Contents

Contents................................................................................................................. 1 (I)Building Stone.....................................................................................................2 1)Minerals .......................................................................................................... 2 2)Rocks............................................................................................................... 2 2.1)Classification..............................................................................................2 2.2)Eruptive/ magmatic rocks ..........................................................................2 2.3)Sedimentary rocks.....................................................................................2 2.4)Metamorphic rocks ....................................................................................3 3)Products of building stone................................................................................3 3.1Quarry stone...............................................................................................3 3.2)Aggregates................................................................................................ 3 (II) Mineral binders................................................................................................. 4 1)General aspect; Classification..........................................................................4 2)Plaster Binding matter(gypsum CaSO4*2H2O).................................................4 2.1)Plaster(of Paris)( CaSO4*0.5H2O)...............................................................4 2.1.1)Plaster production:...............................................................................4 2.1.2Setting and hardening of the plaster.....................................................5 2.1.3)Plaster utilization.................................................................................6 3)Lime binding matter.........................................................................................6 3.1)Lime ..........................................................................................................6 3.1.1)Lime production...................................................................................6 3.1.2)Lime hydration(lime slaking)................................................................7 3.1.3)Hardening of the lime..........................................................................7 3.1.4)Lime utilization....................................................................................7

MATERIAL SCIENCE (I)Building Stone

1)Minerals - are found in the composition of stone - they are crystalline and non-crystalline {amorphous} - by chemical analyze minerals are: - metals - metalloids {Au, Ag, etc} - combination of elements {oxides, hydroxides} - the main minerals which compose the building stone are: - quartz {SiO2} -calcite {CaCO3} -magnesite {MgCP3} - gypsum {CaSO4*2H2O} - dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]

2)Rocks 2.1)Classification -may be classified in function of: - eruptive /magmatic rocks a)forming - sedimentary rocks -metamorphic rocks - rocks with crystalline minerals b)structure of minerals - rocks with crystalline an non-crystalline minerals - rocks with non-crystalline minerals - irregular structure c)structure of rocks - bedded structure - schis structure

2.2)Eruptive/ magmatic rocks -were formed by solidification of the magma at different levels of the earths crust a)effusive rocks(surface rocks) :basalt b)gangue or vein rocks(in filoane): - porphyny; pergmative c)intrusive rocks: -granite, -diorite 2.3)Sedimentary rocks -in function of their forming, they are: a)detritus rocks(roc detritic) were formed by rock weathering(descompunere, dezagregare) due to physical, chemical and biological actions - cemented rocks: breccia, sandstone(gresie), loess, clay - non cemented rocks: gravel, sand, dust b)sediment rocks(roci de ploaie) were formed by crystallization and precipitation from saturated solutions Maine sedimentation rocks : - lime rocks(piatra de var) - sinter - gypsum c)organic deposits are formed with shell and carcass of minerals and

Maine organic deposits consist of diatomite and tripoli. 2.4)Metamorphic rocks - they are formed by transformation of eruption and sedimentary rocks due to the action of high pressure and temperature {marble, slate(ardezie), quartzite} 3)Products of building stone -building stones are obtained by extraction from stone quarry or from gravel/ballast pit(carierea, balastierea, put) -from stone quarry, stone is obtained manually, mechanically or by explosion. From gravel pit, by hydraulic extraction or with excavator -building stone products are quarry stone(piatra de cariera) and aggregates 3.1Quarry stone -products from quarry stone in function of preparation are a)Rubble stone(pietris, balast) is used for construction like -foundation -abutment wall(zid de sprijin) -boulder paving b)Fashion stone(piatra fasonata) is used for walls - dressed stone(molon); - cut stone(piatra de talc)

- lining{covering}(placare,captuire): plates -paving: slabs, sete paving, pebble(calup) paving, road border -building construction: coping stone(piatra pentru coronomente), facing stone, cornice(cornise), tile(tigla) c)Quarry waste(deseu, piatra de carierea) is a remainer of the processing of quarry stone 3.2)Aggregates -there are natural aggregates and crusher rock aggregates (agregate din piatra concasata) -natural aggregates are obtained from gravel pit and crashed rock aggregate are obtained from stone quarry a)Natural aggregate are: - filler(d<0.0063mm) - sand(d4mm) - gravel(d63mm) - great rubble stone(d>63mm) - mixture of aggregate(balast) b)Crushed rock aggregate are: - fillers(d0.0063mm) - pit sand(nisip de cariera)(d4mm) - quarry spalls(piatra sparta de cariera) - chipping(criblura)(d=3.15-25mm)

(II) Mineral binders

1)General aspect; Classification - are natural or artificial pulverizing materials which in mixture with water give a plastic paste - in time this paste becomes a rigid material, due to chemical and physical processes. They are used to bind up granular materials(sand, gravel) or blocks(bricks, plates), structural elements - for this use binders must have: - hardening in a short time - a good adherence - a slow variation in volume during hardening General classification of mineral binders: - non-hydraulic binders natural binder: clay (air binding matter) artificial binder: -hydraulic binders: without admixtures:

plaster binder matter lime binder matter magnesium binder matter

- non-clinkerisation binders(hydraulic lime) clinkerisation binders(Portland cement, aluminous cement) Portland cement with admixture Lime cement with admixture

with admixtures:

Non-hydraulic binders: become a rigid material only in air, and after that they dont resist to water action; Hydraulic binders: harden in air or in water and after that they resist to water action; Hydraulic binders without admixture: have maximum 5% admixture; Hydraulic binders with admixture: have 6-95% admixture; Non-clink binders: - are obtained by practical combination (~1100 oC) and the result is a pourous product (pt8%); - the chemical reactions between components take place in solid phase; Clink binders: - if the combination is clinkering(~1450 oC), a partial cement melt will form - after cooling a clinkeresation binder will result; - this product has a compact structure(pt<8%){total porosity}

2)Plaster Binding matter(gypsum CaSO4*2H2O) 2.1)Plaster(of Paris)( CaSO4*0.5H2O) 2.1.1)Plaster production: - raw material: CaSO4*2H2O; - pure material is alabaster gypsum which has a white color but it is a rare material; - plaster production consist of: - extraction of the raw material(gypsum, alabaster gypsum); - transportation; - crushing(crusher=concasor) - bagging(socking) - it depends on the temperature and there is the possibility to obtain different compositions(Table 1) 4

TABLE 1 TEMPERATURE (oC) Normal 95-150 150-200 300-700 800-1200 PRODUCTS Gypsum COMPOSITIONS REACTION WITH WATER _______________ Fast setting (priza) Fast setting Setting with accelerators Slow setting

CaSO4*2H2O (dehydrate) Main subst of the CaSO4*0.5H2O plaster (semi-hydrate) Soluble anhydrite CaSO4*0.5H2O Non-soluble CaSO4 anhydrite Plaster for floor x CaSO4+yCaO x>y
o

t>800 oC - at high temperatures(t>800 C), the anhydrite gives: CaSO4 ========> CaSO4+SO3 - plaster for use as a binder, is obtained by partial dehydration of the gypsum at a temperature under 200 oC t 150-200 oC CaSO4*2H2O==========>CaSO4*0.5H2O+1.5H2O (dehydrate) (semi-hydrate) - the main substance of the plaster is the semi-hydrate which has a fast setting - other binders from gypsum are: - plaster for floor; - cement anhydrite; - high strength plaster; - plaster with alum [KAl(SO4)2]; - cellular plaster; 2.1.2Setting and hardening of the plaster - they are chemical and physical processes who are produced when the plaster is mixed with water. - there are 3 main phases (Fig.1 a,b,c);

Phase a - it is the beginning phase when the plaster is mixed with water CaSO4*0.5H2O+1.5H2O========> CaSO4*2H2O - from the solution of dehydrate, crystal will appear. At first, they are very small(10-7-10-5) - in this very moment, the paste is plastic and malleable. Phase b - more and more crystals of dehydrate are forming and the initial ones will grow. The plasticity of the paste is smaller and smaller until it becomes rigid. This is the setting of the plaster. The setting is measured in minutes and has a beginning and an end. - the setting time is determined by the VICAT method. In this moment the strength of the plaster is small. 5

Phase C - it is the hardening phase of the plaster. The increase of the plaster strength is due to the drying of the solid phase in time. - the crystals are spot-welded(sudat in puncte) so that they have a good strength. The hardening will continue until all excess water is evaporated. This occurs in 7 days when the strength is maximum. - because the plaster gas a fast setting some retarding add-mixture are used(slaked lime{var stins}, alcohol, sugar, etc)

2.1.3)Plaster utilization - plaster can be used only for inside works where the humidity is under 60%. - main plaster utilization are: a)Plaster for masonry and plastering (zidarie) (tencuiala) - protection of the timber elements against fire; - surface finishing; - plastering on wire lattice(zabrele) construction; - holding the prefabricated parts; - setting of the electrical insulations; b)Prefabricated parts - slabs(placi,dale){full or with hollows }; - strips; - panels; - blocks;

3)Lime binding matter 3.1)Lime 3.1.1)Lime production

- the main raw material for lime production is the lime stone which has a minimum 95% CaCO3 - another raw material is dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2] or [CaCO3*MgCO3] - lime production consists of: -extraction of the raw material(lime stone, dolomite); -transporting; -crushing(crusher); -calcination; -lime hydration; - the raw mat. cacination depends on: -temperature; -pressure; -dimension of lumps; -decarbonation begins at 600 oC and it is complete at about 900 oC, if the raw material is pulverized. -for industrial lime-production the lump dimensions are 10-15cm, so the calcination temperature must rise to 1100-1200 oC.

3.1.2)Lime hydration(lime slaking) - the reaction of the lime hydration is: CaO+H2O===>Ca(OH)2+Q (unslaked (slaked (hydration lime) lime) heat) - heat elimination and an increase in volume (2-3 times) characterized the lime hydration. - the lime slaking can be made manually or mechanically and it depends on the water quality. -the result will be: -powder hydrated lime(var hidratat in pulbere); -lime paste; a)Lime hydration - is made with a reduced quantity of water(above 35%) - there are 2 procedures: -manual procedure in which a slaking pit with concrete walls is used. The lump(gramada) lime is placed in layers for hydration. -mechanical procedure in which the rotating barrel(tambur) is used. b)Lime paste slaking - is made with an excess of water(200-240%) - this can be done by; -manual procedure, the lump lime and excess of water are introduced in a lime basin. They are mixed and water will boil up. The milk of lime(lapte de var) which results is passed into a slaked pit with walls of plank (scandura groasa sau dulap de lemn). In time, the lime milk will transform in lime paste which is a gel. -mechanical procedure, is made with a rotating barrel. 3.1.3)Hardening of the lime - the setting is not proper for lime. The hardening is studied on lime mortars(mortar de var) which are used in porous materials as bricks. - the hardening is characterized by 2 processes: -physical process; -chemical process; a)Physical process -is due to drying of the gel by the loss of water through the porous material or by evaporation. -it takes place in a short time and allows the realization of a building element. b)Chemical process -it takes a long time and consist of the following reaction: Ca(OH)2+CO2===>CaCO3+H2O (slaked lime) (limestone) -this is the carbonation(carbonarea) of lime; -gives to the mortar a good strength and a certain stability to water; 3.1.4)Lime utilization - the main lime utilization are: (1)binder for mortars of masonry and plastering where the humidity is small(mortar de zidarie si tencuiala); (2)plasticizer for mortars and concretes; (3)hydraulic binder with admixture: lime with admixture; (4)cellular concrete and silica bricks(caramizi silico-calcare); 7

4)Hydraulic binders without admixture 4.1)Portland cement 4.1.1)Portland cement production - Portland cement is a clinkerization binder obtained from lime stone and clay which are burnet at 400-1450 oC. - for setting time adjustment, a quantity of 4-5% gypsum is added. Usually, for ordinary Portland cement a mixture of 75-77% limestone and 23-25% clay is used. Some correction additives are used, too(gypsum, diatomite, bauxite). - Portland cement manufacturing implies 3 procedures: a)Wet procedure -after the extraction and transportation of the raw material, they are crusher and mixed with 30-50% water; b)Dry procedure -in which the powder raw material are mixed without water; c)Combined procedure -in which the raw materials are prepared according to the wet procedure but they are burnt with 15-16%water; -all the 3 procedures will continue as follows: (rotary calciner kiln) Burnin g Clinker chill Clinker storage Fine Crushing Cement storage Cement dispatch (clinker cooler) (bulk storage in a clinker hall) (milling in ball mills + mixing with gypsum) (bulk storage in a cement silo)

Burning it takes place in a rotary calciner kiln(cuptor de ardere) at 1400- oC. a partial cement melt will appear and after cooling the cement clinker will fall. The main chemical compounds of the cement clinker are: 3CaO*SiO2 - symbolized C3S(tricalcium silicate), where C=CaO and S=SiO2 2CaO*SiO2 - symbolized C2S(dicalcium silicate) 3CaO*Al2O3 - symbolized C3A(tricalcium aluminate), where A=Al2O3 4CaO*Al2O3*Fe2O3 - symbolized C4AF(tetracalcium aluminate ferrite), where F=Fe2O3 4.1.2)Setting and hardening of Portland cement - they represent all chemical and physical processes which are produced when the cement is mixed with water. (a)Chemical reactions of Portland cement components are: C2S+nH=>CxSHp+(3-x)Ca(OH)2 H=H2O 8

[3CaO*SiO2+nH2O=>xCa*SiO2+pH2O+(3-x)Ca(OH)2] gel C2S+nH=>CxSHp+(2-x)Ca(OH)2 gel C2A+6H=>C3AH6 crystal crystals

crystal C4AF+nH=>C3AH6+Ca(OH)2+FH(n-7) crystal crystal gel

(b)Physical process(Fig.1 a.b.c.)

- in fig.1(a), the cement particles are introduced in water and the chemical reactions will start; - fig.1(b), presents the cement particles covered with gel pellicles which result frim the chemical reactions; - they are in saturated solution of Ca(OH)2 and C3AH6, where their aggregates also exist; - fig.1(c),shows the cement particles covered with big depths(grosime) of gel pelicules which include the crystals too. At thise moment, the setting is almost open. The setting has a beginning and an end. The setting time is determined by the Vicat method. The hardening will continue after the setting due to drying of the gel. It was found that the hardening of cement particles represents 15-30% of their volume. The hardened cement or cement stone has : -gels; -crystals; -non-hydrated grains; - gels have a solid phase and micro cracks, capillary pores, air pores and gel pores. 4.1.3)Portland cement types There are the following Portland cements: - CEM I 32.5N CEM=cement; 9

- CEM I 32.5R - CEM I 42.5N - CEM I 42.5R - CEM I 52.5N - CEM I 52.5R

I=Portland cement without admixture; 32.5;42.5;52.5=cement class; N=normal strength; R=initial or early tight strength;

- they represent the compressive strength on samples at 28days in N/mm2.

5)Hydraulic binders with admixtures 5.1)Admixture types Minimal admixture can be classified as follows: -cementitious materials -pozzolans materials -inert materials a)Cementitious materials(cimentaoide) - cementitious materials have a proper setting and hardening and the setting is slow and the mechanical resistance are not very high. These materials include granulated blast-furnace slag and basic fly ash(zgura granulate de furnal)(Ca>40%). b)Pozzolanas/Pozzolans(pizzolana) - pozzolana is a siliceous or aluminous and siliceous material which in the presence of moisture will react with Ca(OH)2 at ordinary temperature and will form component with hydraulic properties(they resist to water action). - Pozzolans can be natural or artificial materials: -natural materials: - volcanic ash; - diatomite; - tripoli; -artificial materials: - acid fly ash(CaO40%); - acid blast-furnace slag(cenusa de furnal acida); - microsilica(silica fume)(silice ultrafina); -cementitous pozzolanic admixtures contribute to the strength development of the cement stone and they are considered active admixtures; c)Inert materials - include quartz and limestone in a milling(morarit) state; - they are used for correction of the granulation curves and for economic reasons; 5.1.2)Portland cement with admixtures - there are usual Portland cements and special Portland cements; 10

a)Usual Portland cements - are sued for current construction works; - they are symbolized as follows: CEM II/A=>Portland cement with admixture(6-20%) CEM II/B=>Portland cement with admixture(21-35%) Types of admixtures: S-slag; P-natural pozzolan; V-silicious fly ast etc; CEM II/A-S=>Portland cement with slag CEM II/B-V=>Portland cement with silicious fly ash CEM III/A CEM III/B Blast furnace cement(ciment de furnal) with admixture(36-95%) CEM III/C (slag) CEM IV/A Pozzolan(ic) cement with admixture(mixture of admixtures: CEM IV/B pozzolan+fly ash+microsilica) CEM V/A CEM V/B

Composite cement with admixtures(ciment composit) (mixture of admixtures: pozzolana+fly ash) 32.5 N or R All the cement symbols will complete the cement class which may be 42.5 N or R 52.5 N or R - for example: - CEM II/A-S 32.5 N =>Portland cement with slag, cement class 32.5 N/mm 2, and with normal strength. - CEM II/B-V 32.5 R=>Portland cement with siliceous fly ash, cement class 32.5 N/mm2, with initial high strength. b)Special Portland cements - are used for special constructions works, for example: - sulphate resisting Portland cement(ciment rezistent la sulfati); - hydrotechnics cement; - white Portland cement; - colored Portland cement(red, yellow, green); - road cement; etc.

11

(III) Building mortars with mineral binders

1)Introduction. Classifications - building mortars are well homogenous mixtures of binder, water and sand, which will harden either only in air or in water according to the binder nature. - some additives are used too: -plasticizers(plastifianti); -superplasticizers; -setting time adjustment substances; -coloring substances; etc. - there are ordinary building mortars and special mortars. Ordinary mortars may be classified as follows: Masonry mortar(bedding, poiting)) -utilization Coating(plastering, rendering) mortar(tencuiala, camasuiala); -mortar with lime lime; lime-plaster; lime-cement;

-binder nature

cement; -mortar with cement cement-lime; cement-fly ash; cement-clay; plaster; -mortar with plaster plaster-cement;

Classifications according to

clay; -mortar with clay clay-cement; -compression strength M1, M2.5, M5, M10, M15, M20;(where M-mortar malrle 1, 2.5, , 20 compressive strength at 28days N/mm2 -consistency fluid mortar; plastic mortar; Stiff(vascos) mortar;

a>1800 Kg/m3, heavy mortar; a=1500-1800 Kg/m3, medium heavy mortar;

-apparent density

a=1000-1500 Kg/m3, light mortar; a<1000 Kg/m3, very light mortar;

2)Component materials for building mortars - lime and lime-plaster are used to mortars for masonry and plastering where the humidity is small. - lime-cement can be added to mortars which are used in air with high humidity. - cement is used to mortars for masonry which are subjected to important loads or for renderings(tencuieli experioare) which are used in air with high humidity or in water. - plaster can be used to mortars for masonry and plastering only for inside works, where the humidity is under 60%. The presence of plaster in mortars with plaster-lime and lime-plaster will increase the strength and will reduce the hardening time. 2.2)Water 12

- water for mortars can be potable or brackish(nepotabila) water but it is necessary to meet standard conditions. 2.3)Sand - sand for mortars is either natural aggregate(natural sand) or crushed stone or rock aggregate(pit sand). It will have a continuous grading and the maximum size of 4mm. 2.4)Admixtures(aditiv) - mortars may have some admixtures for plasterizing, super plasterizing, setting time adjustment, etc. 3)Technology of mortars - selecting proportions for mortars can be done by volumetric analysis or by gravimetric method. - by volumetric analysis it is necessary to know the ration between the binder and sand(ex: binder/sand=1/1; 1/2; 1/3 etc); - the gravimetric method is mostly used and it is in function of the binder nature(there are formulas and tables for it); - mixing of mortars is essential for consistency strength and other mortar properties. - for the mechanical mixing a drum mixer(malaxor cu cuva) is used for small quantities and for insignificant works. - manual mixing is also used. - placing of mortars will include booth the transportation time and the placing time, the total necessary time is in function of binders nature. 4)Types of mortars 4.1)Masonry mortars - they are used for bedding and joint for all types of bricks and blocks; - masonry mortars are obtained by mixing of a binder with the recommended quality(sand, water and admixture); 4.2)Mortar for plastering and rendering Plastering mortar is used to gave a smooth surface of the inside walls(ex: plaster+ additive+ water; lime+ water+ sand+ additive); Rendering mortar is used to protect the outside face of the wall(ex: cement+ water+ additive); -coating(plastering, rendering) may have some layers which can be: - spraying layers which gives a good adherence between the wall and coating. It has a maximum 3mm thickness and is a fluid mortar(cement+ water); - rough-cast(grund)is a mortar with 0/2mm sand and has a thickness of 5-20mm; - skin coat/layer(tinci, strat de suprafata)is an apparent layer with a tickness of max 5mm. It is made with 0/2mm sand and binder; - rabitz plastering(rencuiala pe rabit) is made with plaster and it is the first layer for plastering; - coating may be classified according to: internal rendering (a)position in building external rendering ordinary coating (b)surface finishing 13

special coating - ceramic bricks (rough-cast+ skin layer) - concrete elements and walls of fashion stone (spray layer+ rough-cast+ skin layer); - reed and timber stats(spray layer+ rough-cast+ skin layer); - wire lattice construction(rabitz-plastering+ rough cast+ skin layer);

(c)nature of the wall and ceiling

(IV) Concrete with mineral binders

1)Introduction. Classification - concrete is a hardened mass of heterogeneous materials. It is prepared with cement, aggregates, water and admixtures when the cement is mixed with water chemical and physical processes are produced and finally artificial cement stone will result. It will incorporate all components of the concrete. - the properties of component materials have a effect on the strength and durability of the concrete. - a general classification of the concretes with a minimal binders is: - workability(consistency) is a property of the fresh concrete which determines the easy way of mixing, placing(turnare), compaction and finishing without segregation. It is in function of the concrete consistency which can be measured by slump test(tasare), compaction factor, spread test and Vibe test(vibrare). very stiff stiff concrete - we have the following stiff consistency slightly plastic concrete plastic concrete fluid concrete very fluid concrete - volume mass(a) - heavy concrete(a>2600 Kg/m3) - concrete with normal volume mass(a=2001-2600Kg/m3) - light weight concrete(a=800-2000Kg/m3) - water impermeability: -where :4, 8, 12-maximum pressire(barr); -10, 20-maximum depth of water penetreation(cm); - frost resistance: G50; G100; G150; -where:50, 100, 150 number of freezing-thawing;

(a)classification according to physical and mechanical properties

- concrete class: C 8/10; C 12/15; C 16/20, etc. -where: C-concrete strength class; 8, 12, 16-compressive strength on cylinder 14

sample(N/mm2, MPa); 10, 15, 20-compresive strength in cube sample (N/mm2, MPa); manual mixing; - mixing mechanical mixing; ordinary placing; pumped placing; - placing injection placing; placing under water; (b)classification according to: - compacting pressed concret; centrifugally cast concret; shot concrete; concretes with normal volume mass which are used for current construction work(industrial,building construct); - utilization special concretes which are used for special construction works; 2)Concrete with normal volume mass 2.1)Component materials 2.1.1)Binder - hydraulic binders which can be used for concretes with normal volume mass are: - Portland cement without admixture (type I); - Portland cement with admixture (type II, III, IV, V); - cement type, dosage, fineness of graining and cement class will affect the concrete strength. 2.1.2)Mixing water - water in concrete is defined as water quantity which is necessary for chemical reactions of cement components and water quantity which is necessary to moisten the aggregates for good workability; - the excess water is lost by evaporation and by the cement stone will have many pores. The influence of mixing water on concrete strength is given by the water-cement ratio: uncompacted concrete; vibrated concrete; vacuum concrete;

water W = ; cement C
- for ordinary concrete this ration has large limits:

W = 0.3,...,1. 2 ; C
- a correlation between the cement content is also establish; - with increase of the cement content the water-cement ratio will decrease. The lower the

W , C

the higher the concrete strength; - water for concrete as well as for mortars may be potable or brackish water but it is necessary to meet the standard conditions; 2.1.3)Aggregates 15

natural aggregates; - the aggregates which can be used for normal concretes are : crushed aggregates; - they represent the major volume in a concrete 75%; - the concrete strength is influenced by the following parameters: - aggregates grading; - shape of the grains; - quality of the grain surface(smooth(neted) or rough(rugos) surface); - maximum grain size; 2.1.4)Admixtures(aditivi) Most used admixtures are: accelerating admixtures are added to the concrete wither to increase the rate of the early strength development, to shorten the setting time or for both purposes; water reducing admixtures improve the compressive strength and water impermeability of the concrete; superplasticizing admixtures(fluidificare) are relatively new group of admixtures which are used to obtain fluid of high strength concretes; air-entraining admixtures(aditivi anrenati la aer) improve the frost resistance. Materials used :wood resinbut they may reduce the strength; 2.2)Properties of hardening concrete 2.2.1)Compressive strength - the main criteria used to assess the concrete quality is the compressive strength. - the compressive strength is determined on cylinders and cubes. The samples are stored in mixt condition(water and air). They are tested at 28dayes after preparation with a hydraulic press(fig.1);

Fig.1 1) b) Dimensions of the specimens: - cube: cube side = 150mm; - cylinder: high = 300mm; diameter = 150mm;

F N ; ( MPa ) A mm 2 F N ; ( MPa ) fc. cylinder = A mm 2

fc. cube = 16

where: - fc,cube=concrete strength on cube sample; - fc,cylinder=concrete strength on cylinder sample; - F=maximum compressive force [N]; - A=surface loaded are [mm2]; - the compressive strength on concrete is denoted by concrete strength classes which relate to the characteristic cylinder strength fck,cyl or the cube fck,cube; - some strength class for concrete are presented in table1; Strength class for concrete(Extract) Concrete C 8/10 C 12/15 C 16/20 C 90/105 C 100/115 Characteristic class strength fc,cyl 8 12 16 90 100 (N/mm2,MPa) fc,cube 10 12 20 105 115 2 (N/mm ,MPa) C 16/20 where: C concrete class; 16 characteristic cylinder strength(N/mm2); 20 characteristic cube strength(N/mm2); - cubes and cylinders subjected/submitted to centric compression can be fractured by hydraulic machine in 2 modes: - fracture with friction; - fracture without friction;(Fig.1)

a)-in the first case due to friction between the press plates and the cubes surfaces tangential stresses(efort) will appear. They prevent the sample from suffering strains. This fact is responsible for an increment in the cubes strength(fc,cube); -the fracture of the sample is produced by the detachment(desprindere, separare) of it lateral parts. -two butted(cap la cap) truncated(trunchi) pyramids are thus formed. b)this case presents the facture without friction. The friction between the contacting surfaces is usually prevented by using paraffin oiling by interposing lead leaves cardboard(carton din foi de plumb) etc. In this case this transverse swelling of the cube is free to develop over its whole weigth. The fracture takes place due to being initiated in the direction of compressive stress. The ultimate strength(fc,cube) value is lower than in the preceding case. fc,cube<fc,cube 2.2.2)Flexural tensile strength by bending tensile strength (rezistentza la intindere prin incovoiere) - is determined on prismatic samples with a rectangular C. On a sample 2 tests can be made(Fig.2).

17

Flexural tensile test is given by the expression:

f ct,fl

Pl M Pl 3.5 3.5 Pl N = = 42 = * 2 = * W pl bh 4 bh 4 bh 2 mm 2 3.5

Where: M-flexural/bending moment;( M =

Pl ) 4

P-maximum load(breaking force); l-span(span) between bearing or supports; Wpl-plasic moduls of resistance

W pl =

bh 2 3.5

b, h-dimension of C.S. 2.2.3)Splitting tensile strength - determination of splitting tensile strength can be made on cylindrical, cubic or prismatic samples.

f ct,sp =

2F l 2

where: F max.load; l length of the cube side;

2.2.4)Concrete strains 2.2.4.1)Shaking and swelling - during harding, concretes volume is changing due to environment hydrometrics(de umiditate); - a reduction in volume when the concrete is kept in air is called shrinkage. - when the concrete is kept in water or in very wet air the increase in volume is called swelling. - shrinkage amd swelling develop in time at a high rate initially and slow down with concrete aging tending to 0 after a number of years. - when kept alternately in air and in water, concrete undergoes both shrinking and swelling deformations, the tow phenomena being partially reversible. - the main theories which explain concrete shrinkage and swelling are: 1) Theory of surface sorption explains these concrete strains by water migration in the cement gels. 2) Theory of capillary tensions(Freyssinets theory) explains the shrinkage through a change in the capillary pores.

2.2.4.2)Strain state under loads 18

- under static loads concrete suffers 3 types of deformations: elastic, viscous and plastic(fig.4)

C
where: C concrete normal stress;

c concrete strain(deformatie);
fcm fcf fcm maximum strength; fcf static strength to fatigue; u1 ultimate strain;

c u1
- the ultimate strain u1 includes the following strains :

u1= 1+2+3+4;
a)elastic strains/elastic deformation 1 - are characterized by being proportional to the stresses. C=f (c); - they appear under short term static load, are time independent, reversible and obey the Hooks law: C=EC*1 where: EC concrete modulus of elasticity; b)group strains under 2(curgere lenta) - are viscous strains specific to sustain loads(de lunga durata); - concrete creep(oboseala) can be: -linear creep(creep strains are proportional to sustained stresses); -non-linear creep(creep strains are not proportional to the stresses); The main theories which try to explain the concrete creep are: -viscous creep of cement stone(viscous deformation of the gel mass)[Thomas Sheikin] -creep due to water infiltration from the gel c)plastic strains 3 -are developed when the stresses exceed fcf threshold(prag) (fcf~0.5 fcmax) -the fcf value marks the starting point of micro cracking in the cement stone; d)pseudoplastic strains 4 -are developed at very high steps of loadings; -they represent a self accelerating process of internal fractures; 3)Lightweight concrete 3.1)Classification (a)structure of the concrete lightweight aggregate concrete; popcorn concrete; cellular concrete; mineral aggregate: -natural lightweight aggregates (dolomite ); 19

Classifications according to:

(b)type of aggregates

-artificial lightweight aggregates (expanded slag, expanded clay); vegetal aggregates:wood dust, wood chips, rice shells, etc. aggregates for polymer:rubber,polystirene insulating concrete; insulating and structural concrete; structural concrete;

(c)utilization 3.2)Lightweight types 3.2.1)Lightweight aggregate concrete

- this concrete is comparable with the normal concrete. Its main characteristic is a lower volume mass(apparent density) which is obtained by using natural or artificial lightweight aggregates. Lightweight aggregates concretes are used for structural elements as well as for heat insulating materials. 3.2.2)Cellular concrete - foam/foamed concrete(beton cu spuma/spumabeton); - aerocrete with gas generator(gas beton); a)foamed concrete is obtained by using a foaming agent(natural wood, etc.)and a foam stabilizer(CaCl2); b) aerocrete is obtained by using a gas generator for ex. Aluminium powder. Most used technology for cellular concretes are used for heat insulating elements.

(V) Building ceramics

1)Raw material. Production of building ceramics -building ceramics products are obtained from clay masses after shaping(fasonare, modelare), drying and clinkering at high temperatures(900-1500 oC). according to their refractoriness clays are: - fusible clay(R1100 oC); - vitrifying(vitrifiabila) clay(R~1500 oC); - refractory clay(R>1500 oC); - refractoriness R represents the temperature at which the clay has a standard deformation. Some admixtures are also used to modify the properties of the building ceramics: - degreasing substances(degresant) reduce the water content of the clay mass(sand, ash, slag); - melters decrease the clinkering temperature of the mixture; - agglomerants increase the plasticity of the clay(lime); The stages of the building ceramics are: 1. preparation of the ceramics mass(clay+ admixtures+ water); 2. hand molding or press forming of the ceramics mass; 3. open air drying or ho drying of green ceramics; 4. clinkering in the ceramic kiln(cuptor); 5. decarbonation(angobe, glaze(engoba, glazura)); 2)Products of building ceramics 2.1)Bricks - bricks are obtained from fusible clay and degreasing substances by clinkering at 900-1000 oC. There are following types of ceramic bricks: (a)Solid bricks

20

(b)Hollow bricks

(c)Lug and groove bricks(caramida cu lamba si celuc);

(d)Copping bricks(caramida plasaje);

(e)Radial brick(chimney brick)

21

2.2)Roof coverings(invelitoare de acoeris) - they include the following products: - tiles; - copings/crowns; - pan tiles; - roof coverings are obtained from fusible clay and degreasing substances by clinkering at 900-1000 oC. (a)Tiles - in function of their form, tiles are: -plane tiles(tigle-solzi);

-gutter tiles with one ore two gutters(jgeaburi);

(b)Copings are big or small copings according to their dimensions;

22

(c)Pan tiles(olane) - a pan tile is half of a truncated cone;

Pan tiles are used for heavy roofs in windy regions. They are arranged in 2 layers.

2.3)Argillaceous sandstone(gresie ceramica/argiloasa) - is a ceramic product with a compact structure. It is obtained from a vitrifying clay with or without admixture of sand or fled spar(fled spat); by clinkering at 1200-1300 oC. Sometimes sandstone is decorated by glazing(glazura). The most important products are: -plates of sand stone are used as slabs(dale) or for dressing with slabs of walls; -bricks of sand stone are used for paving or for acid-resisting elements; -sand stone pipes are used for sewerage; they are glazed both outside and inside for better impermeability; 2.4)Fine ceramics - products of fine ceramics are obtained from well- mixtures of clay and the necessary admixtures; - they are: -porous products: faience, majolica(majolica), terra-cotta; -compact products: fine argillaceous sandstone, porcelain; - most important products are: (a)Faience is obtained from pure kaolinitic clay and admixtures (sand and fled spore). It is used for dressing of inside walls of the building(kitchens, laboratories, toilets, etc.) (b)Majolica plates are obtained form ordinary clay with admixtures. They are glazed on their visible faces in different colors and are used for dressing of outside(sometimes inside) walls.

(VI) Building timber

1)Introduction. Classification - timber can be characterized by the following properties: chemical composition varies with species, age and plot of grouth(plan, profil de crestere); organic substances are in proportion of 99% so that the timber is fuel at 110oC-200oC and it become fire-hazard at 300oC. organic substance represent food for different insects, birds, etc.; water quality influences mechanical properties and durability; mechanical properties vary with direction of wood fibers; 23

- timber used for building purpose is divided into soft and hard(de esenta moale si tare) wood. -Soft wood(pine-wood) is of the conifer class. Conifer are evergreen trees(pine, fire, etc.). They leave leaves throughout the year and the leaves are needle-like; -Hard woo belongs to the brood-leaf(class foioase) class. Most of trees shed their leaves in the autumn and are called decioluous trees(foioase) {oak(stejar)}, birch(mesteaca, tei, etc.); 2)Timber products for buildings - timber products may be classified as follows: -products with the same structure of the timber(raw timber, semi-finished products, Finished products); -new products with a modified structure given by the timber; 2.1)Raw timber - timber for building purpose is obtained from trees which are filled after reaching their maturity. Immediately after felling the branches are cut off. - most used products of raw material(timber) are: -timber row(prajina); -round beam(manera); -pit wood(lemn de mina); -round timber for pile(pt stalp); -power-line timber tower; 2.2)Semi-finished products -a trunk of a tree is cross cut into sections called logs(bustean). A timber log can be converted into various products. a)converted timber/wood(lemn fasonat, debitat, cherestea) -the methods of log conversion are presented in Fig.1

(a)

(b) Cross section of a log

(c)

Methods of conversion: Flat plane or slab sawing(Fig,1a) is that at which the annual rings intersect the cut face at least half of its width at less than 45o. Timber can be converted quickly, cheaply and with minimum waste by this method of conversion; Tangential sawing is adopted when the timber has distinct annual rings. The boards have their faces tangential to the annual rings; Rift, radial, or quarter sawing(radiala, debitare prin sferturi)(Fig.1c) rift sawing timber is that at which the annual rings intersect the cut face in any part at more than 45o. It shrinks less in width than flat sawn timber and has less tendency to warp(incovoiere a lemnului) or split; -most used converted timber are: -boards; 24

-planks(scandura); -timber slats(sipca)(strip, beams, collar beam(rigla)); b)veneer(furnir) -logs are converted into veneers by two methods: -rotary cutting method with rotary cutter; -stay-log cutting method in which the log is cut in longitudinal direction with a knife edge. The veneers have a thickness of 0.08-6mm and are used for plywood(placaj) panels. c)plywood(laminated wood)

Fig.2

plywood

-it is a compound wood made up of an add number of layers called veneers. They are glued together under pressure and temperature, so that the fibers of two adiacent layers to make different angles(300, 450, 600, 900). Plywoods have a thickness of 3-20mm and are for walls, doors, timber shuttering; d)panel(laminated board) Is also a compound wood made of several strip which are covered with veneer. Panels are used for walls, doors, etc.

Fig.3

2.3)Finished products a)Cellular panels

Are made up of a timber cell walls, cells and plywood sheeting. They are used for walls.

25

Fig.4

b)Parquet, strips and sills Are most used for floors and made of hard wood(oak).

Fig.5

2.4)New products a)Plates of wood(PAL) are obtained from chips of wood and are glued under pressure and temperature. According to their apparent density the plates are: - light plates a<2400 Kg/m3; - medium plates a=400-800 Kg/m3; - heavy plates a800 Kg/m3; b)Plates of wood fibers(PFL) are obtained from fibers of wood and are apparent density they are: - porous plates a<400 Kg/m3; - medium/hard plates a=400-800 Kg/m3; - heavy plates a>800 Kg/m3; - these new products are used instead of plywood or panels.

26

(VII) Bitumen materials

1)Bitumen binders 1.1)Introduction. Classification - are a complex admixtures of liquid and solid hydrocarbons and their compound with oxig, azotate, sulphure. They have a liquid, viscous, plastic or rigid consistency and colors from brown to black. According to their generation bitumens: asphalt(petroleum+ mineral powders(sand, clay)) a)petroleum coal bituminous petroleum+ coal, rock rock b)artificial bitumens: petroleum asphalt, tar, bitch(smoala); 1.2)Chemical composition and structure of bitumen - bitumens have a very complex chemical composition. It is not possible to get each component of the bitumen but with selective solvents it is easy to get group of components which are: -petrolens(petrolen); -resins; -asphaltenes(asfaltene); -carbenes; -carboids; -regarding their structure bitumens are colloidal systems of the following types: -colloidal solutions(fluid consistency); -colloidal solutionsgel(plastic consistency); -gel(rigid consistency); 2)Types of bitumen binders a)Petroleums are obtained by distillation of oxidation of asphaltic bitumen. Thy are used for hydrofuge insulation and for hydrophobic materials; b)Petroleum asphalt is obtained by fractional distillation of earth oil(titei) (or raw petroleum); - the scheme of transformations is: -Earth oil(raw petroleum) => Distillation=>-Top(benzene, petrol, medium oil,(motorina) -Burning oil(pacura)->distillation in vacuum ->petroleum asphalt; -petroleum asphalt can be: -paving petroleum asphalt(bitum de beton rutier); -petroleum asphalt for hydrofuge insulation; -industrial petroleum asphalt; -petroleum asphalt for anticorrosive protection of pipes; c)Tar and pitch(gudron si smoala) are obtained in accordance with the following scheme Coal or timber Dry distillation

coke

tars distillation pitch

aromatic compounds 27

- tars and pitch have a proper chemical composition which differs from petroleum asphalt. They contain cancerigen an toxic substances and have a low plasticity. ex: d)Special bitumen binders they are used without a heating-up perid(time) -bitumenous solutins are obtained by distillation(dizolvare) of hot bitumen into organic solvents(benzene, petrol, medium oil). It is used for asphaltic concretes(betoane bituminoase) and for a better adhesion/adherence between two layers; -asphaltic emulsions are made up of petroleum asphalt, water and emmulgators which are surface-active substances. They are used for asphalt pavements and for hydrofuge insulations; -asphalric slurry(suspensie asfaltica/bituminoasa) si made up of petroleum asphalt, water and emulgator which is lime paste. It is used for asphalt pavements and for hyidrofuge insulation; 3)Hydrocarbon mixtures 3.1)Bitumenous mastics(mastic) - they are well homogenized mixtures of bitumen(30-70%) and dry mineral powders called fillers(filere) - fillers used powder hydrated lime; ash; lime stone;etc.

- bituminous mastics are used as binders, hydrofuge insulation, at sealing of joints(etansarea rosturilor) etc. 3.2)Mortars and concretes - bitumen mortars are mixtures of bitumen binders with fine aggregates(fillers and sand); - asphaltic concretes or rolled asphalts are made of bitumen binders, fine aggregates and coarse(grosiere) aggregates(gravel or chipping). Mortars and concretes with bitumen binders are also named hydrocarbon mixtures. -component materials of asphaltic concrete are: -bitumen binders: -bituminous solutin which will weld together all aggregates -bituminous slurry etc. -aggregates: filler, sand, gravel or chipping - hydrocarbon mixtures are used for scaling works, hydrocarbon pavements, etc.

28

(VII)Building metals
1)Technology of cast iron(fonta) and steel - raw material for production of cast iron is iron ore(minereu de fier). It contains an useful part(iron oxides) and gangue(ganga) useful part. - main iron ores used for technology of cast iron are: -hematide; -limonite; -magnetite; -siderite; -pyrite;(cenusa de pirita) - cast iron is obtained in a blast-furnace or oven in which are introduced: -iron ore; solid fuel; -furnace coke(cocs de furnal)which is used as reduction agent for oxides; iron carburetion; -fusing agent which eliminates gangue from iron ore; -hot air under pressure; - inside the blast-furnace takes place an operation of iron reduction by the carbon monoxide which results from furnace coke and hot air. Finally the reaction between iron(reduced from iron oxides) and carbon(from furnace coke) gives the cementite that is iron+ carbon. At high temperatures (1250-1300 oC) cementite will dissolve into iron which is carbureted and so the cast iron results. - cast iron is an iron-carbon alloy with 2.5-5% carbon. 2)Types of cat iron -grey cast iron is a soft material and can be produced by machine tools; -with cast iron is a hard material and is used for production of (special) steel; -special cast iron has alloy elements(Si, Mn, Al, etc.); - cast iron products have high mechanical resistance, god chemical resistance but they have brittle failure and hard or impossible working up. - cast iron is used for bearings or sanitary engineering; 3)Steel 3.1)Introduction - is obtained from cast iron by removing within permiffed limits of carbon and other impurities(ex: Si, P, etc.). it is an iron-carbon alloy with 0.03-1.7 carbon. - it can be obtained in different furnaces which are: -converter; -Martin furnace or Siemens-Martin furnace; -electrical furnace; 3.2)Steel treatments - steel ingot(metal block) is treated by mechanical, heat and chemical treatments; a)mechanical treatment will transform a metal block into products which can be used: -hot rolling and cold rolling; -hot forging(forjare la cald) and hammer hardening; -hot rolling or wire drowing; -hot stamping and cold stamping; b)heat treatments are done by heating and cooling in determined conditions, of steel products. In this way the steel structure, mechanical and physical properties are modified; - most important heat treatments are: 29

-annealing (recoacere); -normalising; -hardening(calire); -draw-back/tempering (revenire); -steel ageing; c)heat-chemical treatments will improve the surface properties of steels such as hardness and chemical resistance -superficial cementation or surface carburizing (with carbon); -nitrification or azotize(with azot); 4)Mechanical properties of metals(steel); 4.1)Tension test(incercare la intindere); - it is the most important determination on metals. The test is done with an universal testing machine on special samples with circular or rectangular C.S. Stress-strain diagram of typical reinforcing steel are presented in Fig.1a and 1b;

ftk ftk f0.2k fyk

uk

a)Hot-rolled steel -tension stress;

0.2% uk b)Cold-rolled steel -tensile strain corresponding to the max tensile strength;

-tension strain;
ftk-tension strength;

uk-yield stress(efort la curgere);

f0.2k-consentional yield stress S0-nominal C.S. area

30

- the yield stress is defined as the chemical value of the yield load divided by the nominal C.S. aria i.e.
f yk = Fy k N S 0 mm 2

- the yield stress f0.2k is a conventional wield stress. It is defined as the characteristic value of the yield load which corresponds to a non-proportional strain of 0.2% divided to the nominal C.S. area i.e. f 0.2 k = F0.2 k N S 0 m m
2

- the tensile strength ftk is defined as the characteristic value of the maximum load in direct axial tension divided by the nominal C.S. area
ft k = Fmax N S 0 mm 2

5)Types of structural steel 5.1)Types of steel - steels can be classified as follows: a)Carbon steel(otel-carbon) -has in composition: Fe, C and some impurities(Si, Mn, P, S, etc.); -can be: -plain steel(otel-cabon obisnuit) with treatments and fourquality classes. It is used for steel constructions and reinforcing-steel(otel-beton); -quality steel with luat and chemical treatments. It is used for structural steel section(otel profilat pentru constructia de masini); -high-quality steel has a special quality conditions. It is used for special steel constructions; b)low-alloy steel and alloy steel(otel slab aliat) -with alloying elements(Si, Mn, Cr, Ni, etc.) -structural steel is a plain steel and low-alloy steel; -notation for structural steel is for example: OL34.1 -OL=rolled steel(otel laminat) Where: -34=tensile strength(daN/mm2); -1=quality class; Structural steel can be used for: -steel or metal constructions; -reinforced concrete constructions;(beton armat); -prestressed-concrete constructions(constructii de beton precomprimat); 5.2)Steel constructions Products for steel constructions include: {profile laminate -hot-rolled profiles la cald/rece} -cold-rolled profiles used for building structures

a)Hot-rolled profiles(can be used for steel structures) -round steel -semiround steel -rectangular bar steel (otel in bara rectangularra/cu sectiune rectangulara) -bared steel(steel strip) (placuta de otel/banda de otel) -corrugated iron 31

(tabla ondulata) -chequered plate (tabla striata)

-angle steel (otel cornier)

-I-bar (otel profil I)

-channel iron (otel U(cu profil U))

-T steel (otel T(cu profil T))

b)Cold-rolled profiles are formed from steel strips lik OL34; OL37; etc. and they are produced as profiles such as: Z, L, T, etc.; c)Steel pipes and steel tubes are either hot-rolled or cold-rolled and are used for water supplies and building structures;

5.3)Reinforced concrete constructions -are used the following types of steels for three kinds of constructions: a)carbon steel with round section(OB37) 32

Where: -OB round bar steel or reinforcing steel(otel-betonat); -37 tensile strength[daN/mm2] ; -d diameter [mm] (d=6-40mm); b)low-alloy steel with periodical profile (PC52)

Where: -PC hot rolled steel with periodical profile; -52 tensile strength [daN/mm2]; -d=6-40mm; -these steel bars are hot-rolled. They are looted(a livra in seturi) as bars of 6-18m if diameter is over 12mm and as rings of wire(colaci de sarma) for diameter less than 12mm; c)dead-drown wire for concrete(STNB)(sarma turnata/trefilata) d=3-10mm -it is used as: -welded wire mesh(plasa de sarma sudata); -stirrup(etrirt); in concrete elements;

Welded wire mesh 5.4)Pressed concrete constructions For these are used: a)Dead-drawn wire, which can be: 33

Stirrup

-high-resistance patented(patentat) wire(SBP), which is a bardeuled(calita) round wire;[d=1.5-3mm]; -high-resistance profiled wire(sarma profilata)(SBPA); [d=5.6-7mm]; b)Products of patented wire such as: -wattle-work (impletirura,lita)of 2 or 3 wires(LBP); -strands(of 7 wires) [d=9-12mm]; c)Wires and bars of high-resistance, low-alloyed and hot-rolled;

34