IMPACT OF EDUCATION ON THE PRODUCTION AND USE OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS AND CONCOCTIONS BY NIGERIANS

(A CASE STUDY OF ONDO TOWN)

A RESEARCH PROJECT

SUBMITTED TO

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ADEYEMI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ONDO, ONDO STATE

BY AKINLOSOTU AYOKUNLE OLALEKAN

050584D

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BIOLOGY EDUCATION (B.Sc ED)

FEBRUARY, 2010
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CERTIFICATION This is to certify that this research project was carried out by Akinlosotu Ayokunle Olalekan and submitted to the department of Biology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, Ondo state.

Adenegan-Alakinde T.A. Supervisor

. Dr. Femi Olajuiyegbe Head of Department

DEDICATION This project work is dedicated to God Almighty who is the giver of all wisdom and excellence. And to the memory of my loving mother Mrs. Florence Olufunke Akinlosotu.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my profound gratitude to my father Mr. S.A Akinlosotu and siblings Mr. Olarewaju Akinmade , Mrs. Caroline Arowosebe and Mrs. Victoria Adetoyinbo who have contributed immensely to the successful completion of my studies. Much thanks to my supervisor, Mrs. Adenegan-Alakinde whose useful advice and constructive criticism has contributed in no small measure to the success of this research project. Space and time will fail me to mention everyone that has been there for me in one way or the other, however, I must acknowledge my Head of Department, Dr. Femi Olajuyigbe for his fatherly advice and role in my studentship, Mr. Ilori, Mr. Sanni, Mr. Sabejeje, Dr. (Mrs) Oni, Mrs. Akinkuolie, Mr. Olaniyan, Mrs Awe Dr (Mrs) Ayoola, Mrs. Adebola. There is no self-made man on earth. In my journey so far , I have met individuals who have helped in building a destiny. I greatly appreciate Olatunde Folarin Ferdinand, Adeoye Tobi, Abesin Temitope, Winney Ben-Abba and of course my best friend, Pelemo Toluwalope Omotola.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TITLE PAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i ii iii iv v-vi vii

CERTIFICATION. DEDICATION. .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ABSTRACT. CHAPTER ONE 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 INTRODUCTION. . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . . . . .

1 2

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY. . STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY. . .

SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY. . SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY. . . .

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS. DEFINITION OF TERMS. . . . .

CHAPTER TWO 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE. . . .

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HERBAL DECOCTION. HEALTH EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTION. SOCIAL EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS. EDUCATIONAL PATTERNS AND HERBAL DECOCTION CONSUMPTION AMONG NIGERIANS. . . . .

CHAPTER THREE 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. STUDY AREA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DESIGN OF THE STUDY METHOD. THE STUDY SAMPLE.. SAMPLING TECHNIQUE. . . . .

DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT. FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS. METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS. . . . .. .

CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION. RESULT OF RESEARCH STUDY. . DATA ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . .

TEST AND INTERPRETATION OF HYPOTHESIS. .

CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION CONCLUSION SUMMARY RECOMMENDATION REFERENCES APPENDIX - QUESTIONNAIRES

ABSTRACT Herbal trade has been on the increase in Nigeria in recent times not only because it is cost effective but also because of easy accessibility and reported efficacy. Herbal medicines may be dispensed in rened ways by display in supermarkets and drug stores, and sometimes in hospitals and by crude means involving hawking directly to customers in various forms as ground powder, cooked decoction and concoction. The business is branded paraga in the parlance of the consumers. This complementary health care endeavour of the people encouraged the present study with the aims to relate educational status of a consumer to the knowledge and its safety. Well structured questionnaires were used to elicit information from respondents. Five hundred (500) questionnaires were distributed and four hundred and eighty five (485) were returned. The result revealed that 70% of the total sample size are consumers, of which 14% of them are educated. Data analysis of responses were done using simple descriptive statistics. Recommendations were however made that self medication is a risk of getting some complications. So , it is important for one to consult ones doctor and pharmacist before taking herbal medicine.

CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Herbal medicine - also called botanical medicine or phytomedicine refers to using a plant's seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark, or flowers for medicinal purposes. Herbalism has a long tradition of use outside of conventional medicine. It is becoming more mainstream as

improvements in analysis and quality control along with advances in clinical research show the value of herbal medicine in the treating and preventing disease (Gillespie, 1997). Plants had been used for medicinal purposes long before recorded history. Ancient Chinese and Egyptian papyrus writings describe medicinal uses for plants. Indigenous cultures (such as African and Native American) used herbs in their healing rituals, while others developed traditional medical systems (such as Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine) in which herbal therapies were used. Researchers found that people in different parts of the world tended to use the same or similar plants for the same purposes. Traditional medicine can be described as the total combination of knowledge and practice, whether explicable or not, used in diagnosing, preventing or eliminating a physical, mental or social disease and which may rely exclusively on past experience and observation handed down from generation to generation, verbally or in writing (Sofowora, 1982). A medicinal plant is any plant which in one or more of its organs contains substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs. The use of medicinal plants as remedies is common and widespread in Nigeria. Currently, the society at large appreciates natural cure, which medicinal plants provide
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compared to synthetic cure. The plants parts used in remedies include the bark, leaves, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds (Sofowora, 1982). 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The discoveries of the use of plant for food and as medicine began at a very early stage in human evolution. The history of the use of plants dates back to the time of the early man. The art of using plants to enhance his health must have come to the early man in the most unscientific way. Some people may want to believe that he used his instinct to identify poisonous and non-poisonous plants while some accept that there were external forces or invisible help guided him to know what he could eat freely to keep fit. No matter which one is accepted the truth is that the early man used plants in the raw form and cooked form to keep fit. Since that time, the use/consumption of herbs has been known and accepted by all nations on the surface of the earth. (Kafaru, 1994). Herbal trade is on the increase in Nigeria in the recent times not only because it is cost effective but also because of easy accessibility and reported efficacy. In the early 19th century, when chemical analysis first became available, scientists began to extract and modify the active ingredients from plants. Later, chemists began making their own version of plant compounds, and over time, the use of herbal medicines declined in favor of drugs. Recently, the World Health Organization estimated that 80% of people worldwide rely on herbal medicines for some part of their primary health care. In Germany, about 600 - 700 plant-based medicines are available and are prescribed by some 70% of German physicians. In the last 20 years in the United States, public dissatisfaction with the cost of prescription medications, combined with an interest in returning to
9

natural or organic remedies, has led to an increase in herbal medicine use. In many cases, scientists are not sure what specific ingredient in a particular herb works to treat a condition or illness. Whole herbs contain many ingredients, and they may work together to produce a beneficial effect. Many factors determine how effective an herb will be. For example, the type of environment (climate, bugs, soil quality) in which a plant grew will affect it, as will how and when it was harvested and processed. The use of herbal supplements has increased dramatically over the past 30 years. Herbal supplements are classified as dietary supplements by the U.S. Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 2004. That means herbal supplements -- unlike prescription drugs -- can be sold without being tested to prove that they are safe and effective. Herbal medicines are used to treat many conditions, such as asthma, eczema, premenstrual syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine,

menopausal symptoms, chronic fatigue, and irritable bowel syndrome, among others. Herbal treatment is one of the primary medicines used to treat HIV in Africa. It is used more than standard treatment because it is more affordable. Herbal treatment is more affordable but is not researched and is poorly regulated. This lack of research on whether the Herbal medicines work and what the medicines may pose a major flaw in the healing cycle of HIV in Africa. Because the unprecedented epidemic scourge of HIV/AIDs in Africa, has made herbal medicine to be embraced by illiterates and the educated as an alternative curative measure as well as to ameliorate for lack of funds necessary to access antiretroviral treatment. Difficulties surrounding access to orthodox
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treatment has also made a reasonable percentage of the both educated and illiterates to patronize traditional means of health care delivery system. Herbal medicines may be dispensed in refined ways by direct hawking, displayed in supermarkets and drug stores, and sometimes in hospitals and by crude means involving hawking directly to customers in various forms as ground powder, cooked decoction and concoction. The business is branded paraga in the parlance of the users. This complementary health care endeavour of the people encouraged the present study with the aims to evaluate the caliber of people that patronize it, the trend of incorporation of the approach into health care delivery with respect to the educational and exposure/awareness level of consumers impacting on the trend consumption of these

herbal/medicinal decoctions and concoctions. 1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Herbal decoction and concoction consumption is a widespread observable phenomenon among adult population in Southwestern region of Nigeria, particularly in Ondo Town. The level of education and exposure to the orthodox medical implications notwithstanding. Many people irrespective of being aware of the dangers posed by these mixtures which most often than not within our area of consideration are poorly and unhygienically prepared still continue to patronize sellers. These mixtures come in different forms with several coded names like jembele, kaikan apetesi, 404, karugbojo, and, lately, paraga and so on. Its sales and consumption has become the norm and in fact makes for a curious sight if not found at any particular area in Ondo township and its environs. They are even graded; to know if the one has purchased a high grade, the consumer could pour a little on the ground and light a match stick. If it burns with blue flames, then it is of a very high grade.
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But if it does not, it is regarded as of a very poor grade. Such is the profile of some of these drinks. It is expected that the educated ones know better but as it is, there is much left to be desired by the prevailing trend of and caliber of consumers as it cuts across all strata, academics, illiterates, artisans, drivers etc. Through this study, an attempt would be made to look at this trend of consumption of herbal decoctions and its corresponding relationship with education. 1.3. PURPOSE OF STUDY This project is basically to evaluate the extent to which education impacts on the rate and pattern of consumption of herbal decoctions and concoctions. Different classes of the society would be examined and their culpability and or participation in herbal decoction and concoction consumption highlighted. 1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY

This project topic although broad will be limited to what obtains within Ondo Town. In an attempt to achieve the objectives of this study, the researcher would consider what herbal decoction and concoction actually is and the perception of the concept by some authors. The various classes of users will be examined. Furthermore, the educational impact on this trend of lifestyle would be put into consideration. 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This research project is significant in highlighting if the level of exposure and education of the general populace has a measurable and
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observable impact on their behavioural trends especially as relating to the production, selling and consumption of herbal/medicinal decoctions and concoctions as well as briefly look at some of the attendant effects this has on their health and social life. 1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS

In this research project, the following questions are posed: 1. Has the level of education been a determinant factor in the consumption of herbal decoction? 2. 3. What are the benefits of herbal decoction to the society? Has the herbal decoction sector had impact on improving health standard? 4. What are the problems associated with the production, sale and consumption of herbal concoctions? 5. Should herbal decoction be accepted as an alternative to modern medicine? 6. Is alcohol a more preferred solvent in the preparation of herbal concoctions? HYPOTHESES I. Ho: H1: Educational level has no significant impact on herbal decoction consumption. Educational level has significant impact on herbal decoction consumption. II. H0: H1: There is no significant impact in the refining and production process with exposure to education. There is significant impact in the refining and production process with exposure to education.

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III.

H0: H1:

Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine. Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox medicine.

IV

H0: H1:

Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers. Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.

1.7

DEFINITION OF TERMS

CONCOCTION: To prepare by combining raw materials e.g. a recipe DECOCTION: Extract obtained by decocting or boiling HERBAL: Of, Relating to, utilizing, or made of herbs MEDICINAL: Tending or used to cure disease or relieve pain PARAGA: Locally brewed gin or any class of herbal concoctions mixed in it.

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CHAPTER TWO 2.0. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE This chapter is a highlight of relevant literature and corresponding primary source information relative to the scope of the research study. Opinions, suggestions and ideas of various authors on the subject of herbal decoction, methods, administration and dispensing as well as the socio-cultural implications on the society will be discussed. 2.1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS The history of herbal decoction and concoction in Ondo Town and the country at large pre-dates independence. It was such a boost that during the colonial era, the resultant competition posed to the colonialists efforts of introducing their brandy and gin into the country gave rise to the official ban placed on herbal concoctions. Although the primary products then were not targeted at health issues as in recent developments, it was a large and booming business even as at then. Herbal decoctions popularly referred to as paraga was locally prepared and found in large quantities in every nook and cranny of the country. It was and is still the predominant occupation of a sizeable population of certain ethnic groups in Nigeria. They include the Urhobo, Ijaw and Ilaje. It is revered by them. It is egregiously consumed by these people and a large population of other Nigerians across the country who have developed a special taste for this drink (Wambebe C, 1998). Herbal concoctions are popular among Nigerians wherever they congregate anywhere. Over the years, these special mixtures have assumed importance in many traditional ceremonies hosted by these groups. It is difficult to come across any adult from these areas who have never tasted the herbal decoction and concoctions before. Local
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residents of several towns and villages in Nigeria usually prefer to drink or administer this home-brewed herbs than any other unorthodox medicine or any drink at that, be it beer, brandy, whisky or dry gin. They are simply addicted to it. In some instances, an occasion or ceremony is adjudged incomplete without free flow of paraga, at least among the local populace. 2.2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTION

The distinction between foods, dietary supplements, and drugs is already being blurred by the burgeoning market in so-called functional foods (such as cholesterol-lowering margarine), which aim to provide health benefits beyond mere nutrient value. Moreover, recent advances in molecular biology offer the possibility of using genetic profiles to determine unique nutrient requirements, thereby providing customized dietary recommendations to more effectively delay or prevent disease. Safety and efficacy concerns must needs be addressed, as designer foods fortified with herbs and bioactive substances continue to proliferate. Some herbal supplements, especially those imported from Asian countries, may contain high levels of heavy metals, including lead, mercury, and cadmium. It is important to purchase herbal supplements from reputable manufacturers to ensure quality. In most developing countries, including Nigeria, the majority of the populace lives in the rural areas, where the use of herbal medicines is common. The consumption of herbal medicines in the urban areas is on the increase, arising from the global inflationary trend, which hampers the sustainable supply of orthodox medicines and reduces the purchasing power of the populace. The Nigerian Government has recognized the need and shown political will by approving and adopting guidelines for the practice of traditional medicine. The regulatory
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authority, the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), has also taken steps to protect the health of consumers by drafting the 'Guidelines for the Registration and Control of Herbal Medicinal Products and Related Substances in Nigeria'. Three broad classes are defined in the Guidelines, and preparations will be considered under four categories, each of which has its protocol. Extemporaneous preparations are only to be listed and not registered or advertised. Post-listing evaluation or monitoring is, however, mandatory. Herbal medicinal products manufactured on a large scale, whether imported or locally manufactured, must be registered and their advertisement messages and scripts approved by NAFDAC prior to their marketing. Homeopathic medicinal products must be registered and their advertisement messages approved prior to marketing. Post-registration evaluation or monitoring is also mandatory for both large-scale herbal medicinal products and homeopathic products. Extremely limited knowledge about the ingredients in some herbal medicines and their effects in humans, the lack of stringent quality control and the heterogeneous nature of herbal medicines all necessitate the continuous monitoring of the safety of these products (Chan, T.Y,1997).

2.3

SOCIAL EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS

One of the most noticeable social effect of herbal decoctions is the issue of economic empowerment. Especially in a culture where poverty is the order of the day, a discovery of a societal need is a promise of economic relieve. A cross-section of Nigerians feed and live on the proceeds of the sales of this drink. They do not know any other trade. Apart from the brewers themselves, there are other middlemen who buy
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and take the drinks to other parts of the country. This has been a major source of income for traders plying their trade in herbal decoctions. Besides the economic benefits derived from the production and sale of herbal decoctions, there is also the question of influence, affluence and respect as most of these practitioners are well thought of in society and revered with high sounding titles like chief, doctor, prince and the likes. Generally, producers and to an extent sellers are highly regarded in the society irrespective of their educational status as they are seen to play an important role in meeting the health and psychological needs of the society. As related to standard behavioral pattern (Howanitz et al, 1979; British Pharmaceutical Codex, 1979), those who ingest herbal decoction (paraga) would have a mild influence on stereoscopic vision and lack of adaptation. While those who drink palmwine would be expected to experience euphoria, disappearance of inhibition and prolonged reaction time, those who ingested beer, ogogoro, and gin would undergo moderately severe poisoning with greatly prolonged reaction time, loss of inhibition and slight disturbance in equilibrium and coordination 2.4 EDUCATIONAL PATTERNS AND HERBAL DECOCTION

CONSUMPTION AMONG NIGERIANS Nearly two-thirds of Nigerians consume herbs. Kunle, O. (2000) reported that unfortunately nearly 70% of people taking herbal medicines were well educated and had a higher-than-average income. These set of people were reluctant to tell their doctors that they used complementary and alternative medicine. Most respondents also provided that they have been using herbal decoctions for quite some time and the art of herbal decoction processing and production was acquired by training from
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friends, neighbours, mothers, fathers or mothers- and fathers-in-law through apprenticeships (usually a short period), mere observation and hereditary induction to the craft and thus had the requisite knowledge in plant identification, materials and methods of preparation and dispensing of the right treatment for the right ailment. Many herbs can interact with prescription medications and cause unwanted or dangerous reactions. The herbs available in most stores come in several different forms: teas, syrups, oils, liquid extracts, tinctures, and dry extracts (pills or capsules). A level of education is therefore necessary for a consumer to be able to communicate effectively to a seller in getting the right treatment for a specific ailment.

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CHAPTER THREE 3.0 3.1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY STUDY AREA: ONDO

Ondo town, Ondo state, southwestern Nigeria, lies at the southern edge of the Yoruba Hills (elevation 940 feet [287 m]) and the intersection of roads from Ife, Akure, and Okitipupa. Ondo region lies within latitude 070,40N and longitude 040,80E. The town is about 30Km south of Akure, the Ondo State capital. The town is a collecting point for cocoa and palm oil and kernels, it is a local market centre (yams, cassava, corn [maize], poultry, fish, fruits, palm produce, pumpkins, okra) and the location of a branch office of the Federal Ministry of Trade. Wooden doors and furniture are manufactured at Ondo. It also serves as the site of several teacher-training colleges. Infact, the foremost teacher training college in Nigeria is located in Ondo Town. It also has a good number of secondary schools, a vocational institute, and hospitals. It has an estimated population of about 1,457,300 (2006 Census). 3.2 The DESIGN OF THE STUDY METHODS researcher administered a twenty-four question structured

questionnaire among the producers, consumers and sellers of herbal decoction within Ondo Town. This was closely followed by oral interviews to capture the responses of those who do not have formal education and so could not fill out the questionnaire. The researcher thereafter resorted to random selection process from the data collected through the questionnaire instrument. The specific areas covered within Ondo Town for the purpose of this research study were selected relaxation spots joints where herbal decoctions are sold covering five prominent areas of the town namely:
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Odosida, Surulere, Yaba, Oka and Valentino. Adeyemi College Road (Rainbow), Oke-Isegun Street, Ebido Street, Oke-Odunwo and Road 3 respectively were places where the questionnaires were administered. 3.3 THE STUDY SAMPLE

The research sample will involve five hundred people made up of fiftytwo brewers, one hundred and eight sellers and three hundred and forty consumers; men or women randomly selected and approached within Ondo Town which is the area of focus. Thus the population is divided into the categories consisting of: - Producers (brewers) - Sellers and - Consumers Recognition was also given to the principle of fair representation and based on this principle, a sample size of five hundred on the proportion of each group within the total population was chosen. A total of five hundred questionnaires were distributed to the respondents at randomly selected spots within Ondo Town. A breakdown of the four hundred and eighty five returned questionnaires is as follows: Table 1: Analysis of Total Population and Selected Sample Size DESIGNATION OF RESPONDENTS PRODUCERS (BREWERS) SELLERS CONSUMERS TOTAL POPULATION 52 108 340 485 PERCENTAGE (%) 10.7 19.2 70.1 100

From the total population of respondents, the producers represented a total percentage of 10.7% (52), sellers accounted for 19.2% (108) while consumers numbered 340 (70.1%). The result showed clearly that there
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are many consumers of herbal decoctions within Ondo Town, which is a justification for the need of the research study. SEX OF CONSUMERS S/NO CATEGORY OF NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE RESPONDENT RESPONDENTS (%) 1. Male 322 66 2. Female 163 34 Total 485 100
Source: Field Survey, February 2010

It was found out that there are more male consumers than females. From the result, 66% of the consumers were males while 34% were females. This could be a result of the preference of alcohol as a suitable solvent in the preparation of herbal decoctions (paraga), which is why more males accounted for the highest number of consumers as against females, given that males are taken into alcoholic and strong drinks than females. SEX OF SELLERS S/NO CATEGORY OF NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE RESPONDENT RESPONDENTS (%) 1. Male 103 21 2. Female 382 79 Total 485 100
Source: Field Survey, February 2010

More females sell herbal decoctions than males. From the distribution above, only 21% of the sellers are males compared to 79% of the respondents who were females. Females are usually an attraction point and represent a better marketing class than their male counterparts. This most probably justified the number of females being more that sell herbal decoctions (paraga) than males as they are likely to attract more customers, perhaps for their feminism.
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3.4

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Questionnaires were distributed randomly to respondents in the area of focus based on the sample size distribution. However, during the process of distribution, some respondents rejected it while some collected but did not return it and others collected and were also willing to help if the need arose. Some of those that cooperated requested more time to complete the assignment. The researcher later persuaded other respondents to cooperate fully. At the end of the day, the numbers of questionnaire returned by the respondents was encouraging. 3.5 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

For the purpose of this research work, Ondo Town was solely considered. The researcher chose the use of questionnaire and personal interview to gather information, this is because experience has shown that the above instrument happens to be the most appropriate when collecting unique and exceptional facts. There were twenty four questions to which each respondent reacted. The questionnaires were divided into two sections. The first section included the personal data of the respondents like the sex, the age and educational qualification. The second section included twenty questions to which the respondents reacted. There was also oral interviews to collect further information that was not sufficiently catered to by the questionnaires. In designing the questionnaire, the questions were asked and drawn from possible impact of education on the use of herbal decoctions. The personal interviews were held with some respondents who were illiterates and other consumers of herbal decoctions on whom it was impossible to administer the questionnaire.
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Questions asked were: names of plants that are commonly used to cure a number of diseases, recipe formulation and method of administration. The respondents cut across the social and educational strata of Ondo Town. 3.6 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

In the course of this research work, some hypotheses were formulated based on the findings contained in the literature review. These hypotheses will be tested in order to ascertain their validity. HYPOTHESES I. Ho: H1: Educational level has no significant impact on herbal decoction consumption. Educational level has significant impact on herbal decoction consumption. II. H0: H1: There is no significant impact in the refining and production process with exposure to education. There is significant impact in the refining and production process with exposure to education.

III.

H0: H1:

Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine. Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox medicine.

IV

H0: H1:

Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers. Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.

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3.7

METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

For this research work, the researcher employed the chi-square (X2) method in testing the goodness of the various relationships between the hypothesized variables as well as the five point-like Likert scale of Agree, Strongly Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree and Undecided instrument. Also, personal data in the study were analyzed using simple percentages.

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CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 4.1 RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION RESULTS OF RESEARCH STUDY

Names of plants used for some of the various disease treatments are presented in Tables A and B showing both scientific and vernacular names (Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba), part of plants used, taxonomic family names, reported chemical constituents and popular uses. Table A: Plants commonly used for Herbal decoction preparations in Ondo.
BOTANICAL NAMES COMMON/LOCAL PARTS USED FAMILY NAMES MALARIA (Iba) Enantia Awopa (Y), African Bark Annonaceae chlorantha yellow wood Citrus aurantifolia Osan wewe (Y) , Juice Rutaceae lime Cymbopoqon Ewe tea (Y), Lemon Leaf Poacease citrates grass Maqnifera indica Ewe mangoro (Y), Leaf Anacardiaceae Azadirachta Dogonyaro (H), Leaf Meliaceae indica Neem tree, Aforooyingbo (Y), Ogwu (I) PILE / BACK ACHE (Jedi / Opa eyin) Sabicea calycina Ogan (Y) Bark Rubiaceae Lannea Orira (Y) Bark Anacardiaceae welwitschii Aristolochia Akoigun (Y) Leaf Aristolochiaceae albida Lophira Panhan pupa/funfun Bark Ochnaceae lanceolata (Y) Syzygium Konofuru (Y), clove Fruit Myrtaceae Aromaticum Tetrapleura Aidan (Y) Fruit Mimosaceae Tetraptera PEPPER SOUP: Control of menstruation. Capsicum annum Ata ijosi (Y) Fruit Solanaceae Piper quineense Iyere (Y) Seed Piperaceae Allium sativum Ayu (Y) garlic Bulb Amaryllidaceae
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Zingiber officinale Syzygium Aromaticum Ocimum gratissimum Monodora myristica Xylopia aethiopica Sorghum bicolor Symphonia Globulifera Carpolobea lutei

Ata ile (Y), Konofuru (Y), Clove

Ginger Rhizome Flower bud

Zingiberaceae Myrtaceae Lamiaceae Annonaceae Annonaceae

Efirin (Y), Nchianwu Leaf (I) Ariwo (Y), Ehuru (I) Fruit Eru (Y) Fruit

TONIC (Ogun eje) Poroporo baba (Y), guinea corn Leaf ERECTION (Ale) Ogolo (Y), Hog-gum tree Roots Osun-sun (Y) Roots WATERY SPERM (Afato) Ogolo (Y) Roots GONORRHOEA (Atosi) Baara (Y) Fruit Ayu (Y), Abere (Y), Garlic Bulb Neou oil Fruit

Poaceae Apiaceae Polygalaceae

Sympholia Globulifera Citrullus colocynthis Allium sativum Parinari sp.

Apiaceae

Cucurbitaceae Amaryllidaceae tree Rosaceae

Table B:- Some drug plants used in Nigerian unorthodox medicine.

Botanical Names Allium Sativum

Family Amaryllidaceae

Part used Bulb

Constituent s Sulphur oils

Medicinal Uses Vermifuge, intestinal disinfectant, Vasodilator (arteriosclerosis), antibiotic, Stomachic, tonic, fever (malaria), ingredients in guinea worm remedy, local analgesic

Aristolochia albida

Aristolochiaceae Roots Leaves

Aristolochine

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Azadirachta indica

Meliaceae

Itrullus colocynthis

Cucurbitaceae

Leaves, stem, seeds, root bark Fruit pulp

Margosa oils

Bitter, anti pyretic, parasitic, skin diseases

Cymbopogon citratus

Poaceae

Plants, Leaves

Colocynthin, Citrullol, amorphous alkaloid Essential oils Febrifuge

Purge (drastic, rarely prescribed alone) Malaria teas, insect repellant, carminative (obsolete), source of citral for vitamin A synthesis. Fevers, sleeping sickness, malaria, dysentery Wound dressing, dysentery Anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, fever, veneral infections, jaundice, coughs Astringent, skin leaves lesions, sore gums, diarrhea, piles Febrifuge, colds, stomachic, carminative Purge, Diarrhoea and dysentery, tonic wound dressing. restorative soup after child birth, embrocation for sprains, aromatic.

Enantia chlorantha Lannea welwitschii Lophira lanceolata

Annonaceae

Anacardiaceae

Ochnaceae

Stem bark, Roots Roots, bark, Leaves Roots, bark, leaves, seeds

Berberine

N/A

N/A

Magnifera indica

Anacardiaceae

Bark, leaves

Tannin, resins

Ocimum gratissimum Parinari sp.

Lamiaceae

Leaves, roots Stem, fruits, kernels Fruits, leaves Parinarium sterol A & B

Rosaceae

Piper Guineense

Piperaceae

Chavine, piperine Carminative,

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Sabiacea Calycina Symphonia globulifera

Rubiaceae

Roots

Apiaceae

Syzygium aromaticum

Myrtaceae

Tetrapleura tetraptera

Mimosaceae

Zingiber Officinale

Zingiberaceae

Wound dressing. rheumatism, panacea Fruits, N/A Diuretic, wound leaves, dressing, venereal exudates diseases, stomachic, tonic. Buds, Volatile oil, Toothache, mouth Volatile gallotonic sores, coughs, oil, acid, wound dressing. Caryophyllin Barks, Mimosine, Emetic, tonic, fruits, saponin venereal whole diseases, plant fever, rheumatism, flatulence, jaundice, convulsions. Rhizome, Gingerol, Indigestion, roots essential oil coughs, stimulant, anti microbial carminative, flavouring agent.

N/A

4.2

DATA ANALYSIS

Since the questionnaire were designed to facilitate easy analysis, it is necessary to follow the system as itemized in the questionnaire. The method of testing the hypotheses would be based on Chi-square (X2) tests.

29

TABLE A1: AGE OF RESPONDENTS S/NO AGE GROUP 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Below 25 years 25 34 years 35 44 years 45 54 years 55 and above Total NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE RESPONDENTS (%) 29 6 121 25 146 30 170 35 19 4 485 100

Source: Field Survey, February 2010

Adults generally patronize and their religious beliefs (Islamic and Christianity) is not a barrier. There are very few respondents that fall below 25 years (6%), while 25% are between 25 34 years, 30% are between 35 44 years, 35% are between 45 54 years and the remainder 4% and from 55 and above. From the table as observed, the highest group of consumers fall between the age group range of 45-54 years and 35-44 years respectively. This is probably because they are the working class cadre and perhaps consume herbal decoctions to help them cope with the stress and demands of their work places as well as to serve as a stimulant and energy booster. TABLE A2: MARITAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS S/NO MARITAL STATUS 1. 2. 3. 4. Single Married Divorced Widowed/er Total NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE RESPONDENTS (%) 330 68 82 17 58 12 15 3 485 100

Source: Field Survey, February 2010

Rate of production, sales and consumption cuts across the various groups. Almost all categories be they single, married, divorced or widowed/widowers. As can be observed in the above distribution where
30

about 68% of the respondents are single, about 17% are married, 12% are divorced and 3% are widows or widowers. TABLE A3: EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS
S/NO EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. WASC/GCE OND/NCE HND/B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed M.Sc/M.Ed/M.A/PhD No Formal Education Total
Source: Field Survey, February 2010

NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS 215 52 34 34 150 485

PERCENTAGE (%) 44 11 7 7 31 100

Automobile mechanics, vehicle drivers, bus conductors, traders, uniformed force and para-military force men and women, corporate individuals and highly placed people in the society all use herbal medicinal decoctions. Educated people cumulatively accounted for 69% of the respondents under survey while 31% had no formal education.

SECTION B The following analyzed data are the information collected by the twenty four investigating statements of the five hundred questionnaires instrument used for the collection of data, out of which four hundred and eighty five were returned and deemed valid for the purpose of this research study.

31

TABLE 4: RESEARCH QUESTION 1. Has the level of education been a determinant factor in the consumption of herbal decoction?
VARIABLES S/N 1. 2. ITEMS A SA 44 52 D 267 78 SD 53 97 U 9 78

Only uneducated persons consume herbal 112 decoctions and concoctions (paraga). Educated individuals, illiterates and artisans 180 are usually the target consumers of herbal decoction. Education is a key to mastering the art and 204 craft of herbal decoction (paraga) brewing.

3.

99

154

12

16

Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

From the data obtained in item 1 in the table above, 9% (44) of the respondents strongly agreed to the statement that only uneducated persons consume herbal decoctions and concoctions. Another 23% (112) agreed, while 11% (53) strongly disagreed and 55% (267) disagreed. 2% (9) of the respondents were undecided concerning the statement. From item 2, though the assertion covers almost all categories of herbal decoction consumers, about 19% (52) of the respondents strongly agreed, 37% (180) agreed and 12% (78) strongly disagreed. Another 20% (97) disagreed while 12% (78) were undecided. Item 3 above shows that 20% (99) of the respondents strongly agreed that education is a key to mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction brewing. 42% (204) agreed while 2% (12) strongly disagreed. Another 32% (154) disagreed while 4% (16) were undecided if education had a part in mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction brewing.

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TABLE 5: RESEARCH QUESTION 2 What are the benefits of herbal decoction to the society?
VARIABLES S/N 4. ITEMS A SA 44 D 190 SD 33 U 53

5.

6.

The business of medicinal herb selling is 165 an alternative source of income for the educated. Consumption of herbal decoctions is 40 dependent on mood swings among the educated. 184 Viability of herbal decoction

23

102

17 8

14 2 97

97

73

34

Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

Although any method or means of sustaining or alternating ones income is desirable within reasonable limits, from item 4 in the table above, it can be observed that a total of 43% (209) of the respondents agreed that the business of medicinal herb selling is an alternative source of income for the educated, while another 46% (223) disagreed. 11% (53) of the respondents could not clearly make the difference either way. Item 5 shows that a total of 13% (63) agreed to the use of herbal

decoctions being dependent of mood swings among the educated. 58% (280) others disagreed asserting it was a deliberate decision while 29% (142) were not sure as to the reason for the use of herbal decoctions among the educated. The business of medicinal herb selling which operates throughout the day in Ondo Town is the only source of income to 60% (291) of the sellers as highlighted in item 6 whereas the remaining 20% (97) combined the business with other trade. 20% (97) however are not truly into the business for any monetary derivation but to maintain perhaps a cultural heritage and identity.
33

TABLE 6: RESEARCH QUESTION 3 Has the herbal decoction sector had impact on improving health standard?
VARIABLES S/N 7. 8. ITEMS A SA 97 65 D 121 92 SD 2 48 U 49 -

Herbal concoctions are much preferred to 194 modern medicine. Herbal concoctions help maintain the 280 health standard of the people.

Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

From item 7 in the table above 60% (291) said that they prefer herbal concoctions to modern medicine (i.e. strongly agreed and agreed), 30% (123) preferred orthodox medicine to the practice whereas 10% (49) of the respondents was indifferent. In item 8, it can be observed that 13% (65) of the respondents strongly agreed that herbal concoctions help maintain the health standard of the people while 58% (280) agreed. Only a total of 29 % (92) of the respondents thought otherwise. TABLE 7: RESEARCH QUESTION 4 What are the problems associated with the production, sale and consumption of herbal concoctions?
VARIABLES S/N 9. ITEMS A SA 12 0 56 78 56 24 D 56 SD 33 U 78

10.

The government should be allowed to 198 regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption. The regulation and control of medicinal 271 herbal decoction production, sale and consumption should be left to the trade union.
34

Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

From the harrowing experiences by certain people from the hands of fraudulent and unscrupulous elements making merchandise out of the lives of the citizens, it is evident from the above distribution in item 9 that majority of the respondents; 318 (66%) would that the government should be allowed to regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption as against 18% (89) that disagreed. 16% (78) of them were indifferent. Herbal practitioners also have a trade union that regulates their activities. The resource herb-men and women responded that the business facilitated increased sales of their herbal materials as such an overwhelming majority as shown in item 10 in the table above,. 68% (327) agreed that the regulation and control of medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption should be left to the trade union. 27% (134) disagreed while 5% (24) were undecided whether to leave the regulation in the hands of the government or the trade unions.

TABLE 8: RESEARCH QUESTION 5 Should herbal decoction be accepted as an alternative to modern medicine?
VARIABLES S/N 11. ITEMS A 81 SA 50 D 122 SD 20 7 291 97 87 10 U 25

Herbal medicinal decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS. Herbal decoctions and concoctions are complementary to unorthodox medicine.

12.

Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

Item 11 in the table above displays the assertion that herbal medicinal decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS with a distribution
35

of 10% (50) for strongly agree, 17% (81) agree, 43% (207) strongly disagree, 25% (122) disagree and 5% (25) undecided about the sole curative potency of herbal medicinal concoctions. About its complementary role to unorthodox medicine as indicated in item 12 in the table above, 80% (388) supported its assisting significance while 20% (97) of the respondents did not agree. TABLE 9: RESEARCH QUESTION 6 Is alcohol a more preferred solvent in the preparation of herbal concoctions?
VARIABLES S/N 13. ITEMS A SA 91 D 34 SD 10 U 15 0 97 218 72 49

Alcohol is a better solvent for herbal 200 decoction than water. Water is the most suitable solvent for herbal concoctions.
49

14.

Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

On the response as to alcohol being used as a preferable solvent as highlighted in item 13 in the table above, 60% (291) of the respondents strongly agreed and agreed cummulatively. 2% (10) strongly disagreed and 7% (34) disagreed while 31% (150) might use alcohol or water depending on their mood as at the time of administration. A total of 30% (146) of the respondents chose water as the most suitable solvent for herbal concoctions, while a total of 60% (291) refuted the choice of water and another 10% (48) said it made no difference whatever solvent is used as shown in item 14 in the above table.

36

4.3

TEST AND INTERPRETATION OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis I Ho = NULL HYPOTHESIS Educational level has no significant impact on herbal decoction consumption. H1 = ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS Educational level has significant impact on herbal decoction consumption. TABLE 10 VARIABLE Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Undecided Total POPULATION 44 112 53 267 9 485 PERCENTAGE 9 23 11 55 2 100

The expected frequency is calculated by Grand Total _ Number of Classification, which gives 485 = 97 5 This is however used to test the hypothesis Table 11: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation VARIABLE Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Undecided Total O 44 112 53 267 9 485 E 97 97 97 97 97 485
37

OE -53 15 -44 170 -88 0

(O E)2 2809 225 1936 28900 7744 41614

(O E)2/E 28.958 2.319 19.958 297.938 79.835 429.008

From the above interpretation, E = Expected Value, O = Observed Value.

. . .

to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column Total Grand Total

Using the Chi Square statistic formula, X2 = (O E)2 E 2 2 X = (O E) E = 429.008 Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one =51 =4 The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level is 9.49 Decision Rule Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49). Interpretation We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 that Educational level has significant impact on herbal decoction consumption.

Hypothesis II H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS There is no significant impact in the refining and production process with exposure to education. H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS There is significant impact in the refining and production process with exposure to education.

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Table 12 VARIABLE Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Undecided Total POPULATION 99 204 12 154 16 485 PERCENTAGE 20 42 2 32 4 100

The expected frequency is calculated by Grand Total _ Number of Classification, which gives 485 = 97 5 This is however used to test the hypothesis

Table 13: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation VARIABLE Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Undecided Total O 99 204 12 154 16 485 E 97 97 97 97 97 485 OE 2 107 -85 57 -81 0 (O E)2 4 11449 7225 3249 6561 28488 (O E)2/E 0.041 118.030 74.484 33.494 67.639 293.688

From the above interpretation, E = Expected Value, O = Observed Value.

. . .

to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column Total Grand Total

Using the Chi Square statistic formula, X2 = (O E)2 E 2 2 X = (O E) E = 293.688

39

Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one =51 =4 The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level is 9.49 Decision Rule Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49). Interpretation We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 There is significant impact in the refining and production process with exposure to education. Hypothesis III H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox medicine. H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine. Table 14 VARIABLE Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Undecided Total POPULATION 97 291 10 87 485 PERCENTAGE 20 60 2 18 100

The expected frequency is calculated by Grand Total _ Number of Classification, which gives 485 = 97 5 This is however used to test the hypothesis
40

Table 15: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation VARIABLE Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Undecided Total O 97 291 10 87 485 E 97 97 97 97 97 485 OE 0 194 -87 -10 -97 0 (O E)2 0 37636 7569 100 9409 54714 (O E)2/E 0 388 78.031 1.031 97 564.062

From the above interpretation, E = Expected Value, O = Observed Value. to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column Total Grand Total Using the Chi Square statistic formula, X2 = (O E)2 E 2 2 X = (O E) E = 564.062
. . .

Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one =51 =4 The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level is 9.49 Decision Rule Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49). Interpretation We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 that herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.

41

Hypothesis IV H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers. H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers. Table 16 VARIABLE Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Undecided Total POPULATION 120 111 23 167 64 485 PERCENTAGE 25 23 5 34 13 100

The expected frequency is calculated by Grand Total _ Number of Classification, which gives 485 = 97 5 This is however used to test the hypothesis Table 17: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation VARIABLE Strongly Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Undecided Total O 120 111 23 167 64 485 E 97 97 97 97 97 485 OE 23 14 -74 70 -33 0 (O E)2 529 196 5476 4900 1089 12190 (O E)2/E 5.454 2.021 56.454 50.515 11.227 125.671

From the above interpretation, E = Expected Value, O = Observed Value.

42

. . .

to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column Total Grand Total

Using the Chi Square statistic formula, X2 = (O E)2 E 2 2 X = (O E) E = 125.671 Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one =51 =4 The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level is 9.49 Decision Rule Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49). Interpretation We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 that herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.

43

CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 5.1 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION SUMMARY

Some of the set back of herbal decoction consumption in Ondo Town include problems of standardization, negative attitude of enlightened people towards use of medicinal preparations probably because they can afford the alternative method, lack of scientific proof of its efficacy, problem of plant misidentification and unwillingness to share expertise with people (Kunle, 2000; Sanusi, 2002; Sofowora, 1982). However its advantages include the fact that it is complementary to unorthodox medicine, it is relatively cheap, there is ready availability of raw materials, it is a potential source of new drugs and of course, a source of cheap starting products for the synthesis of known drugs. The sale and use of medicinal preparations should be encouraged and supported by government. 5.2 CONCLUSION

Used correctly, herbs can help treat a variety of conditions and in some cases may have fewer side effects than some conventional medications. But because they are unregulated, herbal products are often mislabeled and may contain additives and contaminants that arent listed on the label. Some herbs may cause allergic reactions or interact with conventional drugs, and some are toxic if used improperly or at high doses. 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Taking herbs on ones own increases ones risk, so it is important to consult a doctor or pharmacist before taking herbal medicines. Some
44

examples of adverse reactions from certain popular herbs are described below.

St. John's wort (a shrubby, perennial weed that has been used as an antidepressant) can cause your skin to be more sensitive to the sun's ultraviolet rays, and may cause an allergic reaction, stomach upset, fatigue, and restlessness. Clinical studies have found that St. John's wort also interferes with the effectiveness of many drugs, including the blood thinner warfarin (Couamdin), protease inhibitors for HIV, birth control pills, certain asthma drugs, and many other medications. In addition, St. John's wort should not be taken with prescribed antidepressant medication. NAFDAC has issued a public health advisory concerning many of these interactions (Chavez M.L, Chavez P.I, 1997).

Kava kava has been linked to liver toxicity. Kava has been taken off the market in several countries because of liver toxicity.

Valerian may cause sleepiness, and in some people it may even have the unexpected effect of overstimulating instead of sedating.

Garlic, ginkgo, feverfew, and ginger, among other herbs, may increase the risk of bleeding.

Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) may increase the risk of seizures in people who have seizure disorders.

Currently, no organization or agency regulates the manufacture or certifies the labeling of herbal preparations. This means you can't be sure that the amount of the herb contained in the bottle, or even from dose to dose, is the same as what is stated on the label. The following recommendations are therefore put forward with the hope that the concerned authorities and individual users will take necessary

45

action and be better informed respectively in the use of herbal decoctions. 1. Some herbal preparations are standardized, meaning that the preparation is guaranteed to contain a specific amount of the active ingredients of the herb. However, it is still important to ask companies making standardized herbal products about their product's guarantee. It is important to talk to your doctor or an expert in herbal medicine about the recommended doses of any herbal products. 2. Herbalists, chiropractors, naturopathic physicians, pharmacists, medical doctors, and practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine all may use herbs to treat illness. Naturopathic physicians believe that the body is continually striving for balance and that natural therapies can support this process. They should be well trained in at least a 4-year, postgraduate institution (e.g. Iris Medical School of Traditional Medicine, Ogba, Lagos) that combine courses in conventional medical science (such as pathology, microbiology, pharmacology, and surgery) with clinical training in herbal medicine, homeopathy, nutrition, and lifestyle counseling.

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REFERENCES Ababio, O.Y (1990). Organic Chemistry in: New School Chemistry, Africana-Fep, Publishers Limited, 1st edition, pp. 378-380. Burkill, H.M. (1995). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. Vol. 1-4. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 960pp. Chavez M.L and Chavez P.I (1997). Saint John's Wort. Hosp Pharm 1997 Dec;32:1621-8, 1631-2. Chiej, R. (2004). The MacDonald Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. MacDonald books, Sydney. 447pp. Combest, W.L (1998). An overview of the medicinal uses of Zingiber officinale (ginger). US Pharm 1998 Feb;23:74, 79, 83-4, 86. Dalziel, J.M. (1937). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. The Crown Agents for the colonies, London. 612pp. Gbile, Z.O. (1984). Vernacular names of Nigerian Plants in Yoruba. Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan.101 pp. Gillespie, S.G (1997). Herbal drugs and phytomedicinal agents. Pharm Times, Vol.12, Pg.45-47 Howanitz et al, (1979). Effects of Herbal Concoctions on Psychological Conduct. British Pharmaceutical Codex, 1979 Heiligenstein, E and Guenther, G (1998). Over-the-counter psychotropics: a review of melatonin, St John's wort, valerian, and kava-kava. J Am Coll Health Historical overview of herbal beverages production. http://www.drugs.Indiana.edu/publications/ncadi/primer/historic.ht m 1992(accessed Febr. 14, 2010). Isawumi, M. (1990). Yoruba system of Plant Nomenclature and its Implications in traditional medicine. Nigerian Field. 55: 165-171. Iwu, M. (1993). Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Inc., Florida. 435pp.

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Kafaru, E. (2002). Immense help from natures workshop. Elikaf Health Services Ltd., Lagos. 212pp. Kunle, O. (2000). The production of pharmaceuticals from medicinal plants and their products. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine. 4: 9-12. Nwosu, M.O (1998). Aspects of ethnobotanical medicine in southeast Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine. 4: 3234. Oliver, B. (1960). Medicinal Plants in Nigeria. Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, Ibadan. 138pp. Sanusi, S.(2002). Relevance and potential hazards of herbalism: Globalisation Biodiversity and Conservation - Proceedings of Botanical Society of Nigeria, Pp. 27-28. Sofowora, A. (1982). Medicinal Plants and Traditional medicine in Africa. John Wiley and sons, New York. 251 pp. The British Pharmaceutical Codex (1979), 11th edition. The Pharmaceutical Press, London, p14. Wambebe C, (1998). Development and production of standardized phytomedicines, National Institute for Pharmaceutical, Abuja, Nigeria. Wynn, R.L and Meiller, T.F (1998). A brief survey of herbal medicines and other remedies. Sanjay Amanpour & Sons. New Delhi, India.

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APPENDIX

Biology Department, Obafemi Awolowo University Adeyemi College of Education, P.M.B.520, Ondo, Ondo State. Dear Sir/Madam, I am a final year student of Biology in the above named institution. In fulfillment of the basic requirement for the award of a degree of Bachelor of Science in Biology Education (B.Sc Ed), I am expected to undertake a research work. In compliance, Ondo Town has been chosen as my case study to highlight the impact of education on the production, sale and use of herbal decoctions and concoctions by Nigerians I shall therefore by grateful if you can kindly provide the information required in the questionnaire below as candidly as possible. I assure you that any information provided will be kept confidential and used solely for academic purpose. Thank you for your anticipated cooperation. Akinlosotu Ayokunle Olalekan QUESTIONNAIRE SECTION A Personal information Please tick () as appropriate in the space(s) provided below. 1. Name: Chief/Mr./Mrs/Miss/Dr.. 2. Sex: (a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]

49

3.

Age Group (a) Below 25 years (b) 25 34 years (c) 35 44 years (d) 45 54 years (e) 55 and above Marital Status: (a) Single (b) Married (c) Divorced (d) Widowed/er Educational Qualification (a) WASC/GCE (b) OND/NCE (c) HND/B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed (d) M.Sc/M.Ed/M.A/PhD (e) No Formal Education

[ [ [ [ [

] ] ] ] ]

4.

[ [ [ [

] ] ] ]

5.

[ [ [ [ [

] ] ] ] ]

SECTION B Please read the following questions carefully and tick () as appropriate. Key: SA=Strongly Agree, A=Agree, U=Uncertain, SD=Strongly Disagree and D=Disagree S/N QUESTION SA A U SD D 6. Only uneducated persons consume herbal decoctions and concoctions. 7. Educated individuals, illiterates and artisans are usually the target consumers of herbal decoction. 8. Education is a key to mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction brewing (paraga). 9. How frequent do you consume herbal decoctions? (a) Daily (b) Weekly (c) Fortnightly (d) Monthly

50

`10. How efficacious are these decoctions? (a) Very efficacious (b) Moderately efficacious (c) Not efficacious (d) Not worth taking 11. These herbal decoctions and concoctions are complementary to unorthodox medicine. 12. These herbal concoctions are much preferred to modern medicine. 13. Alcohol is a better solvent for herbal decoction than water. 14. Water is the most suitable solvent for herbal concoctions. 15. Consumption of herbal decoctions is dependent on mood swings among the educated. 16. Production and sale of herbal decoction is carried out by only educated people. 17. The business of medicinal herb selling is an alternative source of income for the educated. 18. The government should be allowed to regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption. 19. The regulation and control of medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption should be left to the trade union. 20. Herbal decoction production is a viable business. 21. Herbal decoctions do not have to be taken in specific dosages. 22. Herbal concoctions help maintain the health standard of the people. 23. Herbal medicinal decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS. 24. Herbal decoctions have no side effects on consumers.

51