GEOPHYSICS, VOL. 73, NO. 5 SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2008 ; P. F189F195, 9 FIGS. 10.1190/1.

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Combined Schlumberger and dipole-dipole array for hydrogeologic applications

G. Apostolopoulos1

ABSTRACT
A novel approach to 2D resistivity sounding, called combined Schlumberger and dipole-dipole CSDD sounding, probes the subsurface both vertically and diagonally. It transforms the dipole-dipole values to Schlumberger values using the Patella method. Gridding then creates an apparent-resistivity section in which vertical variations are inferred from the Schlumberger values and lateral variations are inferred from the dipole-dipole values. The section is inverted by the Zohdy 1D method to vertical strips. The resulting 2D resistivity model of the subsurface identies the layers and their dips. We tested the ability of the CSDD method to delineate a layered structure by comparing the methods response to a model and then by a eld test at a site where we have some degree of subsurface information from a resistivity tomography prole. Finally, we used this new CSDD sounding for hydrogeologic applications in the Agia Valley on Crete, Xylokastron City, and Skyros Island in Greece. The CSDD soundings map formations and interfaces at various depths and dips, including a phyllite-limestone interface and marl with overlying conglomerate. It also maps circulation, supply, and salinization of groundwater. In all cases, we nd that CSDD sounding can detect the layers and their dips in sedimentary basins.

core cables to obtain the many measurements necessary for tomography, in which information about the layers and their dip is more useful than the accuracy of resistivity models. Consequently, it would be useful to identify the slope of the layers from soundings, particularly for sparse soundings in a large coverage area. Morris et al. 1993, 1997 introduced a way of obtaining additional information about the slope of the layers through measured resistances RDD1 and RDD2 from two dipole-dipole soundings to the left C1C2 P1 P2 and right P1 P2C1C2 of a Schlumberger sounding C1 P1 P2C2 , with the three soundings having a common xed dipole of potential electrodes Figure 1a . This array of electrodes can be called the combined Schlumberger and dipole-dipole CSDD array. It uses the sounding procedure to probe the subsurface vertically as well as diagonally Figure 1a . The offset error Eoff, Morris et al., 1993 is given by

Eoff %

200 RDD1

RDD2 / RDD1

RDD2 .

INTRODUCTION
For years, the resistivity method has been popular in various applications among geophysicists, initially with soundings and proling, and more recently with resistivity tomography. The latter provides more measurements with automated acquisition systems and fast 2D interpretation, resulting in more detailed resistivity models. Resistivity soundings are still useful for hydrogeologic-environmental projects Lenkey et al., 2005; Hodlur et al., 2006 . Sometimes deep detection and extensive area coverage are required in rugged or heavily developed areas, with many proles crossing roads. In such cases, it is impractical to use long, heavy, and multi-

Offset error at a certain current-electrode distance compares the resistivity/conductivity of the space at a certain depth on one side of the sounding with that on the other side. Comparing values at various current-electrode distances various depths reveals the slope of the layer Figure 1b , whereas the 1D interpretation of Schlumberger values identies the sequence of the layers Figure 1c . CSDD data acquisition is fast, inexpensive, and practical because only a simple electronic switch and two-ply cables are used. In contrast, dipole-dipole measurements require powerful instruments because they suffer from a low signal-to-noise ratio S/N . The Schlumberger array offers great sensitivity to depth, good penetration through a conductive surface layer, and ne resolution of horizontal layers. The dipole-dipole array is more sensitive to bedrock topography and to the lateral location of the various subsurface elements Ward, 1990 . By combining the measurements of both arrays, the CSDD array exploits those advantages to give a clearer impression of the subsurface. Both Schlumberger and dipole-dipole resistivity measurements made with the CSDD array benet from the potential dipole remaining stable at a certain position and thus avoiding passing surface inhomogeneities something that would create abrupt apparent-resistivity changes Van Zijl, 1985 .

Manuscript received by the Editor 4 February 2007; revised manuscript received 25 February 2008; published online 30 July 2008. 1 National Technical University of Athens, School of Mining Engineering and Metallurgy, Athens, Greece. E-mail: gapo@metal.ntua.gr. 2008 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.

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Apostolopoulos stead of the ONeil 1975 lter in the Zohdy method because the Johansen lter is more sensitive and does not cause undulations in the regions with abrupt resistivity changes Anderson, 1979 . To use the Zohdy method with the Johansen lter, all resistivity data need to be in the Schlumberger form. We therefore converted the dipole-dipole data of the CSDD array by applying the Patella 1974 method, which uses a set of consecutive with respect to electrode spacing dipole-dipole resistivity values in the transformation to Schlumberger values. The Zohdy method also uses a set of consecutive apparent-resistivity values in the interpretation procedure. In the case of a CSDD sounding, initially there is a half-space with Schlumberger apparent-resistivity values Figure 2 . A semilogarithmic 2D apparent-resistivity section can be generated using a specic gridding technique. The apparent-resistivity value at each grid point is equal to a measured value that exists at that point or is calculated, taking into account measured values within a distance of one, three, or ve grid spacings, depending on the existence of real values within each distance. Therefore, only one grid cell is used to calculate apparent resistivity at the grid point with the method of inverse distance squared. The key issue for this gridding technique is that it takes into account only the nearest observed values without being inuenced by values more distant. This avoids over-smoothing the subsurface elements. All grid points are inuenced to some extent depending on the distance by the eld data in the vertical logarithmic axis which are denser under the center of a CSDD sounding and are corresponding to Schlumberger values. Grid points going away from the center of the CSDD sounding are inuenced also by the scattered dipole-dipole values that are converted to Schlumberger values. So, the gridding procedure is designed in such a way that after interpretation, the Schlumberger values determine the resistivity sequence of the layers, and the dipole-dipole values show the lateral differentiation of that sequence i.e., the slope of the layers . This semilogarithmic 2D apparent-resistivity section can be interpreted in steps, each time using the values of its vertical logarithmic axis Figure 2 and the 1D resistivity interpretation of the Zohdy method with the Johansen lter. The steps to cover the whole apparent-resistivity section follow the horizontal linear step of the grid. The results of 1D interpretation in each vertical axis are connected to give the nal 2D resistivity section by using the kriging gridding

The literature provides initial experiments aiming to exploit both sets of measurements Schlumberger and dipole-dipole to establish a qualitative and a quantitative 2D picture of the subsurface Apostolopoulos, 1996; Apostolopoulos et al., 1996 . Morris et al. 1997 attempt to interpret all CSDD data for the same purpose. In this paper, we test the ability of the CSDD array to resolve a layered structure. We do this by comparing the methods response to a model and then by a eld test at a site where we have subsurface information from an interpreted model of a resistivity tomography prole using a commercial inversion program. We then apply the CSDD method to sites in the Agia Valley on Crete, Xylokastron City, and Skyros Island in Greece, where we resolve general geologic structure and layer dips. Compared with simple soundings, the CSDD methods allow us to improve the quality of pseudo-3D underground resistivity models.

INTERPRETATION OF CSDD DATA A 2D resistivity model after 2D processing and 1D interpretation of CSDD data
Zohdys method Zohdy, 1989 for 1D interpretation of Schlumberger resistivity sounding data has proven to be effective and is used here. It reveals intermediate layers of reduced or increased resistivity compared with the surrounding layers as well as formations of varying resistivity, which are common in sedimentary basins. We used a Johansen lter 1975 with 10 measurements per decade in-

a)

c) b)

Figure 1. a The CSDD electrode array scheme. Arrows show the directions of investigation. Near the seacoast is the semilogarithmic diagram of the offset error Eoff . b A more conductive region in the vicinity of current electrode C1, indicating that c the deep resistive layers found by 1D interpretation of Schlumberger values dip toward that current electrode i.e., toward the seacoast .

Figure 2. Schematic of the gridding procedure to create a 2D CSDD apparent-resistivity section and the interpretation procedure.

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Schlumberger plus dipole-dipole sounding method i.e., the horizontal grid spacing equals the distance of the 1D step, and the vertical spacing equals the average accuracy in depth . The observed Schlumberger and dipole-dipole apparent-resistivity values control the detail in the 2D model. Thus, extended areas of different resistivity can be detected, with the main objective being to detect dipping layers with gentle slope depending on the depth of each layer . In addition, the resistivities of the 2D model near the surface and far away from the potential electrodes are discarded because they are poorly constrained.

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Evaluation of CSDD method with synthetic data

We used synthetic data to test a CSDD resistivity data interpretation. We calculated apparent resistivities with Schlumberger and dipole-dipole arrays for a model with a dipping layer Figure 3a using RES2DMODE software Loke, 2002 for a tomography eld procedure. The apparent-resistivity sections Figure 3b and d then were interpreted using RES2DINV software Loke and Barker, 1996 , which generated the corresponding resistivity models Figure 3c and e . In the case of a CSDD sounding at position 18.5, only the Schlumberger apparent-resistivity values and the dipole-dipole values calculated previously with RES2DMODE that had the potential dipole centered at that position were used. These values created the apparent-resistivity section seen in Figure 3f which, once interpreted with the technique described above, produced the corresponding resistivity model Figure 3g . This 2D model shows the slope of layers in addition to the 1D layer sequence that Schlumberger sounding provides alone. It also gives adequate information using far fewer apparent-resistivity values Figure 3f than the standard approach Figure 3b and d .

gives a model Figure 5c similar to that obtained with the resistivity tomography but with fewer measurements. The vertical contact detected in the tomography model Figure 5b is not present near the surface but is present in depth in the CSDD model Figure 5c . This is because of the fewer number of CSDD observed values that dene some model spaces. In addition, CSDD resistivity values are not as high as they are in the tomographic negative-distance range for the same reason. Therefore, the observed values control the detail in the CSDD 2D model. In general, the overall picture of the subsurface shown in the CSDD model provides more information than does a simple Schlumberger sounding.

a)

b)

c)

d)

Evaluation of CSDD interpretation with eld data

We performed a CSDD sounding on the campus of the National Technical University of Athens to evaluate the acquisition technique, and to assess the interpretation of the detailed resistivity tomography and the well-established interpretation software. We expected fractured limestones near the surface and Athenian schist and marbles in deeper horizons. We made 50 measurements for the CSDD sounding using two potential dipole offsets for each Schlumberger or dipole-dipole measurement. We interpreted the observed CSDD semilogarithmic apparent-resistivity section Figure 4a with the previously suggested technique. The data from the resistivity model Figure 4c yielded a calculated semilogarithmic apparent-resistivity section Figure 4b , which was indeed similar to the one observed. Parts of the model not inuenced by observed apparent-resistivity values were left blank top either sides of the section . In the same area, we acquired 225 Schlumberger-Wenner apparent-resistivity measurements with an ABEM-LUND multielectrode system to which we applied resistivity tomography. We 2D-interpreted the apparent-resistivity values Figure 5a Figure 5b using RES2DINV commercial software Loke and Barker, 1996 . The observed apparent-resistivity section Figure 5a shows a vertical contact between a highly resistive layer limestone on the left, and on the right is a surface layer of medium to high resistivity fractured limestone overlying a layer of lower resistivity schist . This apparent-resistivity picture strongly resembles the model in Figure 5b. Some variations in the apparent-resistivity values Figure 5a are the result of electrode effects electrodes passing lateral inhomogeneities . These effects are not present in the CSDD sounding, which

e)

f)

g)

Figure 3. a RES2DMOD software for a resistivity model with a dipping layer produces synthetic apparent-resistivity sections for b Schlumberger and d dipole-dipole arrays. Interpretation of these sections with RES2DINV software gives resistivity models c and e . f Synthetic apparent-resistivity values from the previous sections using a potential dipole centered only in position 18.5 are considered as CSDD values and are processed and interpreted with the suggested techniques, giving the resistivity model g .

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Apostolopoulos the best position of water production wells. For example, the CH-10 CSDD sounding shows the slope of permeable limestone below the impermeable phyllite e.g., Figure 6b .

HISTORIES Hydrogeologic project in Agia Valley

A hydrogeologic project had to be supported by a geophysical survey to establish the geologic status of the Agia Valley, a main water supplier in the western part of Crete. In that area, phyllite is present with varying composition a clay phase with resistivity of 80 150 ohm-m; intercalations of quartzite with of 150300 ohm-m, etc. , limestone with of 500 ohm-m, and Neogene formations with less than 80 ohm-m. The cost of the project and the eld conditions fences, orange groves did not allow for dense coverage, so there were 10 CSDD new soundings and 11 old Schlumberger soundings. After interpretation of the 2D observed apparent-resistivity sections Figure 6a , the models of CSDD soundings Figure 6b yielded calculated apparent-resistivity sections Figure 6c that substantially coincided with the observed ones. Each model produced as much information regarding depth of penetration, the layering, and slopes as could be acquired from the vicinity of a sounding by using the resistivity method. A 3D presentation of 2D interpretation results of all CSDD resistivity sounding data Figure 6d shows 1 good coherence with the surface geology and 2 the location of possible water-bearing formations for production wells in the middle of the area, where highly resistive conglomerate and limestone are situated. Apart from identifying the overall geologic status, in the area of each CSDD sounding Figure 6d , the dip of the layers also provides valuable information for hydrogeologists on sedimentation evolution as well as water circulation and supply important factors for

Hydrogeologic-environmental project near Xylokastron

The area around Xylokastron a city in northern Peloponnese is of agricultural and touristic importance and has a growing population. Saltwater intrusions present an environmental problem for water supply and irrigation. Questions arise about the depth of marl, which could serve as a barrier for saltwater and the distribution of permeable alluvial formations that could be enriched by nearby freshwater rivers. The area under investigation is around the Fonissa Current, which is heavily cultivated and populated and has many roads, houses, and fences. Very few deep soundings could be applied, and it would be impossible to apply tomography proles under such conditions. We carried out six, deep, scattered CSDD soundings Figure 7 to establish the sequence of the layers a Schlumberger sounding for location XYL-1 is given in Figure 7a and their dip. The thickness of the conglomerate layer of 125250 ohm-m in CSDD prole XYL-1 Figure 7b is greater to the west because of intense deposition of coarse material by the current. The 2D interpretation of the XYL-5 CSDD prole Figure 7c shows that the marl 2060 ohm-m dips southward. Our 2D interpretations of all CSDD proles give a 3D picture of the subsurface Figure 8 that shows 1 marl is present in the southwestern part of the area, dips southwestward but cannot act as a bar-

a) a)

b) b)

c)

c)

Figure 4. The a observed and b calculated semilogarithmic apparent-resistivity sections look similar rms error 7.1% after interpretation of a CSDD resistivity sounding at the NTUA campus that gave resistivity model c .

Figure 5. a A Schlumberger-Wenner resistivity tomography prole at the NTUA campus near the CSDD sounding gave observed apparent-resistivity values, acquired with an ABEM-LUND multielectrode system. b Model resulting from 2D interpretation using RES2DINV software. c Resistivity model of the CSDD sounding, for comparison with the RES2DINV model. The exact position of the center of the CSDD array is shown in the model of the tomography prole.

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Schlumberger plus dipole-dipole sounding

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b)

rier because it starts below sea level; 2 an intense current deposition with thick, coarse material highly resistive and an extended conglomerate layer, possibly of Pleistocene age medium resistivity , are present in the southern part of the area; and 3 low resistivities are present in the eastern and northeastern part evidence of saltwater intrusion in the conglomerate. The thick white line at the 80-m level is interpreted as the marl boundary. All interpretation data collectively show the geology of the area, whereas each single CSDD sounding provides useful information regarding the marl slope and current deposits needed in the design of an aquifer enrichment project that uses the water of the Fonissa Current.

Hydrogeologic project at the Palamari archaeological site, Skyros Island

c)

The Palamari archaeological site, with its prehistoric monuments, is of historical interest and, with the seashore nearby, is a growing at-

a)

d)

b)

c)

Figure 6. Hydrogeologic project in Agia Valley, Crete. The resistivity model c of a deep CSDD sounding white solid line is the top of the limestone; white dashed line differentiates phases of phyllite gives b the calculated semilogarithmic apparent-resistivity section, similar to the one observed in a . d Three-dimensional presentation of 2D resistivity interpretation results of all CSDD soundings shows great coherence with surface geology small red and black lines are the positions of CSDD electrode arrays .

30

60

90

150

300

600 1500 5000

Figure 7. A hydrogeologic-environmental project near Xylokastron, Greece. a One-dimensional interpretation of Schlumberger values; b, c 2D resistivity models of CSDD soundings XYL-1 and XYL-5.

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Apostolopoulos

traction for tourists. The place is far from urban activities and needs a reliable supply of water for archaeological excavation now and for future use after restoration. Conglomerates with marl intercalations and schists dominate area formations. In situ observations show the presence of a thin conglomerate layer. Three CSDD soundings covered this small area in all available prole positions Figure 9 . Schlumberger values of a CSDD prole with 1D interpretation indicate a conglomerate layer at the top followed by marl overlying the schist. The suggested interpretation of CSDD values shows the same layering with the additional informa-

a)

b)

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90

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300

600 1500 5000

Figure 8. A hydrogeologic-environmental project near Xylokastron, Greece. The 3D presentation of 2D resistivity interpretation results of all CSDD soundings are illustrated. At an altitude of 80 m, the limit of salinization is shown by a white line.

Figure 9. The Palamari archaeological site, Skyros Island, Greece. a Schlumberger measurements of the CSDD array give the sedimentation sequence with 1D interpretation. b Interpretation of all measurements in a CSDD sounding gives the dip of layers marl wedging out . c The 3D picture of the subsurface, made by the results of interpretation of all CSDD soundings, shows the broader picture of the marl wedging out and the presence of overlying schist. The star in the top diagram, illustrating surface topography, indicates the location of the water drilling.

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Schlumberger plus dipole-dipole sounding tion that the marl is wedging out southward. Our 2D interpretations of all CSDD proles in a 3D presentation Figure 9c show the marl wedging out southwestward, with the conglomerate having greater presence in the west. The geologic survey and geophysical results proposed a water well in the western part of the survey area near the end of the marls presence. The well was successful and is being used by the archaeological excavation team.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My thanks go to K. Pavlopoulos for close and ongoing collaboration in all projects, with his contribution in geologic, hydrogeologic, geomorphological, and environmental issues. He helped substantially in the success of the geophysical investigation and particularly in the application of the suggested resistivity eld technique and its interpretation. For their equally supportive collaboration, my thanks also are given to geologists J. Koumantakis, V. Perleros, and M. Lionis. Finally, I thank my colleagues G. Amolochitis, who helped in resistivity tomography issues, and S. Stamataki, director of the NTUA Applied Geophysics Laboratory, for valuable support.

CONCLUSIONS
Common resistivity soundings are still useful to delineate the overall geologic status to 50-m depth before proceeding with a more detailed investigation or with hydrogeologic-environmental surveys. Such surveys are more useful in populated cities where there are few places to position the electrodes. Electrical tomographic eld setups cannot be applied in those cases because of very long cables, roads, and other difcult eld conditions. The CSDD sounding provides a fast, simple way to identify layers of different resistivity and to determine their slope, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Fewer measurements in the CSDD sounding are needed to create the 2D apparent-resistivity section, compared with those required for the tomography prole. They are used in a gridding procedure that allows the Schlumberger values to determine the resistivity layers and the dipole-dipole values to determine any lateral variations in the layers. The 2D CSDD apparent-resistivity section then can be interpreted quickly by analyzing 1D strips through the Zohdy interpretation procedure and the Johansen lter, producing models with greater detail than conventional 1D soundings. The way Schlumberger and dipole-dipole apparent-resistivity values are acquired controls the detail in the nal 2D model. so that gently dipping layers of less than 20 slope generally can be detected with CSDD sounding and the overall layering sequence can be determined to 50-m depth. In cases of steep slopes, faults, or erosion of a formation, dipole-dipole data can resolve only the absence of a deep and thick formation on one side of a sounding that was not detected on the other side. Best resolution is obtained for thick and long layers of great resistivity contrast. The CSDD method should not be applied for deep resistivity soundings in the presence of very thick clayey conductive formations because measurements will suffer from low signal amplitude, even if we use long dipoles.

REFERENCES
Anderson, W., 1979, Numerical integration of related Hankel transforms of orders 0 and 1 by adaptive digital ltering: Geophysics, 44, 12871305. Apostolopoulos, G., 1996, Combined Schlumberger and dipole-dipole array 2D approach in resistivity interpretation: 58th Annual Meeting, EAGE, Extended Abstracts, P049. Apostolopoulos, G., K. Pavlopoulos, and P. Kofakis, 1996, Development of geophysical-geomorphological investigation in environmental projects: 1st Congress of the Balkan Geophysical Society, Extended Abstracts, P-EN17. Hodlur, G. K., R. Dhakate, and R. Andrade, 2006, Correlation of vertical electrical sounding and borehole-log data for delineation of saltwater and freshwater aquifers: Geophysics, 71, no. 1, G11G20. Johansen, H. K., 1975, An interactive computer/graphic-display-terminal system for interpretation of resistivity soundings: Geophysical Prospecting, 23, 449458. Lenkey, L., Z. Hamori, and P. Mihalffy, 2005, Investigating the hydrogeology of a water-supply area using direct-current vertical electrical soundings: Geophysics, 70, no. 4, H11H19. Loke, M. H., 2002, RES2DMOD Rapid 2D resistivity forward modeling using nite-difference and nite-element methods: Geotomo Software, accessed 14 April 2008, http://www.geoelectrical.com. Loke, M. H., and R. D. Barker, 1996, Rapid least-squares inversion of apparent resistivity pseudosections by a quasi-Newton method: Geophysical Prospecting, 44, 131152. Morris, M., J. S. Ronninig, and O. B. Lile, 1993, Detecting lateral resistivity inhomogeneities with the Schlumberger array: 55th Annual Meeting, EAGE, Extended Abstracts, D043. , 1997, Detecting lateral resistivity inhomogeneities with the Schlumberger array: Geophysical Prospecting, 45, 435448. ONeil, D. J., 1975, Improved linear lter coefcients for application in apparent resistivity computations: Bulletin of the Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 6, 104109. Patella, D., 1974, On the transformation of dipole to Schlumberger sounding curves: Geophysical Prospecting, 22, 315329. Van Zijl, J. S. V., 1985, A practical manual on the resistivity method: South Africa Council for Scientic and Industrial Research, Geophysics Division. Ward, S. H., 1990, Resistivity and induced polarization methods: Geotechnical and environmental geophysics: SEG. Zohdy, A. A. R., 1989, A new method for the automatic interpretation of Schlumberger and Wenner sounding curves: Geophysics, 54, 245253.

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