen? Why? A soft news story tries instead to entertain or advise the reader. You may have come across newspaper or TV stories that promise &quot;news you can use.&quot; Examples might be tips on how to stretch properly before exercising, or what to look for when buying a new computer. Knowing the difference between hard and soft news helps you develop a sense of how news is covered, and what sorts of stories different news media tend to publish or broadcast. This can be important when you want to write articles or influence the media yourself. 5. News brief Straight news In-dept reporting Comment Feature P86-143

Types of newspaper articles

Remember - all writing tasks are about understanding genre, audience, purpose and style (GAPS). Before writing a newspaper article, you need to be clear about the different kinds of article you might find in a newspaper:

News articles: these are found at the front of a newspaper. They inform readers about things that are happening in the world or in the local area. Feature articles: these explore news stories in more depth. They may be triggered by a story that has been in the news for a while. The purpose of a feature is not just to tell you what has happened, but to explore or analyse the reasons why. Editorials, columns and opinion pieces: these are pieces by 'personality' writers. They might be there to inform (because the writer's expert opinion is valued), or they might be there to entertain (because the writer has a comic or interesting way of describing everyday life).

Writing Tips for Editorials and Persuasive Article Writing

Finding Editorial Topics, Getting Ideas, and Developing Style and Tone
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If you're opinionated and able to write using clear, persuasive language, then you may want to learn how to write newspaper editorials. An editorial is a way for a reporter to get her own personal opinion into a story, rather than the objective approach used with other newspaper stories. Most newspapers don't offer steady editorial work to outsiders. They tend to run editorials on a regular schedule, whether daily or two to three times per week and these are normally written by the staff reporters, though community leaders or experts in certain fields are occasionally invited to craft them. If you are called on to write one, there are a few things to keep in mind. The first thing you should understand is proper writing style; you don't need to compromise your own personal voice, but it is necessary to have clear, concise writing.

Keep the topic relevant. Finding topics and getting ideas can be among the largest challenges facing any writer, but with editorials the process is often a bit easier than for other types of writing. The topic of an editorial should normally be a current news story or event. This doesn't have to be a major story or event, but it should be something with a broad appeal to the readership. It may be that your ideas mainly center around local or national history - that's not a problem! If you want to write one about something that happened in the past, wait for an

anniversary of the event to tie it to the present day. You can get writing ideas by brainstorming with friends and family. Use personal opinion. The main difference between an editorial and a news story is that there is room to try to persuade readers with your personal opinion. This should be done in a rational manner, as with a standard news story, and with attributed sources if needed. It is not enough to state your opinion on a news story, but rather to use your opinion to guide interpretation of the story.

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Feel free to use emotion, but in a limited manner. An editorial written out of anger or another strong emotion is not going to hold the persuasive power of one written with a limited range of emotion. I once wrote an editorial about greed and how it was driving government officials in ways that I didn't approve of. By simply expressing distaste and disappointment, it had more impact than if I had written an angry missive about how much I hated the local government. Strong, reactive emotion will turn off readers, while a more personal and subdued emotional theme will draw readers in. Use persuasive language. Persuasive writing is one of the key elements of a good editorial. Using clear, active language in your writing is far more persuasive than a weak narrative that rambles. Get to the point. For more information about crafting persuasive arguments, see How to Write a Persuasive Essay. Get your facts straight. While there is a limited protection afforded by opinion pieces, there is still a chance of your piece being construed as libel. If you are discussing people or businesses in your editorial, be sure that all facts are correct and are attributed. If you are writing negative opinions about people or businesses, be sure to begin by stating that it is your opinion. Opinions can be neither proved nor disproved, and will not be construed as libel unless there is an obvious component of malice to them. For this reason, never name call. Try to be entertaining. Keeping all of the above steps of clarity, relevance and fact-checking in mind, there is still room to write in an entertaining manner. Readers usually expect to get more out of an editorial than simple facts, so don't disappoint. Having a distinctive style is key in getting your work noticed by editors and readers; you can develop your own tone by taking time to hone your writing skills. One of the best writing tips for opinion editorials is to use humor to illustrate your points when appropriate.

Editorials are often used to spotlight one aspect of a story that has been overlooked. If you are searching for a topic, try reading the newspaper and picking out big stories that may not have had all aspects covered. A colleague wrote an effective editorial about taxes by describing the scene at the local tax preparation company when she went there to file. This gave it a personal aspect but still highlighted the hassle and expense of doing taxes. If you do have a news story or event

in mind, find the aspect that will most connect with readers; you'll soon discover that editorial writing can be not only lucrative, but fun!

COLUMN WRITING: An Opportunity to Speak Out

By Marnela Kathleen V. Pasamba Objectives: 1. Define column, its purpose and characteristics. 2. Differentiate column writing from other forms of writing (news writing, feature writing and editorial writing). 3. Give steps and tips on how to write a column. 4. Come up with a column article of the participants choice. What is a COLUMN?

It is a personal and biased article yet it follows the rules and ethics of journalism. Its topic can be sports, social issues, daily lives, religion, and observations.

Its Purpose: To write so that the reader can hear the writer thinking --- thinking aloud through writing.

The columnists voice should be so powerful that readers can hear the writer talking to them.

Its Characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. Highlight creative expression of opinion. Reflect the personality of the author. Showcase superior writing ability and distinctive style. Express the viewpoint of one writer rather than a newspaper. (Any approach-persuasion, praise, explanation, entertainment--can work)

5. Build on careful, thorough reporting that incorporates purposeful interviews and documented observations. 6. Focus on a subject that appeals to many readers. 7. Present new insights in a lively manner that shows the writers conviction. 8. Provide commentary that stimulates readers to think, to evaluate, to act, and to see everyday life from a new perspective ranging from the serious to the humorous. 9. Use an original title that defines the slant or the type of content. Good titles often play on the writers name or reflect the writers skills. Also the live headlines must follow appropriate styles. Bylines are essential, and photos of the writer are appropriate. 10. Appear regularly in a newspaper on the same page. 11. To establish an appropriate identity and to distinguish the column from other articles, the column title should use typography and graphics to complement the publication design. A column, however, should never be confused with a regular feature in the paper.

Basic Differences: Columns vs. News Straight news covers press conferences and reporting who said what. Anybody can be trained to write straight news because its very mechanical.

Columns vs. Features Feature stories involve too much reporting and require discipline to follow a set structure. Feature articles, though also somewhat formulaic, are harder because they require good writing. Columns vs. Editorials Personal columns differ from editorials in that they are the opinion of the writer rather than the collective opinion of the newspaper staff. They are signed, or by-lined.

The Edge of Column Writing: Column writing is the hardest type of writing of all because it requires good thinking.

Steps and Tips in Column Writing: 1. Follow the pattern of the editorial. But this time, make it individualized. State the problem Position on the problem

Evidence to support your position Conclusion Solutions to the problem give at least two 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Show rather than tell. Use colorful nouns and action verbs. Make the issue, your focal point. Use creative style rather than arguing a specific point. Refer to facts. Localize and personalize. Tie it with your own experience. Choose a consistent tone. a. Thoughtful (stimulating) b. Analytical (serious) c. Conversational d. Confidential e. Reportorial f. Critical g. Satirical

Now, its your turn to write your own column with any topic of your choice.

References:
Adapted from Writing Columns that Line Up Readers by Howard Spanogle Mobile internet researcher - http://oonyeoh.squarespace.com/column-writing-tips/

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDITORIAL WRITING An editorial is an article that presents the newspaper's opinion on an issue. It reflects the majority vote of the editorial board, the governing body of the newspaper made up of editors and business managers. It is usually unsigned. Much in the same manner of a lawyer, editorial writers build on an argument and try to persuade readers to think the same way they do. Editorials are meant to influence public opinion, promote critical thinking, and sometimes cause people to take action on an issue. In essence, an editorial is an opinionated news story. Editorials have: 1. Introduction, body and conclusion like other news stories 2. An objective explanation of the issue, especially complex issues 3. A timely news angle 4. Opinions from the opposing viewpoint that refute directly the same issues the writer addresses 5. The opinions of the writer delivered in a professional manner. Good editorials engage issues, not personalities and refrain from name-calling or other petty tactics of persuasion.

6. Alternative solutions to the problem or issue being criticized. Anyone can gripe about a problem, but a good editorial should take a pro-active approach to making the situation better by using constructive criticism and giving solutions. 7. A solid and concise conclusion that powerfully summarizes the writer's opinion. Give it some punch. Four Types of Editorials Will: 1. Explain or interpret: Editors often use these editorials to explain the way the newspaper covered a sensitive or controversial subject. School newspapers may explain new school rules or a particular student-body effort like a food drive. 2. Criticize: These editorials constructively criticize actions, decisions or situations while providing solutions to the problem identified. Immediate purpose is to get readers to see the problem, not the solution. 3. Persuade: Editorials of persuasion aim to immediately see the solution, not the problem. From the first paragraph, readers will be encouraged to take a specific, positive action. Political endorsements are good examples of editorials of persuasion. 4. Praise: These editorials commend people and organizations for something done well. They are not as common as the other three. Writing an Editorial 1. Pick a significant topic that has a current news angle and would interest readers. 2. Collect information and facts; include objective reporting; do research 3. State your opinion briefly in the fashion of a thesis statement 4. Explain the issue objectively as a reporter would and tell why this situation is important 5. Give opposing viewpoint first with its quotations and facts 6. Refute (reject) the other side and develop your case using facts, details, figures, quotations. Pick apart the other side's logic. 7. Concede a point of the opposition they must have some good points you can acknowledge that would make you look rational. 8. Repeat key phrases to reinforce an idea into the reader's minds. 9. Give a realistic solution(s) to the problem that goes beyond common knowledge. Encourage critical thinking and pro-active reaction. 10. Wrap it up in a concluding punch that restates your opening remark (thesis statement). 11. Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I" A Sample Structure I. Lead with an Objective Explanation of the Issue/Controversy. Include the five W's and the H. (Members of Congress, in effort to reduce the budget, are looking to cut funding from public television. Hearings were held )

Pull in facts and quotations from the sources which are relevant. Additional research may be necessary.

II. Present Your Opposition First. As the writer you disagree with these viewpoints. Identify the people (specifically who oppose you. (Republicans feel that these cuts are necessary; other cable stations can pick them; only the rich watch public television.)

Use facts and quotations to state objectively their opinions. Give a strong position of the opposition. You gain nothing in refuting a weak position.

Print media V/S Electronic media

Electronic Media has a clear edge over print media even if new media(for eg. The Internet) is not included in it. Print media is more of a 'habit' with people and still caters to a sizeable population. But electronic media offers a lot of choice to the people, especially to the youth(GEN Y),the largest growing segment of our population and more importantly, has the ability to maintain the pace at which the preferences and demands of the Gen Y changes.The shrinking readership of the print publications perhaps is testimony to the changing media consumption pattern of the people today. Although I dont see an immediate threat to the print media, more so because it is a centuries old media, yet I believe it definitely is not the media of the future. Moreover, electronic media is visually more appealing and more effective in not only conveying a message but by virtue of being a frequency medium,is also effective in registering it,thus ensuring high brand recall amongst viewers & potential customers. For the advertisers and advertising agencies,it provides exciting opportunities to experiment with new and innovative ideas which reduces the media's dependence on traditional source of revenue like selling Free Commercial Time (FCT), while broadening their horizons and opening up new avenues for generating revenues through 360 degrees promotional campaigns and by providing interactive business solutions. The lack of such scope for experimentation in Print Media would ultimately affect its revenues in a big way and might as well be the factor which decides its future. Add to it the new media (Internet, etc.) which too forms part of the electronic media today,I believe Electronic Media is The media of the future. By Ashwin DJoshi, jjkjkkkjkjk, BMW | 1 year ago Support | Oppose
Electronic Media has a clear edge over print media even if new media(for eg. The Internet) is not included in it. Print media is more of a 'habit' with people and still caters to a sizeable population. But electronic media offers a lot of choice to the people, especially to the youth(GEN Y),the largest growing segment of our population and more importantly, has the ability to maintain the pace at which the preferences and demands of the Gen Y changes.The shrinking readership of the print

publications perhaps is testimony to the changing media consumption pattern of the people today. Although I dont see an immediate threat to the print media, more so because it is a centuries old media, yet I believe it definitely is not the media of the future. Moreover, electronic media is visually more appealing and more effective in not only conveying a message but by virtue of being a frequency medium,is also effective in registering it,thus ensuring high brand recall amongst viewers & potential customers. For the advertisers and advertising agencies,it provides exciting opportunities to experiment with new and innovative ideas which reduces the media's dependence on traditional source of revenue like selling Free Commercial Time (FCT), while broadening their horizons and opening up new avenues for generating revenues through 360 degrees promotional campaigns and by providing interactive business solutions. The lack of such scope for experimentation in Print Media would ultimately affect its revenues in a big way and might as well be the factor which decides its future. Add to it the new media (Internet, etc.) which too forms part of the electronic media today,I believe Electronic Media is The media of the future. By Sanjay K

Mr. Jay Makwana, I am supporting the argument based on some irrefutable facts, Let's take a look at some of those. The relevance of any media is based on it's content. The messages it contains and for whom. The messages are of various types and are addressed to sections across society. The messages can be news, events, promotions (ads), social issues, political, educational, notices, etc. The messages may be fictional or non-fictional and are conveyed thru media. I understand that we are talking about the reach, in terms of volume, of all kinds of messages, and not just advertisements. Print media (publications on paper) is restricted, by nature, to the people who can read or understand the written language. That is the literate audience. That governs the print run. E-media embraces all with visual and hearing capabilities, across geographical boundaries and language barriers. The medium can be radio, mobile, internet or tv. A.R Rahman's music is enjoyed across the globe. The capabilities of each medium being different, so will be the achievements. The print media will always have a limited print run. With e-media there are no restirctions. Therefore e-media enjoys the benefit of reach. Please note: E-media distribution = Radio, Tv, Web & Mobile. (in that order) Print Media distribution = Paper, Cloth, Hoardings, Banners he reach of Electronic media is obviously higher since a person doesn't have to be literate to read it. In India this would be a major issue. Let's examine the stats -- As per 2001 Census only 64.8 percent of Indians are literate. (The debate on whether this number is exagerrated would be quite interesting) These is an imbalance among men and women...75.3 percent men are literate and

53.7 percent women are literate. Obviously, print media is hindered in reaching out to a lot of people especially women.

Print media is also quite expensive if you think of parameters like Opportunity to See. If you have enough budgetary provision for a TV ad campaign in prime time, then using print would be terrible...because the cost per person influenced would be higher in TV. If you have several crores for branding a high-end item, there is no reason to choose print over TV. Additionally, even if you could reach out to equal number of people with print at the same price, the audio visual medium is inherently more powerful at conveying a message (unless the creative agency lacks the necessary capability). The answer is obvious: Electronic media is the choice to go for unless your budget only allows for a splash in print media.

LANGUAGE AND TELEVISION

In spite of the centrality of the visual image in television, this medium uniquely combines visuality with both oral and written varieties of language. Television is thus distinguished from print media by its predominantly aural-oral mode of language use, while visuality separates it from the exclusively aural medium of radio. Before the age of broadcasting, contact between languages was primarily through either face-to-face or written communication. Overcoming spatial barriers and the limitations of literacy, radio and television have brought on-the-air languages within the reach of those who afford the receiving equipment. However, contrary to a common belief that access to broadcasting is easier than to print media, small and minority languages have often Orality is generally viewed as the "normal" or "natural" mode of communication through language. been excluded by both radio and television. Being Being face-to-face, interactive, immediate and non- multilingual and multiethnic, the great majority of contemporary states seek national unity in part mediated (e.g. through writing, print or electronic through a national or official language. As a result, media), oral communication and the oral tradition the states and their public television systems either are considered by some theorists to be ignore linguistic diversity or actively eliminate it. indispensable to a free and democratic life. Unlike Private television is equally exclusionist when oral communication, which is usually dialogic and participatory, written language separates the writer minority audiences are not large enough to be and the reader in space and time, and relies on the profitably delivered to advertisers, or if state policy proscribes multilingual minority broadcasting (as is sense of seeing at the expense of other senses. the case in Turkey). Even in Western Europe, According to this perspective, audiovisual media, especially television, restore the pre-print condition indigenous minority languages such as Welsh in of harmony of senses by using the ear and the eye Britain had to go through a difficult struggle in order and calling into play the remaining senses of touch, to access television. Both the centralizing states smell and taste. This view is rejected by those who and minorities realize that television confers credibility and legitimacy on language. The use of a argue that the "mechanized" orality of radio and threatened language at home, even at school, no television provides a one-way communication flow longer ensures its survival; language vitality

from the broadcaster to the hearer or viewer, thus eliminating a fundamental feature of the spoken language: its dialogue and interactivity. Television, like writing, then, overcomes the barriers of space, reaches millions of viewers, and may contribute to the centralization of power and knowledge. Many viewers see television as an oral medium, a perception constantly reinforced by announcers, anchors and reporters who try to engage in an informal, conversational style of speaking. Among their techniques are the use of direct forms of address, (e.g., "Good evening," "Thank you for watching...," or "Please stay with us...,"), the maintenance of eye contact with viewers while reading the script from teleprompters or printed copy, and the attempt to be, or at least appear, spontaneous. This on-the-air conversationality is, however, different from everyday talk in significant ways. For instance, television talk aims at avoiding what is natural in face-to-face conversation--errors such as false starts or pauses, and repetitions, hesitations and silence. A manual of script writing advises the beginner: "Structure your scripts like a conversation, but avoid the elements of conversations that make them verbose, redundant, imprecise, rambling, and incomplete" (Mayeux 1994:47). Furthermore, the broadcaster is required to have a good or "polished" voice, and is advised "to articulate, enunciate, breathe from the diaphragm, sound authoritative, stay calm under fire, and, all the while, be conversational!" (Freedman 1990: viii).

depends increasingly on broadcasting. Although broadcasting in the native tongue is increasingly viewed as a communication right of every citizen, the majority of languages, especially in developing countries, have not yet been televised. In Turkey, where Turkish is the only official language, some twelve million Kurds are constitutionally deprived of the right to broadcast in their native tongue, Kurdish. Even listening to or watching transborder programs in this language is considered an action against the territorial integrity of the state. In countries where linguistic and communication rights are respected, economic obstacles often prevent multilingual broadcasting. In Ghana, for example, there are over sixty languages or dialects, but in 1992 only six out of 55 hours of weekly television air-time were devoted to "local" languages; the rest was in English, the official language. Television production could not satisfy local tastes and demands. While the rural population did not afford the cost of a TV set, the urban elite tuned to CNN.

New technologies such as satellites, computers, cable and VCR have radically changed the process of televisual production, transmission, delivery and reception. One major change is the globalization of the medium, which has for the first time in history created audiences of the size of one billion viewers for certain programs. Satellite television easily violates international borders, but is less successful in crossing linguistic boundaries. This has led to the flourishing of translation or "language transfer" in the form of dubbing, subtitling, and voice-over. Although the linguistic fragmentation of the global Viewers, by contrast, engage in an aural or auditory audience is phenomenal, English language programs, mostly produced in the United States communication with the medium. Even in call-in and England, are popular throughout the world. shows, the majority of viewers are not able to speak. The few who go on the air via telephone are Television has accelerated the spread of English as a global lingua franca. For instance, in Sweden selected through a gatekeeping process, and are where subtitling allows viewers to listen to the often instructed to be brief and to the point. Language, then, much like studio setup and camera original language, television has helped the further spread of English. Also, since the United States is position, is used to create a sense of intimate the most powerful producer of entertainment and involvement, a sharing of time and space. Phil information, American English is spreading at the Donahue, for example, uses words such as "we," "us," "you," and "here" in order to create a sense of expense of other standards of the language such as Australian, British, Canadian, and Indian. communion between the host, and the studio and home audiences, e.g., in "You'll forgive us, Mr. X, if we are just a little sceptical of your claim that all we While some observers see in the new technologies need to do...." Similarly, another linguistic code, the the demise of minority languages and cultures, frequent use of the present tense, is used to create others believe they empower them to resist and a sense of audience involvement, and apparently survive. Cable television, for instance, has offered allows the host, the guest and the home audience opportunities for access to small and scattered

to share the same moment of broadcast time, even though most shows in the United States were, by the early 1990s, either pre-recorded or packaged as syndication reruns. In spite of the presence of seeming spontaneity in talk genres, they are usually semi-scripted, and involve a preparation process including research, writing, editing and presentation. As Timberg points out, over a hundred professionals were involved in producing and airing a "spontaneous" talk show like The Tonight Show each evening, for example, and as much as 80% of the interview with guests on the Letterman show was worked out in advance. Nonscripted, ad lib and unprepared talk shows do, however, appear both on mainstream networks (e.g. Larry King Live), and on low-budget or semiprofessional programs of local, community or alternative television. While some theorists admit the written bases of television's spoken language and conceptualize it as "secondary orality", there is a tendency to explain the popularity of television by, among other things, equating its orality with that of the face-toface speech. Some researchers see in popular talk shows (such as Donahue or Kilroy) a forum or a public sphere where audiences, in the studio and in front of the screen, engage in oppositional dialogue. Others find the talk shows essentially conformist, contributing to the maintenance of the status quo. Romanticizing the orality of television is as problematic as denouncing it as an impoverished form of speech. Language changes continually, and television, as a social institution and powerful technology, creates new discourses, new modes of language use, new forms of translation, and new forms of communication between communities with different linguistic abilities. "Natural" and TV languages coexist in constant interaction, influencing each other and contributing to the dynamism of verbal communication. Language consists of numerous varieties rooted in socioeconomic differentiation (e.g., working class language, legal language), gender (male and female languages), age (e.g., children's language), race (e.g., Black English), geography (e.g., Texan English), ethnicity, and other formations. Each variety may include diverse styles with distinct phonological, lexical, semantic and even syntactic features. Television genres provide a panorama of these language varieties and styles, a presentation of amazing language diversity which the viewer will

minorities. Satellites empowered the refugee and immigrant Kurdish community in Europe to launch a daily program in their native tongue in 1995. Thus, unable to enjoy self-rule in their homeland, they gained linguistic and cultural sovereignty in the sky, beaming their programs to Kurdistan where the language suffers from Turkey's harsh policy of linguicide. While this is a dramatic achievement, other experiences, e.g. aboriginal languages in Western countries, are mixed. Truly empowering is television's potential to open a new door on the prelingually deaf community. The World Federation of the Deaf in Helsinki demands the official recognition of the sign language(s) used by the deaf as one of each country's indigenous language. Television is the main medium for promoting these languages, and providing translated information from print and broadcast media. While it is possible to launch channels in sign language, it is important to note that the same technology is used by the more powerful states to promote their linguistic and political presence among the less powerful. Thus, the Islamic Republic of Iran's state-run radio was made available via satellite to the sizeable refugee population in North America in 1995, and television was to follow soon. It is a remarkable achievement of the small screen to allow a home audience of diverse linguistic abilities to communally watch the same program. This is made possible in some instances by simultaneous broadcasting in spoken language, closed captioning, and sign language through an interpreter in an insert on the screen. In another strategy, The McNeil-Lehrer News Hour allows viewers to choose between English and Spanish versions. And in a more popular vein, television has even popularized an artificial tongue, Klingonese, the "spoken and written language" of the fictional Klingons, a powerful "humanoid warrior race" who built an empire in Star Trek's fictional universe. Fans are speaking and studying the language, which is taught in a Klingon Language Institute, with learning materials such as The Klingon Dictionary, an audiotape, Conversational Klingon, and a quarterly linguistics journal. Television itself, then, is not a monolithic medium. Moreover, there is no great divide separating the language of television and other media. Throughout

rarely if ever encounter in daily face-to-face communication.

the world, television airs old and new films and theatrical performances, while in North America some popular programs such as Roseanne and Television fosters an appreciation of the way writing Star Trek are simulcast, i.e. broadcast on radio. Linguistic variation is found even within a single and speaking merge, not only in the production of genre in mainstream, alternative, local or ethnic speech (the oral text), but also on the screen (in televisions. And while a cross-media study of each print), in genres ranging from weather and stock genre, e.g. news, would reveal medium-specific market reports to commercials and game shows. features of language use, the diversity of genres Even live interviews carry captions identifying the does not allow us to identify a single, homogeneous interviewees, their status, location or affiliation. Moreover, "writing for television" has emerged as a language of television. In spite of this rich variety of new art, which aims not at a literate readership but voices, however, it remains to be seen whether or not a combination of official policies and market rather an aural-visual audience. It has developed, for instance, "aural writing styles" or "writing for the forces reduces the overall range and heterogeneity ear" allowing the incorporation of music and sound, of languages and their uses throughout the world. "visual writing styles" for envisioning images, and "broadcast punctuation" codes for indicating the nuances of on-the-air speech. Training in this new realm of writing is provided in courses offered by academic and professional institutions and in dozens of textbooks and manuals with titles such as Wylie's Writing for Television and Blum's Television Writing. On a different level, some popular American programs in the United States have generated extensive fan writing, published and exchanged through the Internet. The fandom of science-fiction series Star Trek, for example, have produced no less than 120 fanzines (fan magazines), and some novels written by fans are commercially published. Unlike radio and print media, then, which create meaning primarily through language, television engages in signification through the unity and conflict of verbal, visual and sound codes. The dynamics of this type of signification has not been studied adequately. Viewers and media professionals often claim that the visuality of television is a sufficient form of communication, as evidenced in the popular belief that "seeing is believing" and "the camera never lies." Much like verbal language, however, the visual and sound components of the television program are polysemic, i.e. they convey multiple meanings, and lend themselves to different, sometimes conflicting, interpretations. Moreover, the verbal text, far from being a mere appendage to the visual, has the power, as Masterman suggests, to "turn images on their heads." McLuhan's well-known aphorism "the medium is the message" implies that all these meanings are, to a large extent, determined by the technology of television, its audiovisuality. But this view has been rejected by, among others, producers and script writers who are rather self-

conscious about their independence and claim freedom from the dictates of the medium. Despite this multiplicity of meanings, language in television, as in all its other manifestations, written or spoken, does not serve every one equitably or effectively. Far from being neutral, language is always intertwined with the distribution and exercise of power in society. Dichotomies such as standard/dialect or language/vernacular point to some aspects of the unequal distribution of linguistic power. In its phonetic, morphological and semantic systems language is marked by differences of class, gender, ethnicity, age, race, etc.; similarly, the speakers/hearers are also divided by their idiosyncratic knowledge of language, and often communicate in "idiolects," i.e., personal dialects. Television attempts to control these differences and overcome the cleavages in order to reach sizable audiences. Thus, for example, the Program Standards of CBS requires broadcast language to "be appropriate to a public medium and generally considered to be acceptable by a mass audience." This implies, among other things, that "potentially offensive language" must be generally avoided and "blasphemy and obscenity" are not acceptable. In conforming to standards such as these, many television genres, especially news and other information programs, have developed a language style characterized by simple, clear and short sentences, read or spoken in an appropriate voice. Born into this unequal linguistic environment, television followed radio in adopting the standard, national or official language, which is the main communication medium of the nation-state. While the schools and the print media established the written standard long before the advent of broadcasting, radio and television assumed, more authoritatively than the "pronouncing" dictionaries, the role of codifying and promoting the spoken standard. In Britain, for example, broadcasters were required until the 1960s to be fluent in the British standard known as Received Pronunciation. In spite of increasing tolerance for dialectalisms in many Western countries, news and other information programming on the public and private national networks continue to act as custodians of the standard language. Thus, much like the language academy and the dictionary, television actively intervenes in the

language environment, and creates its own discourses, styles and varieties. In the deregulated television market of the United States, genres known as "tabloid" or "trash" TV usually feel free to engage in potentially offensive language. And, citing an economic imperative to compete with less restrictive programming on cable television, dramas such as Steven Bochco's N.Y.P.D. Blue, use language once prohibited on network television. Television and radio have also actively participated in the exercise of gender power through language. In the U.S., female voice, especially its higher pitch, was marginalized for "lacking in the authority needed for a convincing newscast," whereas male lower-pitched voices were treated as "overly polished, ultrasophisticated." Thus, in the 1950s, about 90% of commercial copy in the United States was "specifically written for the male voice and personality." According to a British announcer's handbook, women were not usually "considered suitable for the sterner duties of newscasting, commentary work or, say, political interviewing" because of their "voice, appearance and temperament." By the 1970s, however, television responded to the social movements of the previous decade and gradually adopted a more egalitarian policy. Women appeared as newscasters although male anchors still dominated the North American screens in the mid-1990s. The 1979 edition of an American announcer's manual added a chapter on "the new language," which recommended the use of an inclusive language that respects racial, ethnic and gender differences. Despite this kind of professional awareness, television's role in the far larger configuration of world-wide language use remains far more constricting. The languages of the world, estimated to be between five to six thousand in number, have evolved as a "global language order," a system characterized by increasing contact and a hierarchy of power relations. About one-fifth of the 5,000 existing languages are used by at least ten thousand speakers each; they are too small to survive. Only about 200 are spoken by more than one million. About sixty are spoken by ten millions or more, comprising 90% of the world's population. Twelve languages are spoken by one hundred million or more, accounting for 60% of the world's population. Although Chinese is spoken by one billion people, it is dwarfed by English, half a billion, in terms of cultural power. Most of the world's languages remain unwritten while half of them are,

according to linguists, in danger of extinction; if state policy was once responsible for language death, the electronic media, including satellite television, are now seen as the main destructive force.

Are Digital Media Changing Language?

Naomi S. Baron It's natural for languages to evolve. But what should really concern us is the way computers and mobile phones are changing our attitudes toward language. Are instant messaging and text messaging killing language? To hear what the popular media say, a handful of OMGs (oh my god) and smiley faces, along with a paucity of capital letters and punctuation marks, might be bringing English to its knees. Although journalists tend to sensationalize the linguistic strangeness of "online lingo," quantitative analyses of instant messaging conversations and text messages reveal that abbreviations, acronyms, and even misspellings are comparatively infrequent, at least among college-age students. For example, in a study I did of college students' instant messaging conversations, out of 11,718 words, only 31 were "online lingo" abbreviations, and only 90 were acronyms (of which 76 were LOL). In a study of college students' text messaging, my colleague Rich Ling and I found a few more lexical shortenings; yet the grand total of clear abbreviations was only 47 out of 1,473 words, which is hardly overwhelming. Yes, young people sometimes accidentally slip a btw (by the way) into a school essay. But a recent study by the Pew Internet and American Life Project confirms that middle school and high school students understand what kind of language is appropriate in what context (Lenhart, Smith, & Macgill, 2008). What's more, scholars of new media language, such as David Crystal and Beverly Plester, remind us that the new technologies encourage creativity, which can spill over into school writing (Crystal, 2008; Plester, Wood, & Bell, 2008).

Minor Shifts: Vocabulary and Sentence Mechanics

Those of us studying electronically mediated communication (language produced on computers or mobile phones) have been looking for evidence that mediated language is changing traditional speech and writing. To our surprise, the list of effects is relatively short. Here are my candidates: Incorporation of a few acronyms into everyday language. These days you sometimes hear students saying "brb" (be right back) to one another when they temporarily take their leave. I

have also overheard "lol" (laughing out loud) in conversations among young people. However, these neologisms need to be put into perspective. Infusion of written acronyms into everyday speech is a common linguistic processto wit, RSVP, AWOL, or ASAP. If a few more lexical shortenings make their way into general usage, that's nothing out of the ordinary. Decreased certainty about when a string of words is a compound, a hyphenated word, or one word. This is a more nuanced proposition. Take the word newspaper. Should it be spelled newspaper, news-paper, or news paper? Obviously the first, you say. But historically, words tend to begin as separate pairings (news plus paper); gradually make their way to hyphenated forms (news-paper); and eventually, especially if they are high-frequency, become compounds (newspaper). The journey from electronic mail to e-mail, and, for many, to email, is a case in point. Enter computers and the Internet. If I write news paper (two words) in an e-mail, no one is likely to correct me, because on the Internet no one is policing the grammar of the personal messages we construct. What's more, the two-word version handily passes spell-check (typically my students' criterion for correctness). URL addresses for Internet sites may also be affecting our notion of word breaks. URLs allow no spaces between words. To create a Web page for selling beauty products, I need an address such as www.beautyproductsonline.com. It is easy to imagine beauty products crossing the line into beauty products in offline writing without many people giving the merger a second thought. Diminished concern over spelling and punctuation. Spell-check, along with online search engines, may be convincing us that devoting energy to honing spelling skills is anachronistic. Even before you finish typing a word containing an error, spell-check often automatically corrects the word. Similarly, if you type a misspelled word (or phrase) into Google, chances are the search engine will land you pretty much at the same list of sites you would have reached had you been a finalist in the National Spelling Bee. In the same vein, I am increasingly finding that my students have little regard for apostrophes. (And as we know, URLs disallow punctuation marks.) My studies of college students' text messages show that "required" apostrophes (in a word such as doesn't) only appear about onethird of the time. These effects on vocabulary and sentence mechanics are actually fairly minor. New words enter languages all the time. As for word separation, hyphenation, and spelling more generally, it helps to take the long view. A quick check of the Oxford English Dictionary reveals that lexical practices evolve, and yesterday's oddity may be today's normor vice versa. In studying new media language, however, I've become convinced that more fundamental linguistic changes are afoot. The shifts I'm talking about are not in vocabulary, spelling, or punctuation, but in our attitudes toward language structure.

Attitude Shift 1: "Whatever"

Language is rule-governed behavior: That is, languages are constructed according to identifiable patterns that people follow. Native speakers have a mental template of these rules. Obviously linguistic rules have exceptions (the plural of man is men, not mans). And rules change over time. (Chaucer would have written "hath holpen" rather than "has helped.") However, we recognize exceptionsand changeby referencing our knowledge of rules currently shared within a language community. By rules, I don't mean normative, prescriptive grammarsuch edicts as, Don't end a sentence with a preposition. This arbitrary "rule" was concocted by 18th-century self-appointed grammarians who took Latin, which has no word-final prepositions, as their model. Instead, I have in mind such rules as, Subjects and verbs need to agree in numbermaking a sentence like "Cookie Monster eat toast for breakfast" ungrammatical. If a language community adheres to the rule-governed model of language, its members will render consistent judgments about linguistic usage. Yes, we all make performance errors, but our rule-governed linguistic brains recognize, perhaps after the fact, that we have erred. Since the 1960s, a constellation of factors have combined to alter our sense of "good" language use (Baron, 2000). Revolutions in school pedagogy began replacing teacher-directed classrooms with peer review and activities designed to foster collaboration. The infamous red pen was now used more to encourage intellectual exploration than to correct sentence mechanics. Multiculturalism led us to encourage students not to be judgmental about their peers. No longer do we say that Li Po "talks strangely"; rather, she is an "English language learner." Instead of criticizing Bill from Appalachia (who says "Him and me went home"), we note that Bill speaks another dialect of English. Gradually, we have become less obsessed with correctness and more focused on tolerance and personal expression. This shift, however admirable, has linguistic consequences. School is no longer necessarily a place to instill a sense that linguistic rules (or even linguistic consistency) matter. Each year, I ask graduate students in my Structure of English class if it matters whether English continues to distinguish between the words may and can ("May I come in?" versus "Can I come in?"). Many of the students fail to see why anyone should care. The same laissez-faire attitude applies to distinguishing between the words capital and capitol (the first identifies the seat of state government, whereas the second refers to a building, such as the U.S. Capitol). Why not just ditch one and let the other do double duty? My point is not to pass judgment. The issue is that attitudes toward linguistic "rules" have shifted. A wide swath of educated speakers of English (at least American English) simply don't worry about the niceties of such rules any more. One day it's may; the next day it's can. So what? This attitude reminds me of spelling in Middle English, where you would often find the same word written half a dozen different ways, all on the same page. Standardized English spelling didn't become a reality until nearly the 18th century. By 1750, Lord Chesterfield famously

warned his son that "orthography is so absolutely necessary for a man of letters, or a gentleman, that one false spelling may fix a ridicule upon him for the rest of his life." Today, it is difficult to imagine anyone taking Chesterfield's admonition seriously. If spell-check doesn't catch the problem, whatever! Does spelling really matter, anyway? The shift away from caring about language rules or consistency predates new media language. It even predates personal computers. However, computer and mobile-phone technologies add fuel to the linguistic fire. An e-mail manual such as Constance Hale and Jessie Scanlon's Wired Style (1999) encourages writers to "celebrate subjectivity" (p. 9) and to "play with grammar and syntax. Appreciate unruliness" (p. 15). Scholars like David Crystal and Beverly Plester, as I noted earlier, highlight the creative potential of text messaging. We should not be surprised to find linguistic free spirits applying similar latitude to everyday speech and even to more formal writing.

Attitude Shift 2: Control

Besides amplifying the linguistic "whatever" attitude, computers and mobile phones are instrumental in a second attitudinal shifta change in the degree to which we control our linguistic interactions. Human communication has always involved varying amounts of control. If I see you coming down the street and don't wish to engage in conversation, I might cross to the other side and start window shopping. If you phone me and I don't like what you're saying, I can always hang up. Contemporary online and mobile language technologies ratchet up the control options. On my instant messaging account, I can block you so you never get a message through. (I always appear to be offline, even though I'm busily instant messaging others.) I can multitask, talking with you on the phone while I search for a cheap airfare online or instant messaging you while I'm conducting half a dozen other online conversations. Social networking sites offer additional forms of control. People exercise control in the way they design their pages: Staged photographs, exaggerated profiles, and padded friends lists enable online users to manipulate how others see them. In the words of one undergraduate, her Facebook page is "me on my best day." These sites also enable users to maintain relationships with friends without expending much effort. For example, young people commonly check up on their friends' activities by viewing their online photo albums or status reports, obviating the need for a phone call or e-mail, much less a face-to-face visit. One popular move is to post a Happy Birthday greeting on the Wall (a semi-public message board) of a friend's Facebook page without making real personal contact. On mobile phones, caller ID informs us who's calling, so we can decide whether to answer. Sometimes when I'm meeting with students, their mobile phones ring. A quick glance at the screen, and then the phone is silenced and slipped into a pocket or backpack. "It's only Mom," they explain.

Another form of control on mobiles is deciding whether to talk or text. I might choose to send a text message rather than call to keep the communication short (meaning, "I don't want to get bogged down in a conversation in which I'm obligated to listen to what you have to say"). In cross-cultural research I conducted last year, more than one-third of the Swedish, U.S., and Italian university students I surveyed said "keeping the message short" was an important reason for texting rather than talking. One inventive control technique is pretending to talk on your mobile phone when you see an acquaintance approachingeven someone you like to avoid conversation. In my studies, 13 percent of U.S. students reported engaging in this behavior at least once a month. And 25 percent reported that they fiddled with text-based functions on their phones (such as checking old messages) to evade conversation with people they knew. In each instance, technology enhances our ability to manipulate our communication with others. As the arsenal of control devices continues to grow, we increasingly come to see language not as an opportunity for interpersonal dialogue but as a system we can maneuver for individual gain.

Responding to Language Shifts

In thinking about the effects of new communication media on language, we need to distinguish between "may fly" language (here today, gone tomorrow) and changes that are more substantial. If we care that a couple of new acronyms and alternative spellings could make their way into everyday spoken or written language (particularly when it comes to schoolwork), it actually is possible to just say no. Students already understand that particular styles of language are appropriate for one venue but not another (calling a teacher "Mr. Matthews" but using first names for friends). They understand (and probably even expect) reminders. Responding to the linguistic "whatever" attitude is a more complex proposition. Parents and teachers need to understand that young people are not the only ones manifesting this attitudinal shift. One of my favorite examples is from the environmentalist and author Bill McKibben, who wrote this in praise of a book: "Go find a friend and tell them all about this fine book." We've all learned that a singular noun such as friend needs to be paired with a singular pronoun (here, him or her). Yet Simon and Schuster had no qualms about putting this blurb on a book jacket. Depending on our pedagogical goals, we might choose to be linguistically hard-nosed (perhaps pluralizing the noun to friends and avoiding the gender question entirely). Or we might admit more casual spoken style into the classroom, following the general trend today for writing to reflect informal speech. Before we despair that language is going to hell in a handcart, we should remember two lessons. First, normativeness in language goes through cycles, much like taste in music and politics. All is not lost. And second, regardless of the swings that language goes through, there is room for individual schools or teachers to set their own standards. Most schools have abandoned teaching handwriting, but a few have held their ground, to the good fortune of their students. Just so, if you choose to insist on written precision, students generally will follow your lead.

The issue of control is trickier, because it involves personal empowerment. Here the battles aren't about acronyms or noun-pronoun agreement but about such questions as, Should students be allowed to have mobilephones in school? or Is it the job of the school to teach online and mobiledevice etiquette? These concerns rarely have easy solutions. However, by understanding that new language technologies have shifted our students' attitudes about who holds the power in linguistic exchange, we will be better prepared to understand their perspectives and to reach common ground.

Writing Electronically: The Effects of Computers on Traditional Writing

Sharmila Pixy Ferris Skip other details (including permanent urls, DOI, citation information) Volume 8, Issue 1, August, 2002 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3998/3336451.0008.104 Permissions

Computers, and the electronic writing they have enabled, significantly alter traditional conceptions of writing. The effects of electronic writing on traditional text call for a reexamination of the prevailing print metaphor for online writing. A brief historical overview can help us better understand the effects of computers on traditional writing. The three great communication revolutions symbolic language, writing, and print have led to the current revolution of computers and electronic technologies. The development of symbolic language parallels the development of human society and culture. The ability to communicate orally, using symbols to convey both concrete and abstract information, distinguishes the human race. Yet, before the development of a means to record language, communication was limited by individual capacities for memory and cognition. Theorists such as Walter Ong (1977, 1982) and Eric Havelock (1986) have detailed the cognitive and expressive characteristics of spoken language. Oral discourse relies on sound, which is evanescent, having meaning only when it is going out of existence. This evanescence of sound is what gives rise to the cognitive and expressive characteristics that distinguish "orality" (evident in those cultures lacking written language). While such characteristics include the important capacity for abstract thought, other characteristics stemming from the nature of the speaker are more limiting. For example, oral language is limited by the memory of the individual, leading to an emphasis on formulas and mnemonic structures. For the same reason, oral language is additive rather than subordinative, aggregative rather than analytic, redundant, and conservative. It is close to the 'human life world,' (a phrase used by Ong to denote the physical world as experienced by humans, rather than abstract thought) in its content, and agonistic in tone.

Although symbolic language enabled a significant number of human achievements, it was not until humans developed a means to record language that human society could really expand and grow. Prior to the invention of a recording system, societies were limited by the number of people who could be assembled to hear the spoken word (Schmandt-Besserat, 1986). Writing enabled societies not only to expand, but also to communicate across the boundaries of space and time. Of equal importance are the cognitive and expressive consequences of chirography (handwriting) (Ong, 1967, 1982). Although writing builds on the symbolic and rule-based systems of oral language, it requires knowledge of an alphabetic (or pictographic) symbol system, and of chirography. With the developments of literate skills come cognitive and expressive (language-use) changes such as detachment. Writing encourages abstract and analytic thought: Since the writer and artifact are different, detachment is highlighted and selfconsciousness is more pronounced. The durability of written language removes the necessity for mnemonic characteristics of oral language; people can refer back to written text and are not constrained to organize it in ways that encourage memory (such as setting content to songs or chants). The lack of presence of the other is compensated for by textual cues like punctuation, and by recognized conventions of grammar and usage that help the reader understand who is being spoken about, for instance. In addition, writing's immobilization of meaning on paper allows re-reading or "backward scanning" (Goody, 1977, cited in Ong, 1982, p. 100). The reader can review the ideas presented to better understand them in terms of the author's point. Written expression differs from oral expression in that it is dependent entirely on the alphabetic word and not on the visual and vocal elements that help people communicate in face-to-face speech. Writing requires a codifiable medium to convey meaning. Also, it uses a vocabulary, based on known conventions and rules of usage, to create new ideas. In written expression, discrete elements (the alphabet) are combined and recombined to help convey new ideas, often using new words created to meet the needs of conveying those new ideas. Finally, written language must have a fixed relationship with spoken language, so that people can communicate the same thought in two different media simultaneously as in reading to one another. These elements give writing its characteristics of permanence and completeness. As opposed to the transience of spoken language, writing has a lasting, permanent quality about it. Written language is less redundant, more planned. Meaning and shades of meaning are conveyed by carefully chosen and placed words. Meaning may be modified by deleting, editing, and otherwise changing the written words, unlike oral language, where once words are said out loud, they cannot be unsaid, only explained. Sequentiality, like the subject-verb-object sequence in English, is important in writing; spoken language is often understood even when the structure of the sentence is fractured. In written language, the presence of the receiver is not required, and the constraints of time and space are removed. Given these factors, writing can be more analytical than oral communication. With the mechanization of writing, the characteristics of written language were refined and expanded. The invention of print led not only to the expansion of literacy, but to the gradual development of a number of factors with profound cognitive and expressive impacts. Print concretized the permanence of writing. Until the printing press, writing was fragile, with its permanence dependent on the preservation of an often single piece of parchment or reed (Eisenstein, 1983). Print introduced durability and multiple copies, and "embedded the word in (visual) space more definitively" (Ong 1982, p. 123). It also introduced hierarchies, which in turn

introduced lists and indexes. The development of print was significant in that it reinforced the linearity and sequentiality of writing while focusing on the hierarchical thinking that was essential to the eventual flowering of modern science. The permanent nature of print also led to the preservation of language. The mass dissemination of printed texts meant both fixity and standardization of content (Eisentsein, 1983). Print arrested linguistic drift, standardized language, and eventually led to the deliberate codification of written language. The proliferation of printed texts also led to the establishment of research and the development of the scientific method. The analytic element introduced by writing was reinforced by print, with a corresponding focus on logic. Increased availability and affordability of printed texts enabled the development of the modern educational system, where the student can conduct inquiry into a body of knowledge rather than rely solely on the knowledge of one teacher (Eisenstein, 1983). Print also played a significant role in the development of the modern sense of personal privacy and private ownership. As books became portable and affordable, reading became a solitary rather than a social activity (Ong, 1982), and people wanted to own the books they were reading in private. The printing press laid the foundation for today's models of commercial writing, introducing the concepts of ownership and mass publication. The numerous and important effects of the printing press are thought by many to have led directly to the industrial and electronic age that produced the computer.

The Impact of Computers on Traditional Writing

The computer, developed in the mid-twentieth century, is undeniably a product of a literate and technological society. Prominent scholars like Bolter (1996), Heim (1987), and Ong (1982) consider computers to be late developments of the print age. Yet to consider computers merely an extension of the printed page is to ignore their unique nature (Ferris & Montgomery, 1996; Langston, 1986). Electronic writing is a singular product of the computer age, and the electronic writing enabled by computers has affected traditional writing significantly. "The text becomes more immediate, more fragmented and fluid, and the medium offers greater capacity for individual participation and interactivity" Because electronic writing takes many forms, its meaning should be clarified. As used here, electronic writing refers to the conglomerate of writing that can be done on and through the medium of a networked computer. This includes writing for asynchronous interpersonal communication (as in e-mail, mailing lists, newsgroups, and discussion groups), writing for synchronous interpersonal communication (as in chatrooms, MUDs or multi-user dimensions, and MOOs or multi-user dimensions, object-oriented), and writing on the World Wide Web (including hypertext). This paper focuses on electronic writing on the World Wide Web.

Literacy to Orality
Although this paper concentrates on hypertext, it's useful to look at the effects of other kinds of electronic writing and their legacies.

Computers re-introduce many oral characteristics into electronic writing. For example, computer-mediated communication reintroduces the qualities of temporal immediacy, phatic communion, the use of formulaic devices, presence of extra textual content, and development of community that had been characteristics of oral communication. These characteristics lead many researchers to consider computer-mediated communication what Ong (1982) calls 'secondary' orality, an idea supported by other researchers (see for example Lee, 1996; Ferris & Montgomery, 1996). However, computers are unique in that they introduce characteristics that go beyond the secondary orality evident in television, film, and other electronic media. For instance, although computers rely on an alphabetical or symbolic lexicon, they are more than a print-reliant or "literate" medium. Computers utilize print in a flexible manner, allowing immediacy in communication, while enabling a concentration on the present moment, and eliminating distance between users all oral characteristics. (Hypertext introduces further oral characteristics stemming from its changing, evanescent, and "virtual" nature; it exhibits a lack of linearity, and a quality of instability.) Because computer-mediated communication allows the reader to manipulate content, it becomes even less "literate" than the print from which it stems. The reader can interact with the text on an immediate, physical level; roles of writers and readers thus become unclear. The experience becomes fragmentary and malleable, or oral, rather than unified and stable, or literate (Sudol, 1993), and information retains a fluidity in computer-mediated communication that it lacks in traditional literacy (Langston, 1986). Electronic writing is characterized by the use of oral conventions over traditional conventions, of argument over exposition, and of group thinking over individual thinking. The oral conventions are evident in the way people subvert or abandon traditional conventions of grammar and punctuation in electronic writing. Meaning is very often conveyed by cues recognized only by users of computer-mediated communication. Some examples are acronyms like BTW (by the way) and IMO (in my opinion), and specialized use of typography for example, *word* to signify italics and the use of nonverbal icons or emoticons like a smiley face :-) which differ from traditionally recognized textual cues. Bolter (1991) considers the use of such graphics to be the most original contribution of computers to writing. Scholars have been fascinated by the uninhibited, sometimes even aggressive approaches in computer-mediated communication (Kiesler, 1987; Kiesler, Siegel & McGuire, 1984), which Maylath (1993) says is agonistic and oral in its roots. Group thinking is evident in the emphasis on "unification" of users into a "global village," a metaphor that is widely accepted in computermediated communication, although it still depends on isolated users (Metz, 1996). Finally, computer users often treat electronic writing as an oral medium: communication is often fragmented, computer-mediated communication is used for phatic communion, and formulaic devices have arisen. Like primary orality, electronic communication is often "language of action" (Murray, 1985, 1988). Electronic writing thus transforms traditional writing by introducing oral elements that differentiate it from secondary orality that is, the "new" orality introduced in the age of media as much as from traditional literacy. Computers incorporate a new orality by bringing new

perspectives to the manipulation and understanding of writing. The text becomes more immediate, more fragmented and fluid, and the medium offers greater capacity for individual participation and interactivity. Yet, while computers modify writing by reintroducing oral elements, they also remain technologically based and grounded in the abstract, analytical, literate modes of thought that govern traditional writing. Many scholars consider computers to be a text-based medium reliant on the conventions of literacy (Karovsky, 1992; Killingsworth, 1993; Van Mersbergen, 1994). This point of view is supported by the fact that today the electronic age has not created a decline in writing but rather appears to have brought about a "significant increase in the artifacts of literacy" as electronic devices produce more printed materials (Ong, 1982, p. 135).

Linearity to Connectivity
Linearity and sequentiality are integral elements in traditional writing. Ideas are expressed in a logical, linear fashion, and linear narrative forms govern most traditional writing (Gibson, 1996a). Electronic writing, however, subverts traditional conventions of linearity, both in interpersonal communication online and in the use of hypertext on the Web. Electronic writing used for interpersonal purposes (e.g., e-mail, mailing lists) by its very nature disregards linearity in its (often) asynchronous nature. But it is hypertext that truly transforms the element of linearity in traditional writing. Hypertext, the language of the Web, is a non-linear language that is dynamic and non-sequential, and connects information through nodes or links (Bardini, 1997). Hypertext frequently incorporates multimedia, principally graphics and sound. Some scholars laud the use of hypertext as a reflection of the way the human mind works (by association and connection). Nevertheless, hypertext dramatically changes traditional writing, not only removing the linear imperative, but by substantially impacting common literary and grammatical conventions. Due to its emphasis on connectivity rather than linearity, hypertext discourages the use of coherent narrative (Gibson, 1996a, Gibson, 1996b). Traditional writing delivers a coherent narrative in large chunks of text; large chunks of text defeat the purpose of hypertext. Hypertext allows writers to organize information loosely, rather than in a well-developed thesis. Many Web pages are, in fact, simply loose collections of links thrown together by their creators to reflect, for example, a "few of my favorite things." Those favorite things may be of interest to their creator, but do not always clearly express a common thesis relevant to the reader.

Fixity to Fluidity
An integral aspect of traditional writing and print is the fixity of the word on the page. Electronic writing, especially hypertext, lacks this fixity, existing as it does in cyberspace. Barnes (1996, citing Lanham, 1992 and Bolter, 1991) observes that electronic text is always fluid; it is never fixed. It remains ever dynamic and subject to change and modification. Writing posted to the Web in hypertext is never finished, as it can not only be updated and revised at will, but its nature can be changed as other writers link to it. Electronic text is thus not only a fluid network of writing, but it is also a fluid network of information and interpersonal relationships. Relatedly, with electronic writing, the permanence of the written artifact no longer exists, taking away from electronic writing an integral feature of print. Written and printed texts provide

readers with a concrete artifact that encourages backward and forward scanning. Electronic writing, whether it be an e-mail or a Web document, exists only in electronic space, providing the reader with vanishing words on a screen rather than a written artifact with concrete presence. It is this lack of permanence that leads many computer users to record data on disks (Murray, 1985) or on paper. Finally, Lanham (1992, cited in Barnes, 1996) points out a different aspect of the fluidity of electronic writing: the use of binary code. As the medium for electronic writing, binary computer language with its 0s and 1s (in contrast to the alphabetic code used for traditional writing) is a significant factor in altering the fixity of the written word on the printed page. Alphabetic writing is rigid in that it relies on a finite alphabet, combined in words that are expressed on the written page in a specific linear order and sequence. Binary code can be used to represent any character set, and therefore is not tied to a specific language or culture, and in addition those two characters also can be used to represent graphical images, unlike a 26-letter alphabet, which represents words and calls for discursive writing. The complexity of visual and graphic forms in hypertext calls for non-discursive reading and writing. Therefore electronic writing opposes the standardization of language encouraged by the traditional text (p. 14). With the gradual reversal of the standardizing effects of print, language becomes more fluid once again.

Passivity to Interactivity
In addition to nonlinearity and fixity, interactivity also distinguishes electronic writing from traditional writing. Hypertext again provides the definitive example. The Web is a global hypertext system unique in its capacity to interface with other systems. The use of embedded links allows interactivity between the reader, author, and medium. This not only creates a unique convergence of mass media and interpersonal media where the consumer can become the provider of information, but it allows a unique re-negotiation of the writer-audience relationship. A reader perusing a traditional text is bound by the linear, two-dimensional nature of the printed word on the page to follow where the author leads. The electronic nature of hypertext requires a much more active role for the reader, urging the reader to make decisions about destination and content. This process involves an ongoing dialogue between the author, the medium, and the reader, thus not only enforcing interactivity but blurring the traditional boundaries between reader and writer. Reading traditional texts is a passive and solitary activity; reading electronic texts is an active and engaging process, as the reader makes choices about where to go, and then navigates using links and online forms to get there. Additionally, as Bolter (1991) observes, a reader who follows links is interpreting the author and the medium. Because the reader has a choice of which links to follow (and even whether to follow the links), the reader becomes the author's partner in determining the meaning of the text. The prevailing print metaphor may need re-examination, because electronic writing can be very different from traditional text The interactive nature of electronic writing also creates new constraints for writers, who must become concerned with issues of design and navigability in addition to those of narrative and purpose (Gibson, 1996a). They cannot be separated, as it is the responsibility of the online writer to provide material that is easy for the audience to locate and navigate. The organization of the

material must be visually appealing and must take advantage of the unique interactive features of the Web. In traditional writing the publisher or editor makes material available and visually appealing; in cyber-writing, as Gibson (1997) points out, the cyber-writer often also must be editor and designer, considering issues of file structure, graphic design, and navigability. Writing becomes even more complex because the writer has little control over the paths readers will take through the hyperlinks. A final active feature of electronic writing is the writer's need to learn new and changing technologies. Although most computer word-processing software has the capability of conversion to hypertext, electronic writing requires a knowledge of computers and software. Skilled electronic writers need to incorporate the latest information-organization and design technologies. At present, this involves knowledge of sophisticated programming languages (such as Java, C++ and ColdFusion), and graphic and audio design.

Traditional Quality to Value

A singular feature of electronic writing is that it allows anyone with access to a networked computer to "publish" on the Internet. Today's sophisticated and user-friendly software makes it easy for entry-level writers to publish their writing on the Web. Through global search engines and linking, cyber-writers have the potential to reach a large reading public, and writing to a sizable audience thus becomes an option not open to most writers in non-electronic print. The reach of the Internet makes quality an important issue: ideally, such a powerful medium should present only the best. Yet electronic writing is an extensive and democratic medium, freely available to many writers and readers, and encompassing an immense variety of writing genres and purposes. In traditional print media, publications are targeted towards specific functions and audiences. Over the centuries, fiction, poetry, prose, journalism, advertising, and scholarship all have developed their recognized conventions and standards. The Net encompasses all these specialized forms of writing, including their recognizable typography, and allows writers to create new forms unique to cyberspace (such as mailing lists, the Web, MOOs and MUDs). All of these are combined on the Net to provide the largest volume of writing that has ever been available. Each specialized genre of traditional writing has its own standards for quality of content. But by what common standards or criteria can we judge content in cyberspace, especially given the incredible volume of information that must be sifted through? Although there is no one answer to this question, one new and unique criterion that can be used to characterize good electronic writing is that of value. Value, according to Webster's Dictionary (1989), is 'a measure of how strongly something is desired ... expressed in terms of the effort one is willing to spend in acquiring it.' Given that all navigation in cyberspace requires time, interest, and access to technology, any writing that leads the reader to seek it out can be called good writing (Negroponte, 1995). The criterion of value may be the one new factor of quality that is unique to electronic writing. While the marketplace always has been a measurement of value, in this case there is no "market" in the economic sense; the currency is time and personal recommendations: people spend time looking for data on the Web, and then they send e-mail messages to other people telling them about it. That process can define quality. (It also defines a lot of bad jokes that fly about the Web, but that is another issue.) Until other criteria are developed, we will

continue to judge electronic writing by the traditionally accepted conventions of writing. But in doing so we should accept that these standards of quality are constantly being altered and transformed on the Internet. Given that computers are still a developing technology, drawing any definitive conclusions about the effect of electronic writing on traditional standards of quality may be premature. It is important to note, however, that while cyberspace is still a medium defining itself, it is one where writers are in the unique position of shaping the development of standards and norms of writing a time that is long past in traditional writing. We should not forget that cyberspace is made possible by technological and interpersonal interactions in real space, and therefore, as communication theorists, we should actively work to understand concepts inherent in traditional writing, and as actively work to shape the development of electronic writing.

Conclusion
Because of their roots in writing and print, computers are currently seen as electronic extensions of prevailing models of literacy, and electronic writing is generally compared to print. It is easy to understand why scholars have come to this conclusion: although electronic writing requires that authors learn new technologies, incorporate new interactive techniques, and gain expertise in design-related issues of presentation, the conventions and traditions of print are still the touchstone. While electronic writing may require that authors learn new technologies, acknowledge the need for incorporation of new interactive techniques, and gain expertise in design-related issues of presentation, at its heart the print metaphor sees electronic writing as following the conventions and traditions of print. However, the prevailing print metaphor may need re-examination, because electronic writing can be very different from traditional text in its orality. Perhaps scholars should base their views of electronic writing on an oral metaphor because the computer is an interpersonal medium. E-mail, mailing lists, discussion groups, and chat rooms use text, but they model themselves on conversation. Even though the print model prevails, computers are still in development and the possibility of a concept change exists. Whichever model comes to be accepted will influence the practice and understanding of electronic writing. Going from a print to an oral metaphor will emphasize the importance of interactivity rather than the forms of traditional writing. While it is as hard for scholars to objectively study the development of electronic writing as it is for fish to study water, we need to do so, to understand the sea-changes for traditional writing.

Sharmila Pixy Ferris is an Associate Professor and Graduate Program Director in the Department of Communication at William Paterson University. Her research focuses on various aspects of computer-mediated communication, from gender to orality and literacy. While she has published in traditional paper journals, she believes that electronic journals offer an exciting new medium. Her other articles are in on-line journals such as The Journal of Electronic Communication (Telework: A consideration of it's impact on individuals and organizations [formerly

http://www.cios.org/getfile%5CMALLIA_V10N3400]), the Journal of Interpersonal Computing and Technology (Women on-line: Cultural and relational aspects of women's communication in on-line discussion groups) and Magazine of Computer Mediated Communication (What is CMC? An Overview of Scholarly Definitions , and Understanding Virtual Technologies). You may reach her by e-mail at ferriss@wpunj.edu.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the form of communication. For other uses, see Advertiser (disambiguation). "Advert" redirects here. For the band featuring musician Gaye Advert, see The Adverts. For content guidelines on the use of advertising in Wikipedia articles, see Wikipedia:Spam. For a proposal on advertising about Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Advertisements. This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2012)

A Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s

Marketing
Key concepts

Product marketing

Pricing Distribution Service Retail

Brand management Account-based marketing

Ethics Research

Effectiveness Segmentation Strategy Activation Management Dominance

Marketing operations

Promotional contents

Advertising Branding

Underwriting spot Direct marketing Personal sales Product placement Publicity Sales promotion Sex in advertising Loyalty marketing Mobile marketing

Premiums

Prizes

Promotional media

Printing Publication Broadcasting Internet Point of sale Merchandise

Out-of-home advertising

Digital marketing In-game advertising Product demonstration Word-of-mouth Brand ambassador Drip marketing Visual merchandising

v t e

Advertising is a form of communication used to encourage or persuade an audience (viewers, readers or listeners; sometimes a specific group of people) to continue or take some new action. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common. The purpose of advertising may also be to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful. Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media; including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television commercial, radio advertisement, outdoor advertising or direct mail; or new media such as blogs and websites and text messages. Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "branding," which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an effort to associate certain qualities with the brand in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit

organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement (PSA). Modern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 2010, spending on advertising was estimated at $142.5 billion in the United States and $467 billion worldwide [1] Internationally, the largest ("big four") advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP.[citation needed]

Contents

1 History o 1.1 Public service advertising 2 Marketing mix 3 Advertising theory 4 Types of advertising 5 Sales promotions 6 Media and advertising approaches o 6.1 Rise in new media o 6.2 Niche marketing o 6.3 Crowdsourcing o 6.4 Global advertising o 6.5 Foreign public messaging o 6.6 Diversification o 6.7 New technology o 6.8 Advertising education 7 Criticisms 8 Regulation 9 Advertising research 10 Semiotics 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 14 External links

History

Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan

Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.[2] History tells us that Out-of-home advertising and billboards are the oldest forms of advertising. As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers. As education became an apparent need and reading, as well as printing, developed advertising expanded to include handbills. In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content. As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising. In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad - the copy, layout, and artwork - was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed in the late 19th century when the advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded. Ayer and Son offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession. [3] Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N.W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia.[3]

An 1895 advertisement for a weight gain product.

A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclopdia Britannica

Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a milk company and published in the Los Angeles Times on May 6, 1930

At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however, advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "The skin you love to touch".[4]

Advertisements of hotels in Pichilemu, Chile from 1935.

In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups.[5] When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised, each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio station owners soon realised they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show. This practice was carried over to commercial television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should be considered a part of the commons to be used only non-commercially and for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC, originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a public body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).[5] However, the U.S. Congress did require commercial broadcasting companies to operate in the "public interest, convenience, and necessity".[6] Public broadcasting now exists in the United States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Public Radio (NPR). In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the showup to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame. In the 1960s, campaigns featuring heavy spending in different mass media channels became more prominent. For example, the Esso gasoline company spent hundreds of millions of dollars on a brand awareness campaign built around the simple and alliterative[7] theme Put a Tiger in Your Tank.[8] Psychologist Ernest Dichter[9] and DDB Worldwide copywriter Sandy Sulcer[10] learned that motorists desired both power and play while driving, and chose the tiger as an easy toremember symbol to communicate those feelings. The North American and later European campaign featured extensive television and radio and magazine ads, including photos with tiger tails supposedly emerging from car gas tanks, promotional events featuring real tigers,

billboards, and in Europe station pump hoses "wrapped in tiger stripes" as well as pop music songs.[8] Tiger imagery can still be seen on the pumps of successor firm ExxonMobil. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada. With the advent of the ad server, marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the "dot-com" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of websites including the search engine Google, started a change in online advertising by emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users. This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising. The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media. For example, in the US in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lowerabout 2.4 percent.[11] A recent advertising innovation is "guerrilla marketing", which involves unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message. Guerrilla advertising is becoming increasingly more popular with a lot of companies. This type of advertising is unpredictable and innovative, which causes consumers to buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations utilizing social network services such as Facebook.
Public service advertising

The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS, political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation. Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy. Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated

advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives. In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers. Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the nation's largest developer of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and non-profit organizations, including the longest-running PSA campaign, Smokey Bear.

Marketing mix
Main article: Marketing mix

The marketing mix has been the key concept to advertising. The marketing mix was suggested by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. The marketing mix consists of four basic elements called the four Ps. Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer like distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to go out and buy the product.

Advertising theory

Hierarchy of effects model[12]

It clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model suggests that there are six steps a consumer or a business buyer moves through when making a purchase. The steps are:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Awareness Knowledge Liking Preference Conviction Purchase Means-End Theory

This approach suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end state.

Leverage Points

It is designed to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values.

Verbal and Visual Images

The political economy of advertisement is the theory that a few powerful groups, or knowledge monopolies, control the thoughts, behaviors, and actions of the public through mass media as communication. As a form of communication, advertisement uses repeated verbal and visual images to develop and alter society. Over time, these repeated images and symbols become associated with either positive or negative attributes and can modify the publics evaluation of such cultural objects as people, religions, ethnic groups, and societal roles. Thus, the media forms the beliefs and values of the public through media portrayals. The messages of the ((political economy)) commonly correlate with current economic interests.[13]

Types of advertising

An advertisement for a diner. Such signs are common on storefronts.

Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this Human billboard pictured above

A bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Buses and other vehicles are popular media for advertisers.

A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station

Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on

seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers,doors of bathroom stalls,stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.
Television advertising / Music in advertising The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television. The average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this game has reached US$3.5 million (as of 2012). The majority of television commercials feature a song or jingle that listeners soon relate to the product. Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops[14] or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience.[15] More controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the background[16] where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events.[17][18] Virtual product placement is also possible.[19][20] Infomercials An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The word "infomercial" is a portmanteau of the words "information" & "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals. Radio advertising Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found not only on air, but also online. According to Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U.S. population. Online advertising Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on

search engine results pages, banner ads, in text ads, Rich Media Ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam. Product placements Covert advertising, also known as guerrilla advertising, is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics," because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard. Press advertising Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A form of press advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or service. Another form of press advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can include art) that typically run in an article section of a newspaper. Billboard advertising Billboards are large structures located in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.

The RedEye newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard on Lake Michigan. Mobile billboard advertising Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising, One-day, and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store openings and similar promotional events, and Big advertisements from smaller companies. In-store advertising In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near checkout counters (aka POPPoint Of Purchase display), eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays. Coffee cup advertising Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is distributed out of an office, caf, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first popularized in

Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United States, India, and parts of the Middle East.[citation needed] Street advertising This type of advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with products such as Reverse Graffiti, air dancer's and 3D pavement advertising, the media became an affordable and effective tool for getting brand messages out into public spaces. Celebrity branding This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana. Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohls, Twister, Nascar, Toyota and many more.

Sales promotions
Sales promotions are another way to advertise, Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers you draw in and where they are, and to jumpstart sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action.[21]

Media and advertising approaches

This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (April 2012) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April
2012)

Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer's usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.[citation needed] Digital signage is poised to become a major mass media because of its ability to reach larger audiences for less money. Digital signage also offer the unique ability to see the target audience where they are reached by the medium. Technological advances have also made it possible to control the message on digital signage with much precision, enabling the messages to be relevant to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn, gets more response from the advertising. Digital signage is being successfully employed in supermarkets.[22] Another successful use of digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants.[23] and malls.[24] Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives. Reasons for online display advertising: Display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. Display is not only used for generating awareness, its used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear call to action. E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for e-mail users for many years. A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social network advertising. It is online advertising with a focus on social networking sites. This is a relatively immature market, but it has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of the demographic information the user has provided to the social networking site. Friendertising is a more precise advertising term in which people are able to direct advertisements toward others directly using social network service.[citation needed] As the mobile phone became a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2.2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile ads.[citation needed] More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D Barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes.[citation needed]

Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station.[citation needed] Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can provide good exposure at minimal cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" = "photocopier", "Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly, "Hoover" = vacuum cleaner, and "Band-Aid" = adhesive bandage) these can be seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. However, some companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a genericized trademark - turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost. From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming breaks called "Content Wraps," to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and recently Toyota. Recently, there appeared a new promotion concept, "ARvertising", advertising on Augmented Reality technology.[citation needed] Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda).[citation needed]
Rise in new media

With the dawn of the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner, Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009 mobile and internet advertising grew by 18.1% and 9.2% respectively. Older media advertising saw declines: 10.1% (TV), 11.7% (radio), 14.8% (magazines) and 18.7% (newspapers ).[citation needed]
Niche marketing

Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The Long Tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out

more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.[25]
Crowdsourcing Main article: Crowdsourcing

The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements. User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash the Super Bowl contest, allowing consumers to create their own Doritos commercial.[26] Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.[26] Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".[27][28] This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google, Nike, Hersheys, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper. Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity in part to its cost effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate word-of-mouth. However, it remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.[29]
Global advertising

Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the companys speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel.[30] Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.[31]
Foreign public messaging See also: Soft Power and International Tourism Advertising

Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as a vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions.
Diversification

In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that big global clients don't need big global agencies any more.[32] This is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".[33]
New technology

The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor. Other strategies include integrating advertising with internet-connected EPGs, advertising on companion devices (like smartphones and tablets) during the show, and creating TV apps. Additionally, some like brands have opted for social television sponsorship.
Advertising education

Advertising education has become widely popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis.[citation needed] A surge in advertising interest is typically

attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.[34] Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner established companies with students to create these campaigns.

Criticisms
Main article: Criticism of advertising

While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs. Unsolicited commercial e-mail and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on internet service providers.[35] Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.[36] In addition, advertising frequently uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to feelings of inadequacy) on the intended consumer, which may be harmful. Many even feel that often, advertisements exploit the desires of a consumer, by making a particular product more appealing, by manipulating the consumers needs and wants.

Regulation
Main article: Advertising regulation

There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television tobacco advertising imposed in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the Swedish government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice, which had found that Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries or via satellite. Greeces regulations are of a similar nature, banning advertisements for children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and a total ban on advertisement for war toys".[37] In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Kaiser Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested fast food advertising that targets children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States. In New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European countries, the advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK. In the UK most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. Currently the display of an advertisement without

consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of 2,500 per offence. All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of this nature. In the US many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm.[38] As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside.[39] Cities such as So Paulo have introduced an outright ban[40] with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays. Many advertisers employ a wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g. In France, printing English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English).[41] The advertisement of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms are subject to government regulation in many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by law in most countries to display warnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such requirements.

Advertising research
Main article: Advertising research

Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and posttesting of ads and/or campaignspre-testing is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-market impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types.

Semiotics
Main article: Advertising research

Todays culture is made up of meanings between consumers and marketers. These meanings depict signs and symbols that are encoded in everyday objects.[42]Semiotics is the study of signs and how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within brand names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television advertisements. The purpose of semiotics is to study and interpret the message being conveyed in advertisements. Logos and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels known as the surface level and the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for their product. These signs can be images, words, fonts, colors, or slogan. The underlying level is made up of hidden meanings. The combination of images, words, colors, and slogan must be interpreted by the audience or consumer.[43] The key to advertising analysis is the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the object and the signified is the mental concept.[44] A product has a signifier and a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A televisions denotative meaning would be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the products deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a television would be that it is top of the line.[45]

Apple is an excellent example of using semiotics in their advertising campaign. Apples commercials used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apples products.[46] The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories. Certain characteristics of stumuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product is perceived as feminine or masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect attention and elaboration of the message (traditional or non-traditional gender role orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the message.[47] There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective.[48] Objective claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For instance, the camera has auto focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are nonphysical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design.[49] Males tend to respond better to objective marketing communications claims while females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims.[50] When advertising to different genders it is important to remember how men and women process information. Females process information comprehensively. Males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving problems.[51] Men prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message where females engage in more creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation. In advertisements, men are represented as independent. They are shown in more occupations than women. Women are represented mainly as housewives and mothers. Men are more likely to be shown advertising cars or business products, while women advertise domestic products. Men are more likely to be shown outdoors or in business settings. Women are depicted in domestic settings. Men are more often portrayed as authorities. As far as ads go, with age men seem to gain wisdom and authority. On the other hand women seem to disappear with age. Voiceovers are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceovers are men (figures of up to 94% have been reported). There have been more female voiceovers in recent years but mainly for food, household products, and feminine care products.[52]

Did you know?

Click any word in a definition or example to find the entry for that word

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Types of advertisement
ad

noun an advertisement

advert

noun an advertisement

advertisement

noun a short film on television or short article on radio that is intended to persuade people to buy something

advertisement

noun an arrangement of pictures, words etc put in a public place or in a newspaper, on the Internet etc that is intended to persuade people to buy something

advertisement

noun an announcement in a newspaper, on the Internet etc inviting people to apply for a job that is available

advertisement

noun an announcement of a concert, sports event etc that is going to take place

advertorial

noun an advertisement in a newspaper or magazine that looks like one of its normal articles

banner

noun an advertisement on a website that goes across the width of your screen

banner ad

noun an advertisement that appears across the full width of a page or web page

billboard

noun a large board for advertisements in an outside public place

bumper sticker

noun a small sign that you can stick on your car with a message on it that may be funny, political, or advertising something

circular

noun a document, especially a letter or advertisement, that is sent to a lot of people at the same time

classified ad

noun a short advertisement that you put in a newspaper, for example so that you can sell something

the classifieds

noun the classified ads in a newspaper

clickthrough

noun an advertisement on a website that you click on in order to move to another page or website

commercial

noun an advertisement on television or radio

commercial break

noun a short interruption in a television or radio programme when advertisements are broadcast

display advertising

noun advertising that has features such as photographs or a logo (=symbol representing a company) as well as writing

endorsement

noun an occasion when someone famous says in an advertisement that they like a product

flyer

noun an announcement or advertisement that is printed on a sheet of paper and given to people

goody bag

noun a bag containing small presents given by a company to help advertise a product or service

handbill

noun a small printed piece of paper advertising something that someone gives you in the street. A more usual word is flier.

hoarding

noun a large board used for advertising outside

infomercial

noun a long advertisement on television that is made in the style of an ordinary programme

insert

noun an advertisement or information sheet put inside a newspaper, magazine, or book

interstitial

noun a page of advertising that appears in the middle of a website

jingle

noun a short phrase, usually with music, that is easy to remember, used for advertising something on the radio or television

junk mail

noun advertising and other information sent to you by post, email, or fax, although you did not ask for it and do not want it

mailshot

noun a letter or advertisement sent to many people at the same time

personal

noun a personal ad

the personals

noun the personal column in a newspaper or magazine

personal ad

noun a short advertisement put in a newspaper or magazine by someone who is looking for friendship or for a sexual or romantic relationship

personal column

noun a list of private advertisements or messages in a newspaper or magazine

placard

noun a large notice in a public place, used for advertising something or carried in order to protest against or support something

playbill

noun a printed advertisement for a play

plug

noun an attempt to make people interested in a book, film etc by talking about it in an enthusiastic way, especially on a radio or television programme

poster

noun a large printed notice or picture that you put on a wall for decoration or to announce or advertise something

posting

noun a public notice, especially one advertising a job

press pack

noun a collection of information and advertising material that a company prepares about itself and sends to journalists or customers

promo

noun something that advertises a product

publicity stunt

noun something unusual that is done to make people notice a person, organization, or product

puff

noun something that someone says or writes in order to advertise or praise something in public

sandwich board

noun a pair of boards with advertisements on them, joined at the top and put over the shoulders of a person who walks around in a public place

sign

noun a flat object with words or pictures on it, put in a public place to provide information or advertise something

situations vacant

noun the part of a newspaper that contains advertisements for jobs

slogan

noun a short phrase that is easy to remember and is used to advertise something or to express the beliefs of a political party or other group

small ad

noun a short advertisement that you put in a newspaper when you want to buy or sell something

station break

noun

a pause in a television or radio programme to announce the name of the station and other details about it

station identification

noun a station break

tag line

noun a short phrase for advertising something

tease

noun something that is designed to make people interested in an event that will happen or in a product that will become available later

trailer

noun an advertisement for a film or television programme that shows a short part of that film or programme

want ad

noun

Types of Advertising Appeals

What are advertising appeals and how do they influence the masses? Basically, they trigger emotions and grab mass attention. They may be funny, cute, bold, deceptive, attractive or inspiring. They carry an emotion which the masses can connect with. And that's how they fetch mass appeal. For all you need to know about the different types of advertising appeals, read on.

Advertising intends to promote the sales of a product or service and also to inform the masses about its features. It is an effective means of communicating the value of a product or service with people at large. Advertising utilizes different media to reach out to the masses. It uses different types of appeals to connect to consumers spread across the globe. The various types of advertising appeals use different ways to highlight product features and draw mass attention. Advertising Appeals

Audio-Visual Bandwagon Black and White Fallacy Card Stacking Classified Corporate

Euphoria Flag-waving Glittering Generalities Half Truth Humor Appeals Interactive

Plain Folks Print Media Public Service Quotes Out of Context Relationship Marketing

Snob Appeal Stereotyping Subliminal Surrogate Testimonial Transfer Unstated

Covert Demonizing the Enemy Direct Order Disinformation Email Emotional Words

Internet Labeling Name-calling Outdoor Performancebased

Repetition Romance Appeal Scientific Evidence Shockvertising Slogans

Assumption Viral Word-of-Mouth Youth Appeals

Audio-Visual Media Advertising: In this advertising technique, advertisers use audio and visual media to promote their products. It is the most widely used medium to influence the masses. Television and radio have always been used to grab mass appeal. TV commercials that come in between TV shows, commercials shown during movies and advertisements aired on radio are some examples of audio-visual advertising. This advertising appeal makes use of sound and/or display to the fullest to attract audiences. The product has to be marketed in less time, especially in case of TV or radio commercials. So the product name needs to be repeated and the advertisement needs to be catchy. Back to Index Bandwagon: This advertising appeal aims to persuade people to do a certain thing because many are doing it. It is a human tendency to do as the masses do. Bandwagon technique of advertising captures this to induce people to use a certain product or service. 8 out of every 10 women prefer using the xyz shampoo! or More than 80% of the denstists of our country are using the xyz toothpaste. Which toothpaste do you use? or The world agrees with abc... Do you? are some popular ways to tricking people to join the bandwagon. This advertising appeal makes use of statistics and surveys to back the statements made. The idea is to stress that something is being used by millions and hence you should also be using it. Back to Index Black and White Fallacy: In this advertising appeal, only two choices are presented before the audience, thus compelling them to buy the product being advertised. It's like saying, "you are either with us or with them", or "you are with us or against us". In this method of advertising, two opposite choices are given to the audience. They are compelled to choose one. Saying something like "the elite class uses xyz product" can be a clever way of making people use xyz. They are made to believe that if they do not use the product, they are not elite. Back to Index Card Stacking: This advertising appeal involves doing a comparative study of two competing products. The facts in favor of the product are selected. They are put forth in comparison with those of a competing product to make the product being advertised appear better. In this strategy, only the positive points of a product are highlighted while the negative ones are excluded. Advertising the

benefits of a skin lotion and not referring to the side effects it can have, is an example of card stacking. Comparing Google and Microsoft with a bias against one of them is an example of card stacking. Back to Index Classified Advertising: This type of advertising makes use of newspapers and periodicals to make public appeals about a product or service to be advertised. Sponsors pay for advertisement messages which are published in newspapers or other print media. Usually, advertisers purchase newspaper space which determines the size of their advertisement. Words and graphics are used to gather mass appeal. Back to Index Corporate Advertising: Corporate advertising is an advertising appeal wherein corporate logos and company messages are publicized on a large scale. Hot air balloons are commonly used in advertising. Some companies propose to place their logos on booster rockets and space stations to achieve publicity. In this advertising appeal, improving public relations is the objective. Increasing good reputation of the company among its customers is the prime objective of corporate advertising while product promotion is secondary. Back to Index Covert Advertising: This is the practice of achieving indirect publicity of a product by advertising it through movies and TV shows. TV actors or characters in movies are shown using certain products. Covert advertising is an indirect way of advertising a product by featuring it in films and television shows. For example, the main character in a film is shown using a certain brand of shoes or a certain car, thus endorsing it indirectly. This advertising technique is also known as guerrilla advertising. Back to Index Demonizing the Enemy: In this advertising appeal, the advertisers make the people with an opposing point of view appear unacceptable. People who think or feel in a certain way or have a certain idea are made to appear among the disliked section of society. This form of advertising involves the idea of encouraging one idea by discouraging ideas that contradict it. It is like proving a theorem by disproving its inverse. This method can be used in times of war to arouse hatred for the enemy nation. It can be used in environmental or social awareness advertisements too. Back to Index Direct Order: When advertisers appeal the masses by showing them the steps to take, in order to opt for a particular product or service, they are said to be using direct order technique. This advertising appeal communicates the steps to choose a certain product or service and presents them to the audience in a simplified manner. With something so directly and plainly stated, one feels compelled to

go for it. Back to Index Disinformation: This technique involves a purposeful dissemination of false information. In context of the military, this technique is used to mislead the enemy. It commonly includes forging of documents and spreading of rumors. In context of advertising, it can include slight fabrication of the truth to make it more impressive or to exaggerate it a little. In this technique, some true information is mixed with false information and presented to the audience in an appealing manner. Back to Index Email Advertising: This advertising appeal makes use of emails to advertise products. Advertisements are sent to potential customers through emails. In this form of advertising, emails are sent with the purpose of improving customer relations or increasing the customer base. Emails contain advertisements or messages intended for product promotion. Back to Index Emotional Words: This advertising appeal makes use of positive words to generate positive feelings about a certain product in the minds of people. Advertisers often use words like 'luxury', 'comfort' and 'satisfaction' to create a positive vibe among the masses and attract them towards the product being advertised. Positive words can create a deep impact on people making them feel like using the product or service being advertised. Back to Index Euphoria: This advertising appeal uses events that can create euphoria. Announcing discount offers, offering holiday discounts and making luxury items available at affordable prices are often used to grab mass appeal. Sometimes, advertisers organize social events in which existing and potential customers are give the chance to participate. The product/service is marketed during the event or customers taking part are given special offers. Back to Index Flag-waving: This advertising appeal makes use of the patriotic flavor to publicize a product. In case of flag-waving, advertisers try to justify certain actions on grounds of patriotism. Masses are persuaded to choose a particular product because doing so will be an expression of patriotism. In this method, advertisers associate buying or using their product with love for the country. They make people believe that in using a certain product, they are showing love for their country. Back to Index

Glittering Generalities: In this form of advertising, advertisers make use of logical fallacies. They use appealing words without giving any concrete idea about what is being advertised. The words used have an emotional appeal and do not necessarily state anything logical or in a direct manner. Statements like "Our miracle lotion gives you a soft skin and..." or "Our magical drink helps you lose weight in..." are examples of glittering generalities. They use words like 'magical' and 'miracle' to emphasize how good the products are. Back to Index Half Truth: In this advertising appeal, advertisers use deceptive statements to publicize their product. They often use double-meaning words or statements to convey their message. What's partially true, or true in certain cases, is presented. Thus, the message conveyed through the advertisement is neither completely true nor entirely false. In some cases, it is worded in such a way that it can be interpreted in more than one ways. Back to Index Humor Appeals: This advertising appeal uses humor as a tool to achieve product promotion. Cartooning, joking, mocking, or satire are the commonly used elements of humor appeal. The funny way in which a product is advertised attracts customers. Sometimes, people remember the joke or satire associated with the product, which makes them attracted to it. The message is conveyed in a very light-hearted or funny manner. This style of advertising appeals to the masses and product sales are boosted. Back to Index Interactive Advertising: This advertising appeal makes use of interactive media to reach out to the target audience. Advertisers hold exhibitions or trade-shows and offer rewards in the form of discounts or free gifts to increase the sales of their product. Distribution of free samples of a newly launched product and publicity of a product through interactive means are some examples of interactive advertising. Have you participated in contests intended to promote products? Have you come across websites offering free products to their users? Have you felt lucky to get hold of freebies? Then you have been a target for interactive advertising. Back to Index Internet Advertising: It is a relatively recent form of advertising. Internet has become one of the most influential media of the modern times. Websites attract thousands of users everyday and show them advertisements. Sponsors pay for posting their advertisements on the page. The website owner gets paid for ad clicks. You must have come across advertisements on search engine results pages, on blogs, in forums, in emails. They are commonly used ways of advertising online. Back to Index

Labeling: With an intent to increase or diminish the perceived quality of a product, advertisers use labeling or categorization. Categorizing a product under a group of associated entities makes it appealing or unappealing to the masses. Back to Index Name-calling: This advertising appeal makes use of direct or indirect attack on the products in competition with the product being advertised. Direct name-calling involves making a direct attack on the opponent while indirect name-calling makes use of sarcasm to demean products of competitors. Back to Index Outdoor Advertising: Outdoor advertising is a popular advertising appeal that uses different tools to attract the customers outdoors. Billboards, kiosks and tradeshows are some of the commonly used means of outdoor advertising. Fairs, exhibitions and billboards that draw attention of the passersby are often used in outdoor advertising. Back to Index Performance-based Advertising: In the performance-based advertising appeal, advertisers pay only for the results. The advertising agency takes complete risk and hence ensures that the advertisement is pitched well. Back to Index Plain Folks: This advertising appeal aims at attracting the masses by using common people to advertise a product. Bombastic words may not always appeal to common folks. They can rather be attracted by communicating with them in their language. The use of homey words, as they are called, and purposeful errors while speaking to give a natural feel to the speech, are characteristic to this advertising appeal. Back to Index Print Media Advertising: The print media is one of the most effective means of advertising. Many advertising appeals make use of the print media to reach out to the masses. Media like newspapers, brochures, manuals and magazines are used for publicizing products. Back to Index Public Service Advertising: This advertising technique is used to convey socially relevant messages to the masses. Social messages on issues like poverty, inequality, AIDS awareness and environmental issues such as global warming, pollution and deforestation are conveyed by means of appeals to the public through public service advertising.

Back to Index Quotes Out of Context: This advertising appeal makes use of popular quotes. Advertisers using this advertising appeal alter widely known quotes to change their meaning. This technique is used in political documentaries. Back to Index Relationship Marketing: This form of advertising focuses on retention of customers and customer satisfaction. Advertisers appeal to target audiences with information that suits their requirements and interests. Back to Index Repetition: This advertising appeal uses the technique of repeating the product name several times during an advertisement. Jingles are often used in this advertising technique to make the product name linger in the minds of the masses. With repetition, advertisers can bombard their message on the masses so that the product being advertised is remembered. Back to Index Romance Appeal: A man is shown using a particular cologne after which women are attracted to him. A girl is shown using a particular skin cream and then boys are shown flocking to her. This is romance appeal. It uses the opposite sex attraction element to grab mass attention. Masses are made to believe that on using a certain product, they will be perceived as more sexy or that they will attract the opposite sex. This advertising works especially well with teenagers as they easily believe that using something will make them look more attractive or that if they use a certain product more girls/boys will be attracted to them. Back to Index Scientific Evidence: This technique attempts to attract masses to use the advertised product, by providing them with survey results. The advertisers often use statistical evidences and market surveys to publicize their product. Research or statistical data supporting the advertisement, makes it appear more authentic. People tend to trust the advertisement because it is backed by surveys. Back to Index Shockvertising: This advertising appeal makes use of shocking images or scenes to advertise a product. The name is derived from the combination of 'shocking' and 'advertising'. Provokative images and use of controversy to grab attention are examples of shock advertising. On the other hand, showing scary images illustrating the ill-effects of smoking on health, seeing which one would begin to hate the habit is

also an example of shockvertising. Back to Index Slogans: Slogans, as we all know, are striking phrases used to convey important information about a product to be advertised. Slogans make a message more interesting. People remember the slogans and thereby the products they endorsed. There are so many famous advertising slogans that we still remember and associate the products with them. Back to Index Snob Appeal: Snob appeal is an exact reverse of the bandwagon technique. In this advertising appeal, people are induced to buy a certain product so that they can stand out from the crowd. It is often indicated that buying that product will make them look different from the rest. It is indicated that the product is not affordable for common people. A sense of exclusivity is attached to the products. Back to Index Stereotyping: A stereotype is a popular belief about a certain thing/person. This advertising appeal is also known as name-calling or labeling and attempts to categorize the advertised object under a certain class of entities. Depicting women with a fair skin tone as attractive or showing an obese teenager being bullied in school are common examples of stereotypes. This form of advertising uses popular beliefs like these to promote a certain idea. Back to Index Subliminal Advertising: This advertising appeal makes use of subliminal messages, which are intended to be perceived subconsciously. Subliminal signals go undetected by the human eye. However, they are perceived at a subconscious level. Subliminal appeal makes use of hidden messages and optical illusions. Back to Index Surrogate Advertising: In cases where advertising of a particular product is made illegal, product companies come up with other products with the same brand name. Advertising the legal products with the same brand name reminds the audience of their legally banned products as well. Back to Index Testimonial: People relate to their favorite personalities from the glamor industry. They are ready to follow what people from the glamor world do. They want to be like the celebrity they are fans of. Testimonials make use of this human tendency. Celebrities are used as ambassadors. They are shown using the product and recommending its use. People fall for these products just because they see someone famous endorsing them.

Back to Index Transfer: This advertising appeal is implemented in two ways. In positive transfer, a product is made to associate with a respectable and popular person. However, in case of negative transfer, advertisers state an analogy between a product and a disliked or notorious person. For example, saying something like "Even the President uses this" is positive transfer. Using a certain corrupt politician's name in saying that he uses a certain product is an example of negative transfer. Back to Index Unstated Assumption: When the idea behind the product or service being advertised is repeatedly implied, it is known as unstated assumption. In case of using this advertising appeal, the advertisers do not convey an idea explicitly. They rather imply their ideas in indirect ways. Back to Index Viral Advertising: It can take the form of word-of-mouth publicity or Internet advertising. The aim of the advertiser is to market the product on a very large scale. This advertising appeal intends to achieve speedy publicity of a product. The speed with which the message spreads is comparable to the spread of a disease-causing virus. And hence the name viral advertising. Back to Index Word-of-Mouth Advertising: It can turn out to be a very effective advertising appeal. It can achieve success to an extent where a brand is equated to a common noun. Vaseline can be sited as an excellent example of word-of-mouth publicity, where the company name, 'Vaseline' became synonymous with the product name, 'petroleum jelly'. Or Xerox a trademark came to be used as a synonym of 'duplicate'. Back to Index Youth Appeals: With the increasing population in this section of society youth appeals have assumed great importance. Youngsters are also the most vulnerable to external influences. Anything can impress them easily. So advertisers try to specifically target this group. Youth appeals include television advertisements and programs for promoting trendy items. Advertisers use flashy words, catchy messages and make the product look 'cool' to the youngsters. Teenagers fall for such advertisements quite easily, which is why youth appeals are almost always successful. Back to Index This was an overview of the different advertising appeals that advertisers around the world use with the purpose of marketing their products and services. You might want to know about the different types of advertising as well. Many of the popularly used products of today have gained popularity thanks to the advertising techniques that were implemented for their publicity. The advertising appeal that a

company uses goes a long way to determine the success or failure of its product. So appeals should be chosen wisely. By Manali Oak Last Updated: 3/9/2012

The Notation System: Footnotes and Endnotes1

In the notation system of referencing, a number is placed in superscript within the text, and the full reference (including all bibliographic details) is placed either at the bottom of the page (footnotes), or at the end of the piece of work (endnotes). Click here to see an example of the Footnotes Click here to see an example of the Endnotes A full reference list should also be provided at the end of the assignment. Not all style guides will advise you to do this as it is very repetitive; however, it is much easier for an interested reader to look through an alphabetical list of references, rather than flip through the pages of your assignment trying to locate sources of different information. In summary, the first footnote or an endnote reference to a source should contain all the bibliographic information necessary to identify it. These details should then be followed by the page number or numbers of the quotation or specific reference. The second and subsequent references to a particular source may be abbreviated in two ways: by abbreviating the information of the first citation or by using Latin abbreviations such as ibid and op.cit.. Abbreviated information:
1. Y. Anzai and H. A. Simon. The theory of learning by doing. Psychological Review, 86, 124-180, 1979, p. 126 2. Anzai & Simon, p. 178

If two works of the author are referred to, however, more information will be required; for example,
1. A. Baddeley, Human Memory: Theory and Practice, Allyn and Bacon, Boston,1990. 2. A. Baddeley, Working memory, Science , vol. 255, pp.556-559, 1992. 3. Baddeley, Human Memory, p. 345.

Latin abbreviations:

ibid is the abbreviation of ibidem and means 'in the same place'. You use ibid for a reference entry when the citation is the same as the previous footnote or endnote. If the page number is different, you include the page number of the new entry after ibid. ibid saves you writing out the full reference again; for example,
1. Y. Anzai and H. A. Simon. The theory of learning by doing. Psychological Review, 86, 124-180, 1979, p. 126 2. ibid. 3. ibid., p.157.

op.cit. is an abbreviation of opere citato that means 'in the work cited'. op.cit. is used together with the authors name and page number when the full reference has already been cited.
1. Y. Anzai and H. A. Simon. The theory of learning by doing. Psychological Review, 86, 124-180, 1979, p. 126 2. J. R. Anderson. Cognitive psychology and its implications, 2nd edn, Freeman, New York, 1985, p. 234 3. Anzai and Simon, op. cit., p. 157 4. Anderson, op. cit., p. 36

ibid. and op. cit. and any other abbreviations should be presented in normal type and always start with a lower case letter, even when they appear at the beginning of a note. Numbering of notes Usually notes are indicated by superior figures (small numbers placed above the line of type). They can also be indicated, however, by a set order of symbols: asterisk, dagger, double dagger, section mark, parallel marks and paragraph mark. The use of symbols is usually restricted to mathematical works where superior figures may be confused with indices or in the rare case where both footnotes and endnotes appear. Footnote numbering can run:

through a whole document begin afresh at each chapter begin afresh at each page.

Endnote numbering can run:

through a whole document begin afresh at each chapter

Footnotes or endnotes should be placed at the end of a sentence or clause rather than immediately after the word or phrase to which they relate (this reduces disruption to the reader). If several points in a paragraph relate to one source a single note at the end of the paragraph will suffice. If a single fact in the text refers to several sources, include all of the sources in a single note.

III. Directly Refute The Opposition's Beliefs. You can begin your article with transition. (Republicans believe public televison is a "sandbox for the rich." However, statistics show most people who watch public television make less than $40,000 per year.)

Pull in other facts and quotations from people who support your position. Concede a valid point of the opposition which will make you appear rational, one who has considered all the options (fiscal times are tough, and we can cut some of the funding for the arts; however, ).

IV. Give Other, Original Reasons/Analogies In defense of your position, give reasons from strong to strongest order. (Taking money away from public television is robbing children of their education )

Use a literary or cultural allusion that lends to your credibility and perceived intelligence (We should render unto Caesar that which belongs to him )

V. Conclude With Some Punch. Give solutions to the problem or challenge the reader to be informed. (Congress should look to where real wastes exist perhaps in defense and entitlements to find ways to save money. Digging into public television's pocket hurts us all.)

A quotation can be effective, especially if from a respected source A rhetorical question can be an effective concluder as well (If the government doesn't defend the interests of children, who will?)

Go to the library or any computer lab and complete the webquest located at

An example of footnote referencing1

Camperdown Cemetery in Newtown, Sydney is considered one of Australia's most historically significant cemeteries2. The cemetery contains the remains of many influential people who played an important role in the early history of Sydney and Australia; the land was already associated with famous Australians before it became a cemetery3. A total of 12 acres, 3 roods of land were donated by the estate of Sir Maurice Charles O'Connell, a Lieutenant Governor of New South Wales, on September 23, 18484. The land, a portion of Camperdown Estate, was originally part of the 240-acre land grant of William Bligh, former Governor of the colony of

New South Wales5. The cemetery served as one of Sydney's principal burial grounds from its opening, in 1849, until 18676. After the land was bequeathed a trust company was formed: the Sydney Church of England Cemetery Company. Two hundred shares were offered at 10 each and the area was consecrated on January 16, 18497. It is of historical interest that the first interment was that of Sir Maurice Charles O'Connell, the man whose estate donated the land for the cemetery. Sir Maurice O'Connell was buried in the Town Hall Cemetery after his death on May 25, 1848. After the consecration of the cemetery his remains were exhumed and re-interred in the new Camperdown Cemetery8. Note: In a longer piece of writing the difference between footnotes and endnotes would be more obvious than it appears here. The footnotes referring to each page would reside at the bottom of that page while endnotes for every reference in the whole piece of writing would reside at the completion point of that text.
1 2

Flello, J. (unpub.) A Survey of Camperdown Cemetery. C. Lucas. State Heritage, State Heritage Inventory - Item View, http://www.interimtechnology.com.au/herit/item.html (updated 10 December, 1999, accessed 10 May, 1999). 3 P.W. Gledhill, Camperdown Churchyard, Church Street Newtown: An Appeal for the Restoration and Upkeep of the Historic Cemetery, Newtown, 1927, p.1. 4 ibid. 5 M. King, Prominent Australians and Importance of Camperdown Cemetery, Newtown, 1934, p.8. 6 ibid., p. 4. 7 Gledhill, op. cit., p. 1. 8 King, op. cit., p. 20.

For a detailed treatment on writing Footnotes and Endnotes, please use the official MLA Handbook:

Information relating to MLA style as presented here has been simplified and adapted from this authoritative publication from the Modern Language Association of America.

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 6th ed. New York: MLA, 2003. This Chapter deals only with simple and common examples on how to write Footnote and Endnote citations. To view examples, see Chapter 8. First Footnotes and Endnotes - Examples in MLA Style as well as Footnotes - Sample Page and Endnotes - Sample Page. Footnotes and Endnotes are used to give credit to sources of any material borrowed, summarized or paraphrased. They are intended to refer readers to the exact pages of the works listed in the Works Cited, References, or Bibliography section. The main difference between Footnotes and Endnotes is that Footnotes are placed numerically at the foot of the very same page where direct references are made, while Endnotes are placed numerically at the end of the essay on a separate page entitled Endnotes or Notes. If you are still using a typewriter, a superscript number is typed half a space above the line after the last word of the citation, e.g., "The Information Superhighway is giving way to a Commercial Superhighway."1 If you are using a word processor, you can access the superscript function. To type a Footnote citation, the same superscript number is put at the beginning of the Footnote at the bottom of the same page where the citation occurs. When mentioning a work for the first time, a full and complete Footnote or Endnote entry must be made. NOTE: Only one sentence is used in a Footnote or Endnote citation, i.e., only one period or full stop is used at the end of any Footnote or Endnote citation. In a Bibliography, each citation consists of a minimum of three statements or sentences, hence each entry requires a minimum of three periods, e.g., a period after the author statement, a period after the title statement, and a period after the publication statement (publication/publisher/publication date). First Footnote or Endnote example:
2

G. Wayne Miller, King of Hearts: The True Story

of the Maverick Who Pioneered Open Heart Surgery (New York: Times, 2000) 245.

Bibliography example:
Miller, G. Wayne. King of Hearts: The True Story of the Maverick Who Pioneered Open Heart Surgery. New York: Times, 2000.

Use of ibid. and op. cit.:

Gibaldi (313) does NOT recommend the use of these old-fashioned abbreviations: ibid. (from the Latin ibidem meaning "in the same place") and op. cit. (from the Latin opere citato meaning "in the work cited.") For Footnote or Endnote citations, if you should see the term ibid. being used, it just means that the citation is for the second mention of the same work with no intervening entries:
3

Ibid. 12-15.

More commonly, author and page number or numbers are now used instead of ibid., e.g.:
4

Miller 12-15.

For second or later mention of the same work with intervening entries, where previously op. cit. was used, now only the author and page number or numbers are used:
5

Miller 198.

Use of Superscript: [Tab] or indent Footnote and Endnote entries 5 spaces from the left margin. Leave one space between the superscript number and the entry. Do not indent second and subsequent lines. Double-space between entries. Number Footnotes and Endnotes consecutively using a superscript, e.g., 7. For Endnotes, you must use the same superscript number (as in your text) at the beginning of each Endnote in your Endnotes list. Start your list of Endnotes on a new page at the end of your essay. Remember to put the Endnotes page before the Bibliography, or Works Cited, or References page. Examples of first Footnotes or Endnotes, subsequent Footnotes or Endnotes, and listings on Works Cited or References page: Reference from the Bible, Catechism, or Sacred Texts: Example in text: An interesting reference was made to the picking of corn on the Sabbath.8 Example of Footnote citation, long form:
8

Matthew 12:1-8.

Example of Footnote citation, short form:

8

Mt 12:1-8.

Click here to see abbreviations of Books of the Bible List under Works Cited: The New Jerusalem Bible: Reader's Edition. New York: Doubleday, 1990. Example in text: The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that "Because of its common origin the human race forms a unity, for 'from one ancestor [God] made all nations to inhabit the whole earth.'"9 Example of a first Footnote or Endnote citation for the above quote from Catechism of the Catholic Church, Part I, Section 2, Chapter 1, Article 1, Paragraph 6I, Reference #360, Page 103, would be:
9

Catechism of the Catholic Church (New York: Doubleday, 1994) 360.

Subsequent citation of this same quote:

10

Catechism 360.

Citation of a different quote from the same book:

11

Catechism 1499.

List under Works Cited: Catechism of the Catholic Church. New York: Doubleday, 1994. Examples of Footnote or Endnote citations for other sacred texts:
12

Pius XII, encyclical, Summi Pontificatus 3. Roman Catechism I, 10, 24.

13

Do not confuse Footnote and Endnote citations with explanatory Notes that some authors refer to as "Endnotes." These Notes are not considered to be citations but are used to add comments, explanations, or additional information relating to specific passages in the text.
Home Resources Referencing Footnotes, endnotes and Harvard citations

Footnotes, endnotes and Harvard citations

(Extract from Essay Writing for Students, Brigid Ballard, Longman, South Melbourne, Appendix 14)

References
In an academic essay whenever you are

quoting the exact words of another writer; closely summarising a passage from another writer; using an idea or material which is directly based on the work of another writer;

then you must identify and acknowledge your source in a systematic style of referencing. Otherwise you may be accused of plagiarism. The three most common styles for references to printed and electronic materials are: footnotes, endnotes, and the Harvard system. Different departments within the university may favour different styles, so it is essential that you check on the preferred format for each program in which you are studying. Essays in literary criticism, for example, in which frequent reference is made to the same literary text, have their own characteristic style of citation. In general, your aim must be to include in your reference list all the information that is necessary for your reader to trace the source of your material easily and accurately.
Footnotes and endnotes

The first two systems of referencing, footnotes and endnotes, are very similar: in both you insert a number (either in brackets or slightly above the line) in your text at the end of a sentence or immediately following a direct quotation or a point taken from a source. For footnotes these numbers may either run consecutively through the whole essay or start afresh with (1) at the start of each new page; for endnotes the numbering is always consecutive. With footnotes the information about the source of each numbered reference is given at the bottom of each page of your text; with endnotes the same information is given in a consolidated list at the end of the essay. Format: The following points should be noted, both for use in your own essays and to enable you to interpret the footnotes and endnotes you encounter in your reading:
1. On a first citation of a work, full details, as in the bibliography, must be given, together with a precise page reference, for example, 'R. Beard (1970), Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Penguin, London, p. 49.' 2. Subsequent references to the same work may be cited by: o short form: the writer's name, the short title, and the page number, e.g. Beard, Teaching and Learning, pp. 89-91.

op.cit.: (i.e. opere citato, Latin, 'in the work cited') This is used following the writer's name and followed by the page reference when the citation is to the same work referred to in earlier but not in the immediately preceding footnote. It may or may not be underlined, e.g., 1. M. Douglas (1973), Natural Symbols, Penguin, London, p.88. 2. R. Fox (1967), Kinship and Marriage, Penguin, London, p.161. 3. M. Douglas, op.cit., p.132. o ibid.: (i.e. ibidem, Latin, 'in the same place') This is used, with a following page number, when the citation is to the same work referred to in the immediately preceding footnote. It may or may not be underlined, e.g., 0. M. Douglas (1973), Natural Symbols, Penguin, London, p.68 1. ibid., pp. 70-71, 2. ibid., p. 173 3. Other common abbreviations in references: o loc.cit. (loco citato, 'in the place already quoted') has confused usage (and you would probably be wise to avoid it in your own writing). It is sometimes used in place of op.cit. when the reference is to an article or chapter rather than a book. It is sometimes used in place of ibid. when the citation is to the same source and the same page as the immediately preceding reference. It is sometimes used in place of op.cit. when the citation is to the same page as the previous citation to the same source. o f. (or ff.) ('and the following page(s)') is used to indicate frequent references to an item within a few consecutive pages, e.g. R. Fox, Kinship and Marriage, p. 71f. o passim ('scatteredly') is used when the reference is to items to be found throughout that source or that section of a book. E.g. Beard, Teaching and Learning, passim. 4. Complex references. If you are citing a quotation or material which you have found already quoted by another writer, include in your citation both the full bibliographic details of the original quotation (which you will find in the reference) and the details of the book in which you found it, e.g. H. Cox (1968), The Secular City, Penguin, London, p. 93, quoted in M. Douglas (1973), Natural Symbols, Penguin, London, p. 37. Included references (Harvard, In-text, Author:Date)

In this third style of referencing, which is commonly used in science and the social sciences, all references are cited in the body of your text. The references are extremely brief (writer's family name, date of publication, page number) and the full bibliographic information is supplied in the bibliography. Some styles of included referencing use p. or pp. to indicate page numbers. Others use a colon: between the year and the page number.
Format: 1. If the writer's name appears in the text of your essay, the remaining items of the citation will follow this in brackets,

e.g. Beard (1970, pp. 91-92) argues that concept learning is important. (Here the actual argument is found on pages 91 and 92.)

e.g. Fox (1967) demonstrates the close relationship between kinship and marriage in certain societies. (As this relationship is the theme of the whole book, no specific page references are given.)
2. If the writer's name does not appear in the text of your essay, the reference must include his or her family name within the brackets and should come at the end of a sentence or immediately following a direct quotation.

e.g. It has been argued that concept learning is important (Beard, 1970, pp. 91-92).
Comparison of referencing styles

Each style of referencing has characteristic advantages:

1. Footnotes make it easy for the reader to identify a source immediately merely by glancing to the bottom of the page. However, lengthy footnotes, including comments and additional information, can be distracting and clumsy. 2. Endnotes permit extended commentary and additional information, but require the reader to refer constantly between the actual text and the final pages of the essay. 3. Included references are extremely efficient but can only identify a source and allow no room for additional comments.

In order to demonstrate these styles of referencing more clearly, we have taken a passage from a student's prehistory essay and used included references in version 1 and footnotes in version 2. Endnotes represent the version 2 style, except that the citations for the whole essay would be listed at the end.
Version 1

The work of van Lawick-Goodall (1971), Kortlandt and van Zon (1968), and Wright (1972) shows that present-day chimpanzees, orangutans and macaque monkeys are capable of using simple tools and bipedal locomotion. Wright (1972, p. 305) concluded, after tool-using experiments with a captive orangutan, that manipulative disability is not a factor which would have prevented Australopithecines from mastering the fundamentals of tool technology. However, while there is an unquestionable validity in comparing the behaviour of present-day apes with early hominids, it is important to note, as Howells (1973, p. 53) says, 'a Pantroglodyte is not and cannot be the ancestor of man. He cannot be an ancestor of anything but future chimpanzees.' However, van Lawick-Goodall (1971, p. 233) suggests that the modern chimpanzee shows a type of intelligence closer to that of man than is found in any other present-day mammal. She argues that

the chimpanzee is, nevertheless, a creature of immense signifance to the understanding of manHe has the ability to solve quite complex problems, he can use and make tools for a variety of purposes. Who knows what the chimpanzees will be like forty million years hence? (van Lawick-Goodall, 1971, pp. 244-245). The bibliography following the essay from which this passage was taken includes the following items: Howells, W. (1973), Evalution of the Genus Homo, Addison-Wesley, New York. Kortlandt, A. & van Zon, J. C. J. (1968), 'The present state of research on the dehuminization hypothesis of African ape evolution'. Proc. 2nd Int. Cong. Primatol., Atlanta, pp. 10-13. Van Lawick-Goodall, J. (1971), In the Shadow of Man, Collins, London. Wright, R.V. S. (1972), 'Imitative learning of a flaked-stone technology', Mankind 8, pp. 296306.
Version 2

The work of van Lawick-Goodall,1 Kortlandt and van Zon,2 and Wright3 shows that present-day chimpanzees, orangutans and macaque monkeys are capable of using simple tools and bipedal locomotion. Wright concluded, after tool-using experiments with a captive orangutan, that manipulative disability is not a factor which would have prevented Australopithecines from mastering the fundamentals of tool technology.4 However, while there is unquestionable validity in comparing the behaviour of present-day apes with early hominids, it is important to note, as Howells says, 'a Pantroglodyte is not and cannot be the ancestor of man. He cannot be an ancestor of anything but future chimpanzees.'5 However, van Lawick-Goodall suggests that the modern chimpanzee shows a type of intelligence closer to that of man than is found in any other present-day mammal.6 She argues that the chimpanzee is, nevertheless a creature of immense significance to the understanding of manHe has the ability to solve quite complex problems, he can use and make tools for a variety of purposesWho knows what the chimpanzees will be like forty million years hence? 7

1 J. van Lawick-Goodall (1971), In the Shadow of Man, Collins. 2 A. Kortlandt & J. C. J. van Zon (1968), 'The present state of research on the dehumanization hypothesis of African ape evolution', Proc.2nd Int.Congr.Primatol, Atlanta, pp. 10-13. 3 R.V.S.Wright (1972), 'Imitative learning of a flaked-stone technology', Mankind 8, pp. 296306.

4 ibid., p. 305. 5 Howells (1973), Evolution of the Genus Homo, Addison-Wesley p. 53. 6 van Lawick-Goodall, op.cit., p. 233. 7 ibid., pp. 244-245.

Bibliography, Footnotes, and Endnotes by Pamela Rice Hahn

As mentioned earlier, you will need a works cited list (often called a bibliography) at the end of your paper. This will list all the books, articles, Web sites, interviews, and other sources you referenced or quoted throughout your paper. You should start making this list before you even complete an outline; sometimes, you may even want to start making the list before you come up with a thesis. As soon as you find a work you think you'll use, write down all the bibliographical information. This should be done in the documentation style format you'll be using for your paper, such as the MLA style. You can always remove a source from your list if you find that it isn't needed, but going back to gather the information is a nuisance. There will be times when you will not want to remove those unused items, however. Frequently, papers will be required to have a bibliography that lists books on the subject for further research. These lists will never be complete for normal student research papers or dissertations. An exhaustive bibliography of all works on almost any subject takes many, many pages. In fact, books that are nothing but bibliographies have been published. Bibliographies published as books or articles without any associated paper are generally annotated, and often students are asked to annotate their own works cited lists. To annotate, you simply add a sentence or two after the publication information for the work's entry. These sentences will discuss the thoughts presented in the work and perhaps mention how useful the work is as a whole. Footnotes and endnotes are a touchy subject. Some professors don't like them. Some documentation styles require that you use footnotes or endnotes to refer to the cited work. Using footnote citation is popular with some people who claim that the internal citation method used by the MLA is distracting. They want the information available if they want to investigate the idea further, but they don't want their reading pace interrupted by a parenthetical reference to an author and page number. In general, there are two reasons to use a footnote or endnote:

To cite a work. This should always be used if the documentation style requires it, and never used if your documentation style asks for internal citation. To provide information interesting or relevant to your paper's discussion, but still tangential. These should be kept to a minimum, and as mentioned earlier, some evaluators may not like them, in which case they should be eliminated entirely.

There aren't many instances where the information you would put into a footnote can't be worked into the regular text of your argument. With modern word-processing software, endnotes and footnotes are very easy to create. Generally, it's a matter of opening a menu and choosing whether you want a footnote or an endnote. Most software will keep track of the numbering of your notes and will automatically adjust them if you delete or add a note.

HUNTER COLLEGE READING/WRITING CENTER THE DOCUMENTED ESSAY/RESEARCH PAPER Documentation Styles: Endnote and Bibliography Form

Documentation Styles
In writing your research paper, you must document everything that you borrow--not only direct quotations and paraphrases but also information and ideas. You must indicate the source of any appropriated material that readers might otherwise mistake for your own. There are several documentation styles for citing and listing sources. Footnotes and Endnotes are a traditional style and have been supplanted in many disciplines by the newer MLA and APA styles, among others. Before using footnotes or endnotes, check to be sure this is the style you are required to use.

The Footnote and the Endnote

Note references include all the information found in the bibliography (see below), as well as the specific page reference of the quoted material. Note form, however, differs slightly from bibliographic form. Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (figures, tables, etc.). Note numbers are "superior" or "superscript"--arabic numbers typed slightly above the line, like this, 1 , without periods, parentheses or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, note numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. The term footnote refers to notes that appear at the bottom, or foot of the page. However, this system is now considered outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, a list of notes at the end of a paper. In research papers, make all notes endnotes,

unless you are instructed otherwise. Endnotes contain the information a reader needs to locate a source--the name(s) of the author(s), title of the work, the facts of publication (publisher, place and date of publication), and the specific page or pages of the source used. As their name implies, endnotes appear after the text, starting on a new page numbered in sequence with the preceding page. Center the title Notes one inch from the top, double-space, indent five spaces from the left margin, and type the note number, without punctuation, slightly above the line. Leave a space and type the reference. If the note extends to two or more lines, single-space and begin subsequent lines at the left margin. Type the notes consecutively, double-space between notes, and number all pages. The following endnote form is the one commonly used in the humanities. Research papers in the social and natural sciences use different endnote forms, and there are several different systems of notation in these fields. Consult with your instructors on the forms they want you to use. Use whichever system you choose consistently throughout the paper.

Notes # Author (First name Last name), Title (City of publication [State]: Publisher, Year of publication) Page.

*Note # is raised 1/2 space above the line of type.

Sample Endnote Entries

1. For a BOOK with ONE AUTHOR, FIRST EDITION
1

Norman Lewis, Comprehensive Word Guide (New York: Harper & Row, 1959) 159. 2. For a BOOK with ONE AUTHOR, LATER EDITION

2 Ella V. Aldrich, Using Books and Libraries, 5th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969) 71.

3.

For a BOOK with MORE THAN ONE AUTHOR

3 Harold F. Graves and Lynne S. Hoffman, Report Writing, 4th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965) 84.

4.

For an EDITED BOOK

4

Charles McCurdy, ed., Modern Art: A Pictorial Anthology (New York: Praeger, 1959) 159.

5.

For a BOOK with an AUTHOR AND an EDITOR

5

William Shakespeare, The Tragedy of King Lear, The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, ed. G. L. Ketteredge (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1936) 1203-4. 6. For a TRANSLATED BOOK
6

Paul Valery, Monsieur Teste, trans. Jackson Mathews (New York: Knopf, 1947) 47. 7. For a BOOK with NO AUTHOR GIVEN
7

A Manual of Style, 12th ed. (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1969) 27.

8.

For a BOOK with MORE THAN ONE VOLUME

8 Bernard Dorival, Twentieth Century Painters, vol. 2 (New York: Norton, 1959) 80.

9.

For an ARTICLE in a REFERENCE BOOK

9

"Melodeon," Encyclopedia Americana, 1985 ed.

10.

For an ARTICLE in a BOOK BY SEVERAL CONTRIBUTORS

10

Cleanth Brooks, "A Plea to the Protestant Churches," Who Owns America? ed. Herbert Agar (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1936) 105. 11. For an ARTICLE in a SCHOLARLY JOURNAL, AUTHOR GIVEN
11

Peter Scotto, "Censorship, Reading, and Interpretation: A Case Study From the Soviet Union," PMLA 109 (1994): 65. 12. For an ARTICLE in a MAGAZINE, NO AUTHOR GIVEN
12

"As School Term Ends, Campus Troubles Stay Alive," U.S. News and World Report 19 May 1969: 13. 13. For a NEWSPAPER ARTICLE, AUTHOR GIVEN

13 G. Milton Kelly, "Unfit Canadian Wheat Milled into U.S. Flour," The Seattle Daily Times 20 January 1953: 1.

14.

For a NEWSPAPER ARTICLE, NO AUTHOR GIVEN

14

"Flying Saucers: Fact or Fancy," Columbia Citizen 10 August 1952: 11. 15. For a PAMPHLET
15

Best Museums: New York City (New York: Trip Builder, 1993).

16.

For an INTERVIEW
16

I. M. Pei, personal interview, 27 July 1983.

For subsequent references to the same source, use the author's last name and the page number of the citation. As an example, if I wanted to include an additional reference from Ella V. Aldrich (see note #2), it would look like this:
17

Aldrich 150.

If you have used two works by the same author, use a shortened version of the title of the work in addition to the author's name:
18

Aldrich, Using Books 150.

NOTE: Ibid and other Latin abbreviations (e.g., op. cit., ca.) are no longer considered appropriate for scholarly papers.

The Bibliography
If you use notes for documentation, you may not need a bibliography, but check with your instructor to make certain. The bibliography may list only the works from which you extracted endnotes ("List of Works Cited") or list all the works you explored, whether or not you used them for endnotes ("List of Works Consulted"). Usually, a bibliography is a list of works consulted, but be sure to ask your teachers which form they require. 1. List all entries in alphabetical order by the author's last name. If the author is unknown, list the work by the first significant word of the title (disregard "a" or "the"). When you list two or more works by the same author, list the author's name only in the first entry; for subsequent works, use a line of twelve dashes in place of the author's name. 2. Do not list page numbers for books, but do list inclusive page numbers for articles in periodicals and newspapers. 3. Do not separate the list according to the kind of publication; again, list all works in alphabetical order by author's last name. 4. Do not number the entries. There are several systems of punctuation for bibliography entries; the one listed below is widely used. Check with your instructors to see if they use different systems. Last name, First. Title. City, State: Publisher, date. (Note: In a bibliography entry, the first line is not indented but subsequent lines are.)

Sample Bibliography Entries

1. For a BOOK with ONE AUTHOR Lewis, Norman. Comprehensive Word Guide. New York: Harper & Row, 1959. 2. For a BOOK with ONE AUTHOR, LATER EDITION Aldrich, Ella V. Using Books and Libraries. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1959. NOTE: To cite two or more works by the same author, give the name in the first entry only. Thereafter, in place of the name, type three hyphens, followed by a period and the title. Scholes, Robert. UP, 1982. Semiotics and Interpretation. New Haven: Yale

---. Textual Power: Literary Theory and the teaching of English. New Haven: Yale UP, 1985. 3. For a BOOK with MORE THAN ONE AUTHOR Graves, Harold F. and Lynne S. Hoffman. Report Writing, 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965. 4. For an EDITED BOOK McCurdy, Charles, ed. Modern Art: A Pictorial Anthology. New York: Praeger, 1959. 5. For a BOOK with an AUTHOR AND an EDITOR Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of King Lear. The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. Ed. G. L. Ketteredge. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1936. 1203-4. 6. For a TRANSLATED BOOK Valery, Paul. Monsieur Teste. Trans. Jackson Mathews. Knopf, 1947. 7. For a BOOK with NO AUTHOR GIVEN A Manual of Style, 12th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1969. 8. For a BOOK with MORE THAN ONE VOLUME Dorival, Bernard. Twentieth Century Painters. Norton, 1959. 9. For an ARTICLE in a REFERENCE BOOK Vol. 2. New York: New York:

"Melodeon." 10.

Encyclopedia Americana.

1985 ed.

For an ARTICLE in a BOOK BY SEVERAL CONTRIBUTORS Brooks, Cleanth. "A Plea to the Protestant Churches." Who Owns America? Ed. Herbert Agar. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1936.

NOTE: For periodicals and newspapers, you must give page numbers at the end of the entry. 11. For an ARTICLE in a SCHOLARLY JOURNAL, AUTHOR GIVEN

Scotto, Peter. "Censorship, Reading, and Interpretation: A Case Study from the Soviet Union." PMLA 109 (1994): 61-70. 12. For an ARTICLE in a MAGAZINE, NO AUTHOR GIVEN "As School Term Ends, Campus Troubles Stay Alive." World Report 19 May 1969: 21. 13. For a NEWSPAPER ARTICLE, AUTHOR GIVEN Kelly, G. Milton. "Unfit Canadian Wheat Milled into U.S. Flour." The Seattle Daily Times 20 January 1953: 1. 14. For a NEWSPAPER ARTICLE, NO AUTHOR GIVEN "Flying Saucers: Fact or Fancy." 11. 15. For a PAMPHLET Best Museums: New York City. 16. For an INTERVIEW Pei, I. M. Personal interview. 27 July 1983. New York: Trip Builder, 1993. Columbia Citizen 10 August 1952: U.S. News and

The information and examples contained in this handout have been adapted from the following: Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 4th ed. New York: The Modern Language Association, 1995. Copyright 1991 by Jason Berner and the Hunter College Writing Center. Revised 1995 by Greta Wagle.
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Last updated Monday, 01-March-99 02:53:00 EDT.

All pages Copyright 1998 Hunter College Reading/Writing Center. Please contact WebMaster with any q

The Editing and Rewriting Process

When you have written enough to satisfy the requirements of the assignment or you've said all you ought to say about a given topic, it is time to put your paper through the rewriting process. If you are one of those students who compose on a word processor, you're a step ahead of the game; if not, use the process of going from handwritten text to typewritten (word-processed) text as one of the steps of rewriting. As you go along, some spellcheckers will underline words or otherwise alert you with beeps and whistles that words are misspelled or duplicated and you can fix those on the fly. Otherwise, don't bother with spelling here; you can catch misspellings later. But do watch for clumsy phrases in your writing and gaps in your thinking. Once your paper is in the word-processor, safely saved (on both hard drive and floppy disc), run the spellchecker. Some spellcheckers are better than others, but virtually all spellcheckers will allow some misused homophones to slip through. Depending on how much experience you've had as a writer, you probably know the words you have trouble with affect/effect, their/there, its/it's, your/you're. There are dozens of such words, and you can review them in the Notorious Confusables section. You can do a search for words that give you special trouble and make sure you've used them correctly. Some spellcheckers will catch your typing of duplicate words, but most won't, so you'll have to look out for that, too. It's usually the the little words that slip by as duplicates, something that your fingers do when your brain slips into idle.
The beautiful part of writing is that you don't have to get it right the first time, unlike, say, a brain surgeon. You can always do it better, find the exact word, the apt phrase, the leaping simile.
__

Robert Cormier

Pay special attention to words that end in s. Some will be possessives, but you might have forgotten the apostrophe, and some will be plurals, which can present their own kind of difficulty in spelling.

Grammar checkers are available on many word processors. They are far less reliable than spellcheckers, but they are becoming quite sophisticated. Some grammar checkers are quite good at pointing out potential problems and even suggesting possible solutions. Don't be bullied by your grammar checker, though. The computer can easily catch extra long sentences and alert you to the fact that a particular sentence is really long. It's quite possible, though, that you need a really long sentence at that point, and if the sentence is well built (i.e., not a run-on sentence), let it stand. If there are several sentences that the computer judges to be extra long, however, that's probably an indication of a serious problem and some of those sentences might be better off broken into smaller units of thought.

Grammar checkers are also very good at picking up on passive verb constructions. Frequently, a sentence will be improved and your meaning will be more clear, more forceful, if you replace passive constructions with active verbs. But not always. Review the section on passive verbs to see those uses of the passive that are appropriate. If you've used the passive construction in an appropriate way, leave it alone, no matter what your grammar checker says. Go through the essay with an eye for proper punctuation, especially for errant commas. Again, whether you tend to leave out commas where they belong or use commas where you don't really need them is a personal matter that requires your personal attention. It wouldn't be a bad idea to print out the section on Comma Usage to have it on hand when you proofread your paper. Being careful about commas forces you to be thoughtful about the way your sentences are put together. Whether you have a grammar checker or not, it is a good idea to know the problems that bother you most as a writer and do your best to eliminate those difficulties as you go from assignment to assignment. Try to grow as a writer with each assignment, eliminating the little glitches that your

instructor caught last time and trying different methods of expression. Stretch your vocabulary a bit, try for an interesting effect in parallel style. Mostly, look for patterns of errors so you can predict the kind of thing that gives you trouble fragments, run-ons, comma-splices, parallel form. Never throw out an old writing assignment. Whether its grade made you happy or not, there is always something to be learned from it. If your Grammar Checker does not check for expletive constructions (sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are" or "here is"), you can do a simple search for the word there in the initial position and try to change clauses with those weak beginnings. Usually it's a matter of eliminating the expletive construction and then saying something useful about the real subject of the sentence.

There are 1200 students on financial aid at that college. The 1200 students on financial aid at that college have applied for renewal of their scholarships.

You can also do a simple search for apostrophes, checking to make sure that your possessive forms are built correctly and that any contractions in your text are appropriate. (Some instructors feel that contractions are signs of lax writing or inappropriate informality and thus should be avoided in academic prose. See Tone.) How much rewriting you do on the computer screen before you print out the paper for the next step in revision is going to depend on how comfortable you are reading text on the computer screen. Most writers find it too easy to skip over problems on the monitor and they need to have copy in hand, literally, to catch all their errors. Other writers, however, have become so comfortable in their use of the computer that the keyboard and screen have become an extension of their mind even more so than a pencil or ballpoint pen can be and on-the-screen manipulation of text becomes second nature. It is probably a matter of practice, but some writers will always want to move quickly to the next step of working with paper copy. Once the written assignment on the computer screen looks the way you want it, it's time to print it out and put it through some additional steps of the rewriting process. Make sure the paper is double-spaced (or even triple-spaced at this point) and you've given yourself some marginal space for scribbling notes. Again, look for the problems that have given you grief before and try looking at your paper as if you were your own instructor, looking for the same old stuff. Review the section on Confusion: Sources and Remedies while you're in the middle of rewriting your paper. Word-processing makes fixing things later on easy, even fun, so don't hesitate to do some serious scribbling, re-ordering of paragraphs, etc. If, when you go back to the computer, you're unfamiliar with the techniques of highlighting and moving blocks of text, consult the software manual or ask a computer lab assistant to help you out. Share your paper with a friendly editor, someone who has your interests at heart and who has the time to review your paper carefully and who is willing to ask questions and to challenge what you said and how you said it. This person should be a friend, but not too much of a friend. After all, you're hoping for useful criticism here. Girlfriends, boyfriends, and parents make notoriously bad editors; they think whatever you write is wonderful, not to be improved. This is no time for coddling on their part or defensiveness on yours. This person is not to rewrite your paper for you,

but you can hope he or she will catch an occasional glitch in punctuation or lapse in reasoning. The main purpose of this "outside editor," though, is to challenge your argument. Does the paper really make sense, is the argument sound? After all, you know what a sentence or paragraph meant and that means you are less apt to catch a confusing phrase or momentary lapse in the argument than someone else would be. If possible, watch your editor's face for confused looks or glazed eyes as he or she goes through your paper. It might mean that clarification is called for, that you skipped over something in your development, or that you've gone too far. Before he or she goes over your paper, it might be helpful to this outside editor to have a list of the kinds of things that have given you trouble in the past or the things that your instructor is apt to look for. Share a copy of the Deadly Sins with your outside editor or use the more extensive Checklist provided below. If you don't have a friend who can go through this editing process with you, try reading your paper into a tape recorder and then play it back to yourself, slowly. It's important to hear your paper as well as to see it on the page. Your ears will catch clumsy phrasing and botched sentences before your eyes will. If your outside editor and you can apply both ear and eye to your paper, that's four separate faculties being brought to bear on the matter. Your chances of catching problems before they make their way into final text have just improved remarkably. There is a fine line between letting someone else rewrite your paper and asking someone to collaborate with you in the editing process. Most tutors become expert at this after a while. The trick is to let you, the writer, keep the pen in hand or your fingers on the keyboard. Probably every professional writer in the world whether he or she is penning a novel or a letter to the editor will share a draft with a colleague before sending his or her text to the publisher. And probably more than one colleague, more than one time, will be involved. Nothing is more important in this process, however, than your personal involvement and improvement as a writer. Some instructors will provide an opportunity for peer editing, a process by which students make suggestions about their classmates' work. Sometimes, in fact, a student's effort in peer editing is an important part of the grade. Melanie Dawson, of the University of Richmond, has written an excellent description of this process along with a checklist of things to look for in someone else's paper and suggestions about how to mark a classmate's work: "Peer Editing Guide." Most writers try to prepare a draft of their paper in plenty of time to let the paper sit a day or so before they go through the rewriting process. You will do a better job of rewriting your work if you come to it a bit "cold." You can be a bit more objective about the paper's grammar and argument. Your mind will be less apt to provide missing links and gloss over errors in style if you can pretend that this is something you just happened to pick up, something written by someone else. Before you return to the computer to fix up your text, it might be helpful to run through a checklist of things to look out for in the rewriting process. Based on your own experience, you probably know best where your essay is apt to be weak. Concentrate on those points, but don't leave anything out. The table below is conveniently hyperlinked to explanations of the various issues. Click HERE for a one-page duplicate of this table that will be easier to print.

Editing Process
THE EDITING PROCESS (Source Unknown) ABOUT EDITING Communication is your reason for being -- not nourishment of ego, not praise of colleagues, not money, not love of generations to come. You write to communicate to the hearts and minds of others what's burning inside you. Arthur Plotnik, editor, novelist, and reporter, once said, "And we edit to let the fire show through the smoke." If an author's greatest fear of "being edited" is appearing less than brilliant, an editor's greatest insight is to see that without revision the author's genius will be obscured. What exactly is editing? Editing is both an art (having a perceptive "ear" for content) and craft (knowing "the rules" of style). The two main levels of editing are content editing and copy (line) editing. Content editing is macro editing; copy editing is micro editing. Content editing focuses on voice (point of view), organization, pacing, flow, consistency of ideas and terms, plus troubleshooting for offensive ideas, corniness, etc. Copy editing (or line editing) focuses on error finding: grammar, sentence/passage structures, punctuation, spelling, etc. Often the same editor is used for both content and copy editing. In fact, both steps can be done simultaneously. However, it is always a good idea to later use a separate proofreader. The more eyes on the manuscript the better. What is the editor's job? The editor is responsible for preserving and improving what the author is trying to say. An editor shapes the expression of an author's thoughts, not the thoughts themselves, unless the author consents. Why is an editor necessary, especially if the author is a good writer and/or a professional editor? The author is always too close to his or her work ("baby") to be objective; it's almost impossible for the author to see the gaps, redundancies, and distractions that are instantly apparent to the reader. Additionally, the author represents his or her subject and interests. The editor represents the reader. The editor is responsible for satisfying the author's audience. Thus, the editor always puts the reader first...and (sorry!) the author's feelings second. Authors who opt not to have their manuscripts edited risk alienating their audience. What's the difference between editing and rewriting? The editor may rewrite passages of a manuscript when necessary to promote momentum. However, if the entire manuscript needs to be rewritten, that task belongs to the author or a ghostwriter. Where in the process does the editor come in? With nonfiction, an author ideally runs his or her outline by an editor before writing. This is essentially what happens when an author/agent shops a book proposal -- consisting of a query letter, outline, and sample chapter -- to an editor at a publishing house. Feedback is invaluable, and much more efficient at this stage. With fiction, the author writes, self-edits, rewrites, self-edits, and so on, to the best of his or her ability. Then the author works with an editor to tackle content and style issues. After final editing and polishing has been completed and the book has been formatted (in layout or "galley" form), the author/publisher has a proofreader review it for final error-catching. Proofreaders will also catch layout errors at this stage, such as bad line breaks or pagination problems.

What does an editor look for? -- What is the editing process? Grammar and Mechanics (spelling, punctuation, paragraphing, sentence structures, verb tenses, passive voice, appropriate vocabulary) Presentation (for agent or publisher) Length (appropriate to genre) Nonfiction Checklist Organization Research/ Knowledge of Subject Focus on Topic Originality of Topic Author's Credentials Marketability Presentation of Material (accessibility) Targeted to a Specific Audience Format (one of following: argumentative; concept and case histories; chronological; true story; personal essay collection; channeled) Tone Clear, Precise Language Sound, Logical Argument Quotes & Paraphrased Material Properly Attributed Sufficient Use of Others' Works to Support Argument Sufficient Examples, Anecdotes Grammar and Mechanics (spelling, punctuation, paragraphing, sentence structures, verb tenses, passive voice, appropriate vocabulary) Every author's manuscript benefits from the deft touch of a competent editor. Then surely readers can more clearly see the "fire show through the smoke." </br.

The writing process - editing

When you have revised a piece of writing for its content, you are ready to check it for its accuracy. This is called editing, and includes checking grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization.

Grammar

English grammar covers a huge area and you cannot check for everything separately. The best idea is to concentrate first on verbs (tenses and forms). For example, if you have written about a past event in your life, you will need to check that the verbs are in the past tense. Once you have checked the verbs, you should check carefully those aspects of grammar that you personally have most difficulty with. (If you dont know what they are, ask your teacher!)

Spelling

When you read through your writing, you may stop at words that dont look right. These are often the words that you have spelled incorrectly, and you should check them in the dictionary, or ask someone to check them for you. If you are writing on a computer, you should run the spell check. This will help you correct most of your mistakes. (How to use the spellcheck properly.)

Punctuation

When you are revising your writing, you should check to make sure you have not written any run-on sentences or sentence fragments. In correcting these problems, you usually need to change the punctuation. When editing, you can check to make sure that other aspects of your punctuation are correct. For example: Have you punctuated correctly sentences that contain direct speech? Are your end punctuation marks correct? Have you used commas, colons and semi-colons correctly?

Capitalization

Check that your sentences all start with a capital letter. You also need capital letters for all proper nouns (e.g. names of people, countries, cities, rivers, etc.) Its not easy to check all these things together, so try doing them one at a time. Of course, you may find a tense problem as you are checking spelling or a spelling problem as you are checking punctuation. This is good - and you can make the necessary correction. You can also change the order you check your writing to suit yourself, but its best to work through the text systematically. It is also a good idea to wait for a while before editing - you can often find more mistakes if you check your work the next day than immediately after its finished. You could also ask someone else to edit your writing. But be careful: another student (especially an ESL student) may not find all your grammar mistakes or may correct something that is not wrong. So even if you do get editing help, you should certainly do a final check yourself. (The final check before publishing is called proofreading.) Small mistakes of grammar or spelling will not spoil a good piece of writing, but some readers get distracted by them and it is best to try and correct as many as you can. Good luck! Note: There are some quizzes to help you practise correcting grammar mistakes in the grammar section of this website. You could also read the page entitled understanding writing mistakes

Using literary quotations

Use the guidelines below to learn how to use literary quotations.

Incorporating Quotations into Sentences Punctuating and Indenting Quotations Emphasizing Your Ideas Maintaining Clarity and Readability Documenting Quotations

For further information you may wish to see Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Acknowledging Sources, or you may wish take the Writing Center class entitled Literary Analysis?: No Problem!.

Incorporating Quotations

As you choose quotations for a literary analysis, remember the purpose of quoting. Your paper develops an argument about what the author of the text is doing--how the text "works." You use quotations to support this argument; that is, you select, present, and discuss material from the text specifically to "prove" your point--to make your case--in much the same way a lawyer brings evidence before a jury. Quoting for any other purpose is counterproductive. top

Punctuating and Indenting Quotations

For the most part, you must reproduce the spelling, capitalization, and internal punctuation of the original exactly. The following alterations are acceptable:
Changing the closing punctuation

You may alter the closing punctuation of a quotation in order to incorporate it into a sentence of your own: "Books are not life," Lawrence emphasized. Commas and periods go inside the closing quotation marks; the other punctuation marks go outside. Lawrence insisted that books "are not life"; however, he wrote exultantly about the power of the novel. Why does Lawrence need to point out that "Books are not life"?

Using the slash when quoting poetry

When quoting lines of poetry up to three lines long (which are not indented, see Indenting quotations), separate one line of poetry from another with a slash mark (see examples in Incorporating Quotations into Sentences).
Using Ellipsis Points for Omitted Material

If for the sake of brevity you wish to omit material from a quoted passage, use ellipsis points (three spaced periods) to indicate the omission. (See this sample paragraph. The writer quoted only those portions of the original sentences that related to the point of the analysis.)
Using Square Brackets when Altering Material

When quoting, you may alter grammatical forms such as the tense of a verb or the person of a pronoun so that the quotation conforms grammatically to your own prose; indicate these alterations by placing square brackets around the changed form. In the following quotation "her" replaces the "your" of the original so that the quote fits the point of view of the paper (third person): When he hears Cordelia's answer, Lear seems surprised, but not dumbfounded. He advises her to "mend [her] speech a little." He had expected her to praise him the most; but compared to her sisters', her remarks seem almost insulting (1.1.95). top

Indenting Quotations
Prose or verse quotations less than four lines long are not indented. For quotations of this length, use the patterns described above. Indent "longer" quotations in a block about ten spaces in from the left margin; when a quotation is indented, quotation marks are not used. The MLA Handbook (1995) recommends that indented quotations be double-spaced, but many instructors prefer them single-spaced. The meaning of "longer" varies slightly from one style system to another, but a general rule is to indent quotations that are more than two (or three) lines of verse or three (or four) lines of prose. Indent dialogue between characters in a play. Place the speaker's name before the speech quoted: CAESAR: Et tu, Brute! Then, fall, Caesar!

CINNA: Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead! (3.1.77-78) For more information see Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Acknowledging Sources - How to Quote a Source. top

Emphasizing Your Ideas

What to include in literary analysis

Take a look at this sample paragraph. It includes 3 basic kinds of materials: 1. statements expressing the student's own ideas about the relationship Woolf is creating; 2. data or evidence from the text in summarized, paraphrased, and quoted form; and 3. discussion of how the data support the writer's interpretation. The quotations are used in accordance with the writer's purpose, i.e. to show how the development of Mrs. Ramsey's feelings indicates something about her personality.
Should I quote?

Quoting is only one of several ways to present textual material as evidence. You can also refer to textual data, summarize, and paraphrase. You will often want merely to refer or point to passages (as in the third sentence in the sample paragraph) that contribute to your argument. In other cases you will want to paraphrase, i.e. "translate" the original into your own words, again instead of quoting. Summarize or paraphrase when it is not so much the language of the text that justifies your position, but the substance or content.
Quote selectively

Similarly, after you have decided that you do want to use material in quoted form, quote only the portions of the text specifically relevant to your point. Think of the text in terms of units--words, phrases, sentences, and groups of sentences (paragraphs, stanzas)--and use only the units you need. If it is particular words or phrases that "prove" your point, you do not need to quote the sentences they appear in; rather, incorporate the words and phrases into sentences expressing your own ideas. top

Maintaining Clarity and Readability

Introduce your quotations

Introduce a quotation either by indicating what it is intended to show or by naming its source, or both. For non-narrative poetry, it's customary to attribute quotations to "the speaker"; for a story with a narrator, to "the narrator." For plays, novels, and other works with characters, identify characters as you quote them. Do not use two quotations in a row, without intervening material of your own. For further information see Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Acknowledging Sources - How to Quote a Source.
Pay attention to verb tense

Tense is a tricky issue. It's customary in literary analysis to use the present tense; it is at the present time that you (and your reader) are looking at the text. But events in a narrative or drama take place in a time sequence. You will often need to use a past tense to refer to events that took place before the moment you are presently discussing: When he hears Cordelia's answer, Lear seems surprised, but not dumbfounded. He advises her to "mend [her] speech a little." He had expected her to praise him the most; but compared to her sisters', her remarks seem almost insulting (1.1.95). top

Documenting Quotations
Follow your course instructor's guidelines for documenting sources. If your instructor hasn't told you which system to use to document sources, ask. Keep in mind that when you are writing a paper about the same text and quoting from the same edition that everyone else in the class is, instructors will often allow you to use informal documentation. In this case just include the page number in parentheses after the quotation or reference to the text. To be sure, though, you should ask your course instructor. The documentation style used in this pages is that presented in the 1995 MLA Handbook, but other style systems are commonly used. The Writing Center has information about the rules of documentation in general and about a number of the most common systems, such as APA, APSA, CBE, Chicago/Turabian, MLA, and Numbered References.

What is the difference between a bibliography and reference?

In: Academic Writing, Definitions and Word Differences, Formatting Citation and Documentation [Edit categories]

Looking for Written Letters?www.Facebook.comFind Written Letters on Facebook. Sign Up Free Now! Bibliographic Softwarewww.biblioscape.comMulti-user support, web access. Built-in web browser, notes manager

Ads Answer: Bibliography is listing all the materials that have been consulted while writing an essay or a book. References, on the other hand, are those that have been referenced in your article or book. You might have consulted a lot of books, essays and websites for writing something. Though you might have referred to these while preparing a write up, the content of these might not have been included in the actual text. This is what refers to bibliography. References are those that are directly included in your actual text.

Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_a_bibliography_and_reference#ixzz1wg VJVS00

Writing a references list or bibliography

An important part of an essay, report or other written work is the list of sources at the end, that is, the list of books, journal articles and other materials that you consulted. Depending on the academic discipline in which you are studying, this list may be titled bibliography, references, or works cited. Unlike a list of references or works cited, a bibliography lists the sources that you referred to in the essay as well as sources that, while relevant, were not actually cited. If you use the author-date system referencing system, the list of references will contain only those sources that you actually referred to in your text. As you research, maintain a working bibliography. Record the bibliographical details for each source when you are actually using the source (ie, reading and note-taking), as this may save you a lot of time later. Not all the sources you consult will find their way into your essay or report, but it is important to record what sources you have used. The working bibliography will eventually evolve into the list of works cited that appears at the end of the research paper.1

Joseph Gibaldi, MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 5th ed. (New York: Modern Language Association, 1999) 22.