1. Branches of lexicology. Lexicography is the science and art of compiling dictionary.

The first book published under the English title Dictionary was Latin-English Dictionary by Sir Thomas Elyot (1538). For a medieval scholar a dictionary was a collection of diction or phrases put together for the use of pupils studying Latin. One of the purposes of dictionary in medieval times was glossing texts and employing synonyms for them. Dictionaries are prepared to serve different practical needs of the people. A reader looks at the dictionary mainly from the following points of view: (1) as a reference book for different types of information on words e.g. pronunciation, etymology, usage etc. this may be called the store house function of the dictionary. (2) as a reference point for distinguishing the good or proper usage from the bad or wrong usage. This is the legislative or the court house function of the dictionary. Branches: The General LG the general study of words and vocabulary. Linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages are generally referred as language universals. The Special LG is the LG of a particular language. Thats the study of and description of its vocabulary and vocabulary units. The Historical LG the evolution of any vocabulary. It discusses the origin of various words, their change and development, investigates linguistics and extra linguistics forces. The object - its single elements, modifying their structure, meaning and usage. The Contrastive and Comparative LG - their aims are to study the correlation between the vocabularies of 2 or more languages and find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units. The descriptive LG deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. LG also studies all kinds of semantic grouping and semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, semantic fields. Meaning relations as a whole are dealed within semantics the Study of meaning. 2. Word-building. Word-building in English. Affixation Word-building - Its a process of creating new words from material available in the language after a certain structural and semantic formulas and pattern, forming words by combining root & affix morphemes. 2 types of word formation: 1) Compounding (); 2) Word derivation. Within the types further distinction may be made between the ways of forming words. The basic way of forming words is word-derivation affixation and conversion apart from this shortening and a number of minor ways of formal words such as back-forming, blending, sound imitation are traditionally referred to formation. Affixation is the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes to stems\basis. Affixes may be grouped: 1) according to their linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full, less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm); 2) according to the parts of speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming affixes; 3) according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality, negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full (adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of speech: critic (al). All suffixes are divided into lexical and grammatical. Lexical suffixes build new word. Productive affixes. For ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor. Grammatical suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. Often used to create neologisms and nonce-words (I dont like Sunday evenings: I feel so mondayish). For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses. Some productive suffixes: Noun forming er, ing, is, ist, ance, Adj forming y, ish, ed, able, less, Adv forming ly, Verb forming - Ize, /ise, ate; Prefixies - Un, die, re. 3.regional varieties of the english language

English is a West Germanic language spoken originally in England, and is now the most widely used language in the world. It is spoken as a first language by a majority of the inhabitants of several nations, including theUnited Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland and New Zealand. It is the third most common native language in the world, afterMandarin Chinese and Spanish, and the most commonly used as a second language; its total number of speakers counting both native and non-native exceeds those of any other language. English is an official language of the European Union, many Commonwealth countries and United Nations, as well as in many world organisations. This is a list of dialects of the English language. Dialects are linguistic varieties which differ in pronunciation, vocabulary andgrammar from each other and from Standard English (which is itself a dialect).Dialects can be usefully defined as "sub-forms of languages which are, in general, mutually comprehensible".British linguists distinguish dialect from accent, which refers only to pronunciation. Thus, any educated English speaker can use the vocabulary and grammar of Standard English, but different speakers use their own local words for everyday objects or actions, regional accent, orReceived Pronunciation, which within the U.K. is considered an accent distinguished by class rather than by region. Americanlinguists, however, include pronunciation differences as part of the definition of regional or social dialects. The combination of differences in pronunciation and use of local words may make some English dialects almost unintelligible to speakers from other regions. The major native dialects of English are often divided by linguists[citation needed] into the three general categories of the British Isles dialects, those of North America and those of Australasia. 4.Polysemy Traditionally, two types of lexical amibiguity are distinguished: homophony refers to cases in which two words accidentally have the same phonological form (e.g., bank), whereas polysemy refers to the phenomenon that one and the same word acquires different, though obviously related, meanings, often with respect to particular contexts. a. Mary walked along the bank of the river. b. HarborBank is the richest bank in the city.First, it is immediately obvious to speakers that the meanings of a polysemous expression are related to each other. This is typically not the case for homophonous expressions, even though they may be historically related as well (cf. some of the examples above). Second, polysemy is regular. For example, we find the three meanings illustrated with bank in (6) (specific institution, building that houses the institution, and the type of the institution) with university as well. Similarly, we find the three meanings of window illustrated in (7) (path, opening, and concrete object that can close an opening) with door: The issue of how homophony and polysemy should be distinguished is particularly relevant for lexicographers. As a matter of principle, the different readings of homophonous words should be specified as different key words, whereas the readings of a polysemous word should be specified under one key word. The different entries are different words that happen to have the same phonology (even though they are all etymologically related in this case). The descriptions within each entry refer to different uses of polysemous words. It is debatable whether the choice of key words is always right; for example, the use of bank in aviation might warrant a separate entry. A dictionary obviously should list homophonous entries separately. But it is not so clear how detailed the listing of the readings of a polysemous word should be, given the fact that in many cases these readings will be related to each other by general laws. In the case of hand, the intransitive use and the transitive use of bank in aviation are clearly related by general laws, the place interpretation and the institution interpretation of bank 3 are systematically related, etc. The dictionary forgets to mention that the institutional intepretation does not only hold for banks that save money, but could equally well be applicable, e.g., for a blood bank. 5. Affixation.

Affixation is a productive way of word-formation. It is creating new words by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. The analysis of such words can be done on two levels: 1)morphemic (we analyze morphemes which build words); 2)derivational (words are analyzed from the point of view of their structure complex or not). Simple words contain only the primary stem (man, girl, take, go). Derived or compound words also contain derivational affixes. The result of semantic changes can be seen in denotational and connotational meanings. The denotational meaning can be generalized or specialized. The connotational meaning can be worsened or elevated. Most words are polysemantic. Monosemantic words are usually found among terms and scientific words. The ability of words to have more than one meaning is called polysemy. Polysemy exists only in the language system. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word may be described as a combination of its semantic variants. Each variant can be described from the point of view of their denotational and connotational meaning. Polysemy is closely connected with the notion of the context (the minimum stretch of speech which is sufficient to understand the meaning of a word). The main types of context are lexical and grammatical. By productive affixes we mean those that take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among neologisms (new words and occasional words). From the etymological point of view affixes are divided into the same two large groups as words: native and borrowed. For the affix to be called borrowed the total number of words with this affix must be considerable in the new language. Affixation is forming new words by adding affixes to different types of derivative bases. Types of derivational bases: - bases that coincide with morphemes (morphological stamps) dutiful - bases that coincide with grammatical word-forms unknown - bases the coincide with word-groups second-rateness Derivative affixes are highly selective (the choice depends on etymological, phonological, semantic and structural properties of the base). Classification of derivational affixes: 1. Functional classification: - convertive (class-changing) - non-convertive (class-maintaining) 2. Productivity and activity: - productive unproductive - active non-active - high-frequency low-frequency 3. Etymological: - native (-less; -full; -hood; -dom; -ship) - borrowed (-able; -ism; -ise; demi-; semi-; dis-) 4. Distributional meaning: - suffixes are mostly convertive (-hood; -ship; -ish non-convertive). Are classified according to the part of speech that they form (noun-forming, adjective-forming, verb-forming, adverb-forming). And according to the derivative base with which they are used (denominal, deverbal, deadjectivial). - prefixes are mostly borrowed, half converted. The same classification. Conversion is applied to the words identical in their phonetic but referring to different parts of

speech (to jump a jump). In conversion a new word is formed by changing the part-of-speech meaning and properties of the derivative-base word which is accomplished by semantic modifications. Conversion is often called affixless word-derivation (zero derivation) root-formation. Some linguists believe that conversion is purely a functional change. Others think that here we deal with the case of polysemy. Most linguists think it to be a case of lexical-grammatical homonymy, e.g. a slave to slave are semantically connected. As a rule we deal with simple words, although there are a few exceptions, e.g. wireless to wireless. 6. Shortening of the words. Shortening is considered a very productive word-building process. It is the dropping of the latter part of a word so as to produce a new and shorter word of the same meaning. The strain of modern life is obviously one of the reasons for this development. For example, almost all written material in hospital is written to be read at a glance because consultants read them before they do their rounds, and new nurses to acquaint with their patients. Similarly, the daily ward repots are read by the offgoing nurse in charge to the oncoming staff.1 In English, shortenings may be present in written and spoken forms. Each of them has its own pattern, but as there is a constant exchange between both, it is sometimes difficult to tell whether a given shortening was originated in one or in the other. Shortening as a word building process has become very productive in present day English. Abbreviations in nursing have also found a way for professional and quick communication. The main goals of this article, based on actual teaching-learning problems, is to provide some practical activities to give the learners opportunities to get acquainted with and practice abbreviations in an effective and communicative way, and to provide a glossary of the most frequently used abbreviations by nurses. An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase used for brevity especially in writing in place of the whole. Two possible types of correlation should be noted between the written and spoken forms: 1. If the abbreviation can be read as an ordinary English word, it will be read as one. For example, UFO - Unidentified Flying Object Polyps - Polymorphonuclear leuckocytes MSU - Mid Stream Urine 2. The other group consists of initial abbreviations with alphabetic reading retained. For example, P.R - pupil reaction B.P.- blood pressure P- pulse The term abbreviation may also be used for a shortened form of a written word or phrase used in a text in place of the whole for brevity. For example, Cas.- casualty Elix.- elixir Caps.- capsule Not much has been written about abbreviations in English for Foreign Language Teaching and less in English for Specific Purpose (ESP), even though in the practice of nursing, this word-building process has found a field of development. High frequency use of abbreviations like: ADL- Activities of Daily Living a.c.- (Latin: ante cibum) before meals b.i.d.- (Latin: bis in die) twice a day

h.s.- (Latin: hora somni) at bed time n.r.- (Latin: non repitatur) do not repeat p.c.- (Latin: post cibum) after meals p.r.n.- (Latin: pro re nata) as needed q. ____ h. (Latin: quaque _____ hora) every ____ hours q.o.d. every other day t.i.d.- (Latin: ter in die) three times a day for instance, are not present in any of the syllabus used at present in ESP courses in English subject for nursing learners.2-4 Daily teaching has demonstrated that there An abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short) is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr., abbrv. or abbrev. In strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with contractions or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance.[1]:p167An abbreviation is a shortening by any method; a contraction is a reduction of size by the drawing together of the parts. A contraction of a word is made by omitting certain letters or syllables and bringing together the first and last letters or elements; an abbreviation may be made either by omitting certain portions from the interior or by cutting off a part. A contraction is an abbreviation, but an abbreviation is not necessarily a contraction. However, normally acronyms are regarded as a subgroup of abbreviations (e.g. by the Council of Science Editors).Abbreviations can also be used to give a different context to the word itself, such as "PIN Number" (wherein if the abbreviation were removed the context would be invalid).Shortening stands apart from other ways of word-formation because it doesnt produce new words. It produces variants of the same word. The differences between the new and the original word are in style, sometimes in their meaning. There are two major groups of shortenings (colloquial and written abbreviations). Among shortenings there can be polysemantic units as well. Shortenings are classified a) according to the position of the shortened part of the word (clipped words), b) into shortened word combinations, c) into abbreviations, d) into blendings. Among clipped words there are cases of apocope, aphaeresis, and syncope. Abbreviations can be read as in the alphabet, as one word. 7. Assimilation of borrowings The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, c) how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d) how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is. Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms). Completely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language, if the French word sport and the native word start. Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs, e.g. correct -corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion, e.g. gate- gates. In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the last but one. Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words existing in the borrowing language, as a rule, a borrowed word does not bring all its meanings into

the borrowing language, if it is polysemantic, e.g. the Russian borrowing sputnik is used in English only in one of its meanings. Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: a) borrowings nonassimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, e.g. sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass etc. b) Borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus - bacilli, phenomenon - phenomena, datum -data, and genius - genii etc. c) Borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial sounds /v/ and /z/, e.g. voice, zero. In native words these voiced consonants are used only in the intervocal position as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ (loss - lose, life - live ). Some Scandinavian borrowings have consonants and combinations of consonants which were not palatalized, e.g. /sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski etc (in native words we have the palatalized sounds denoted by the digraph sh, e.g. shirt); sounds /k/ and /g/ before front vowels are not palatalized e.g. girl, get, give, kid, kill, kettle. In native words we have palatalization , e.g. German, child. Some French borrowings have retained their stress on the last syllable, e.g. police, and cartoon. Some French borrowings retain special combinations of sounds, e.g. /a:3/ in the words : camouflage, bourgeois, some of them retain the combination of sounds /wa:/ in the words: memoir, boulevard. d) borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, e.g. in Greak borrowings y can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), ph denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), ch denotes the sound /k/(chemistry, chaos),ps denotes the sound /s/ (psychology). Latin borrowings retain their polisyllabic structure, have double consonants, as a rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant of the stem, (accompany, affirmative). French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g. consonants p, t, s are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, debris), Specifically French combination of letters eau /ou/ can be found in the borrowings: beau, chateau, troussaeu. Some of digraphs retain their French pronunciation: ch is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, qu is pronounced as /k/ e.g. bouquet, ou is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, e.g. i is pronounced as /i:/, e,g, chic, machine; g is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge. Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling: common nouns are spelled with a capital letter e.g. Autobahn, Lebensraum; some vowels and digraphs retain their German pronunciation, e.g. a is pronounced as /a:/ (Dictat), u is pronounced as /u:/ (Kuchen), au is pronounced as /au/ (Hausfrau), ei is pronounced as /ai/ (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced in the German way, e.g. s before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), v is pronounced as /f/ (Volkswagen), w is pronounced as /v/ , ch is pronounced as /h/ (Kuchen). Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian), tete-a-tete (French), dolce vita (Italian), duende (Spanish), an homme a femme (French), gonzo (Italian) etc. 8. Different classifications of Phraseological Units There are three classification principles of phraseological units. The most popular is the synchronic (semantic) classification of phraseological units by V.V. Vinogradov. He developed some points first advanced by the Swiss linguist Charles Bally and gave a strong impetus to a purely lexicological treatment of the material. It means that phraseological units were defined as lexical complexes with specific semantic features and classified accordingly. His classification is based upon the motivation of the unit that is the relationship between the meaning of the whole and the meanings of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility and semantic unity of the expression that is with the possibility of changing the form or the order of components and of substituting the whole by a single word though not in all the cases.

According to Vinogradovs classification all phraseological units are divided into phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations. Phraseological fusion is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit which meaning is never influenced by the meanings of its components It means that phraseological fusions represent the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties. Sometimes phraseological fusions are called idioms under which linguists understand a complete loss of the inner form. To explain the meaning of idioms is a complicated etymological problem (tit to tat means to revenge, but no one can explain the meaning of the words tit and tat). Phraseological unity is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit the whole meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of its components In general, phraseological unities are the phrases where the meaning of the whole unity is not the sum of the meanings of its components but is based upon them and may be understood from the components. The meaning of the significant word is not too remote from its ordinary meanings. This meaning is formed as a result of generalized figurative meaning of a free word-combination. It is the result of figurative metaphoric reconsideration of a word-combination. To come to ones sense to change ones mind; Phraseological unities are characterized by the semantic duality. One cant define for sure the semantic meaning of separately taken phraseological unities isolated from the context, because these word-combinations may be used as free in the direct meaning and as phraseological in the figurative meaning. Phraseological combination (collocation) is a construction or an expression in which every word has absolutely clear independent meaning while one of the components has a bound meaning It means that phraseological combinations contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively. To make an attempt to try; Some linguists who stick to the general understanding of phraseology and refer to it communicational units (sentences) and winged words, define the fourth type of phraseological units. Phraseological expression is a stable by form and usage semantically divisible construction, which components are words with free meanings. East or West, home is best; Phraseological expressions are proverbs, sayings and aphorisms of famous politicians, writers, scientists and artists. They are concise sentences, expressing some truth as ascertained by experience of wisdom and familiar to all. They are often metaphoric in character and include elements of implicit information well understood without being formally present in the discourse. Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He also points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes. Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound words): To be a shadow of ones own self, Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups: a) nominal phrases or noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person or a living being: The root of the trouble. b) verbal phrases or verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state or a feeling: To sing like a lark; c) adjectival phrases or adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality: As good as gold; d) adverbial phrases or adverb phraseological units, such as: From head to foot; e) prepositional phrases or preposition phraseological units: In the course of f) conjunctional phrases or conjunction phraseological units: As long as; g) interjectional phrases or interjection phraseological units: Catch me!;

In I.V.Arnolds classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quotations: The sky is the limit, What makes him tick, I am easy. Proverbs are usually metaphorical: Too many cooks spoil the broth, while sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical: Where there is a will there is a way