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THESOULOFASERVANT
ByDavidP.Teague

The following is a chapter from Dr. Teagues book, Godly Servants:


Discipleship and Spiritual Formation for Missionaries. For more in-
formation visit www.godlyservants.org. Kindle downloads are
available.

Once I was the pastor of a church, founded in 1679, that had a


fascinatingmissionhistory.Itsentoutsomeoftheveryfirstmis-
sion workers to Hawaii, particularly two women named Clarissa
ChapmanandSybilMoseley.
ClarissasBibleteachingcausedalargerevivaltobreakoutin
Honolulu in the 1840s. People loved her and her husband,
Richard. People also loved Sybil, but nother husband. Sybil was
marriedtoaverydifficultman,HiramBingham.
Although Hiram was the initial leader of the mission, he was
such a cantankerous man that when he and Sybil were on home
leave, his fellow mission workers begged for him not to return.
PleasekeepHiramaway!theyasked.
Perhaps you have met a few mission workers with a
personalitylikeHirams.Ourstrongpersonalitiesmayhelpusto
endure, but they can also get in the way. Even Barnabas finally
partedwayswithhisstrong-willedmissionpartner,Paul.
It is common knowledge that many mission workers return
prematurely to their home countries because of poor
relationships with their colleagues. Some statistics have
suggestedthistobetheprimaryreasonforprematurereturns.
AllofusandnotjusttheHiramsinourmidstsufferfrom
personality defects. Were often very good at concealing these
deficiencies when we need to, and especially from our
supporters. But inwardly, we may often feel irritable, stretched,
tiredandquitehuman.
When mission organizations purposefully promote
intentional spiritual formation within the ranks, however, it can
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change things. I am familiar with one mission that has been
conducting a running experiment of intentional spiritual
formationforover30years.Iaskedoneoftheirleaderswhatthe
results have been. It has brought deeper commitment, greater
effectiveness and greater retention among our missionaries,
wasthereply.

ServantswithHealthyHearts
Consider three leaders from Scripture: Saul, his son Jonathan,
andDavid:

SAUL was distrustful, full of envy and controlled by pride.


Hisdecisionslackedbasicintegrity.
JONATHAN was a wise leader. His actions promoted trust
and good relationships. His leadership inspired
confidence.
DAVID was a man of integrity who trusted in God instead
oftakingrevenge.Hewasabletoadmithisfaults.

All three said they were Gods servants, yet Saul could hardly
be called godly. Although God had called him, anointed him and
even caused him to prophesy, Saul lacked authenticity with God.
Hishumanfrailtiesaffectedhimtoomuch.
This leads us to ask, How healthy is my heart? Although I
maybeservingGod,amItrulyhealthyontheinside?
We need to ask this question because spiritual formation
happens in the heart, not the head. Although we may be well-
trained and might even have attended seminary, each of us still
needstohaveahealthyheart.
Paul once prayed for the spiritual growth of his friends using
a wonderful prayer, whose beauty I have tried to capture in the
followingoriginaltranslation:

Ephesians3:16-19
IpraythatGodsbeautifulrichnesswillmakeyoustrong.
MayyouexperiencethepowerofhisSpiritdeepdowninside.
MayChristliveinyourheartsasyoubelieveinhim.
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Rootedandgroundedinlove,
mayyouandallGodspeopleunderstandChristslove.
Mayyousenseitswidthandlengthandheightanddepth.
Mayyouknowhislovewhichisbeyondknowing.
ThenyouwillbefilledwitheverythingGodhasforyou.

As this scripture explains, spiritual growth happens when


Christchangesusgraduallydeepdowninside.Also,itdoesnot
happen merely by following rules but by experiencing God
within a family of faith. Together, as we share the beautiful
richnessofGod,theSpiritworksandwebecomefilledwiththe
fullnessofGod.
Godliness is not trying to be perfect. It is growing in grace.
This happens only when we are honest about ourselves to God.
This is why the Bible never air-brushes its main characters. We
see Abraham, afraid and distrustful. We watch both Moses and
David commit open murders. David cannot keep his pants on.
Peter is a midnight traitor. Scripture colors them in all their
faults,becausetheStoryisnotaboutperfection.ItisaboutGods
grace.
We simply do not grow spiritually when we are trying to be
perfect. True spiritual growth only happens when we struggle
with the darkest aspects of our personalities. It is not
thehealthywho need adoctor but the sick, Jesus told us (Luke
5:31). The brokenness of our lives is the growing edge of our
faith.

OurIrrationalSide
Fortoolongwehaveboughtintothenotionthatourmindshold
perfect control over our hearts. We have thought that spiritual
growthhappenssimplybystudyingbiblicalprinciples.Yet,even
the Bible tells us to do what the word says and not simply to
listen to it. Informing the mind is the easy part. Changing ones
lifeisalotharder.Acquiringinformationalonedoesnotleadto
transformation. We have to integrate the information into our
lives.Thistakestimeandeffort.
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Scripture teaches us to be compassionate, yet it took me five
years of chaplaincy work dealing with the dying and daily
medical dramas to become more compassionate. The change
did not happen just by reading about compassion. The change
happened by facing several thousand people in crisis. Similarly,
we will not grow spiritually just by reading this book. We will
grow spiritually only as we struggle with the deep things within
ourlivesandexperienceagradualtransformationtherewiththe
helpofGod.
Wehavetounderstandthatnoneofusiscompletelyrational.
Werenotlogicalmachineswhocanwillourselvesintogodliness
by just deciding in our minds to do so. Were people. And as
people,wehaveallkindsofinbuiltflawsandmistakes.Itshard
torewiretheheart.
The Apostle Paul acknowledged his own irrational side in
wordsthatrecalladogchasingitsowntail:

Romans 7:15, 19 I do not understand what I do. For what I


wanttodoIdonotdo,butwhatIhateIdo...WhatIdoisnotthe
goodIwanttodo;no,theevilIdonotwanttodothisIkeepon
doing.

We are more irrational than we may realize. In one famous


experiment in the 1970s, Dr. Benjamin Libet found that our
brainssignalustoperformanactionafractionofasecondbefore
we consciously choose to do the action. This suggests that the
irrational, subconscious part of our minds controls us far more
thanwerecognize.
SincethetimeofthepsychiatristCarlJung(1875-1961),some
have called our irrational side the shadow side. The label is
meanttodescribeallthesuppressedemotions,unresolvedfears,
urges and conflicts that linger within our psyches that exert an
irrationalinfluenceonourbehavior.
Theshadowsideistherepositoryforourhumanbrokenness.
There collects all our sorrows and unsettled pain from the
traumasoflifewehaveexperiencedincludingourunresolved
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grief, failures and abandonments. The shadow side partners
withwhattheBiblecallsoursinfulnaturetoinfluenceus.
A great deal of human behavior arises from our irrational
instincts, impulses, habits, reactions and raw emotions. It has
evenbeensaidthatonly5%(ifthatmuch!)ofhumanbehavioris
purelyrationalandplanned.ThisistrueevenforChristianswho
were,onlastcheck,stillhuman.
Ourirrationalsidecancauseusto:

Becomeaddictedtopornography
Savefaceatanycost
Turnintoaworkaholic
Gossipaboutotherstogainpoweroverthem
Becomecontrolling
Thinkthatwearesuperiortoothers
Beunabletoformdeep,lastingrelationships
Feeldistrustfuloralwaysanxious
Betoosensitivetocriticism
Beunabletowalkawayfromharmfulsituations

Humanbrokennessalsoaffectshowwetreateachother:

Wedontdiscussissuesopenlyorfreely
Wecommunicatethroughthird-parties
Weacceptconflictasnormal
Welackempathy
Wedontfeelsafearoundeachother
Wepracticeconditionalloveandmakeinconsistentrules
Wefailtorespectboundaries
Weremaininflexible
Wealwaysexpectperfection

Sometimes our shadow side leads us into truly self-


destructive habits and behaviors. Its like the moray eel that
lurks in an ocean crevice all may seem calm and serene until
the moment when the eel suddenly lunges and strikes. We may
thinkwearecompletelyincontroluntilthedaycomeswhenwe
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findourselvesdoingstupid,self-destructivethings.Justthislast
week, I spoke to a Christian man who had begun to binge drink
because he is chronically unemployed and depressed. In his
hopelessness,hisirrationalsideisbeginningtoengulfhim.
I also once knew a brilliant thoracic surgeon who treated the
cancervictimsofsmoking.Hesmokedhimselftodeathdying
of the same, painful disease he sought to cure in others. At his
funeral, his best friend from their medical school days spoke of
thismansincrediblemind.Butthenhesaidincredulously,Why
did he do it? Why did he smoke? He knew better. It was so
irrational.
Wemaythinkthatwecancontrolourirrationalsidethrough
brute force, but what we really need is healing, not repression.
In fact, psychological researchers have found a high correlation
betweenarepressivereligiousupbringingandsexoffenses.This
does not mean that people from caring, Christian homes are
goingtoturnintodangeroussexcriminals.Whatitdoesimplyis
that a reliance on repressive rules alone, no matter how strictly
enforced,isinadequateinsuppressingtheshadowside.

MissionariesandOurShadows
Evenmissionariescastashadow.Althoughwemaynotbeaware
ofourownshadowside,otherswillbe.IntheBible,Paulseemed
oblivious to his own obtuseness in his conflict with John Mark,
butBarnabaswasnot.Similarly,weseemunabletoperceiveour
deep faults like others can. A few of the more common human
frailtiesamongmissionariesarenarcissism,compulsiveworking,
andadistortedsenseofself-identity.

Narcissism
Some of us wonderful missionaries have a narcissistic tendency!
Thatis,wealwayshavetomakeourselveslookgood.Everything
alwayshastorevolvearoundus!
Narcissism is especially common among leaders. In a survey
of more than 1,200 employees, Wayne Hochwarter, a
managementprofessor,foundthat31%percentreportedhaving
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anarcissisticbosswhoexaggeratedhisorheraccomplishments.
Hochwarter also found that these leaders created a toxic
environmentaroundwhomtheteamperspectiveceasestoexist,
and the work environment becomes increasingly stressful.
Often, such leaders are unaware of how others perceive them
(vimeo.com/6085134).
Iknewaphysicianwithanarcissistictendency.Hewasaware
of this propensity within himself, but found it difficult to
overcome.Asachild,hehadbeenabandonedandthiscreatedan
insecurity that drove him to earn the love of others. I t was the
reason why he rendered extraordinary service as a physician
to win acceptance and praise. He often made himself to be so
much the center of attention that it weakened his ability to be a
teamplayer.
Whenweareinclinedtowardnarcissism,itisveryimportant
to bathe ourselves in the unconditional love of our heavenly
Father. Only Gods love can fill the love hunger within us.
Narcissists especially need to cultivate a solid understanding of
justificationandadevotionallifethatisimmersedinGodslove.
CompulsiveWorking
Sometimes, Gods servants can be compulsive workaholics.
When were like this, we are performance-driven and live under
the tyranny of the urgent. Our identities can become so
intertwinedwithourworkthatwemightbereluctantevertogo
on a spiritual retreat. We begin adopting scripted roles instead
of relating to others in real friendships. We can also forget how
torestandplay.
Since the needs around us are so great, it is easy for us to
justifyworkingcompulsively,butitsaseriousspiritualproblem.
On some level, we have forgotten how to live under Gods
sovereignty. We do not trust God and feel the need to do
everything.Thisisidolatry.
AgoodwaytobeginadifferentlifestyleistopracticeSabbath-
keeping, the spiritual discipline which is designed to keep work
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frombecomingidolatrous.Sabbath-keepingremindsusthatGod
isultimatelytheonewhoisincontrol.
Whenweareveryyoungandothersaretakingcareofus,we
sense that all is well. This frees us from worry and we can play
carefree. In the same way, as Gods children, when we keep the
Sabbath and rest, we are enjoying Gods sovereign care. The
Sabbath is meant to free us from worry so we can learn to play
again.

ADistortedSelf-identity
Another shadow that is common among missionaries is a
distorted self-identity. This is especially true if we occupy an
important professional role in a host country, or live on an
economic scale that is higher than the people we serve. We
might actually start thinking that we are innately more
significantthanothers.
Sometimes, we feel like celebrities! Wherever we go, people
alwaysseemtotreatusdifferently.Ourchurchsupportersoften
place us on pedestals while the people we serve might consider
us elites. Some of us can be recognized anywhere in a large city
or even in a whole country. I was genuinely worried that our
youngchildrenwerebeginningtothinktheywereroyalty.
Power can also affect our self-identities in very subtle ways.
In one research study it was found that whenever we have
power, we immediately begin judging others more strictly and
ourselvesmoreleniently.Inotherwords,powertendstoturnus
intomoralhypocrites.Ourself-identityexcusesuswhilecausing
us to hold others to a different standard (Joris Lammers et al.,
Power Increases Hypocrisy: Moralizing in Reasoning,
Immorality in Behavior in Psychological Science, 2010, pp. 737-
744).
Inasimilarway,whenwelosepower,suchaswhenweleave
a high-profile position, it can take months to feel normal again.
We are no longer the important professional. Were just back to
being an ordinary disciple like anyone else. It can be easy to
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forgetwhatitisliketojustbeingadisciplewithoutanimportant
title.
From a spiritual standpoint, we can do several things to
correct a distorted self-identity. Of course, we need to remind
ourselves of our real identity: that God has adopted us and we
belong to him. Besides this, we might also need to do something
really radical to rebalance ourselves. For instance, after
completing service in a position of power, we might voluntarily
take on a position with less power. Instead of always being the
important administrator, we might choose to go back to line
work.

HealingHappensasweDevelopIntimacywithGod
As missionaries, we are like actors who play a role. People
expect us to be wise, encouraging and visionary and, to the best
ofourabilities,wetrytoliveuptotheseexpectations.
Inreality,though,thepublicpersonasweprojectonstageare
quite different from our private lives. As missionaries, we may
feel disconnected between what we do and who we really are.
Alone,wemightfindourselvesfeelingconfusedanddiscouraged,
orstrugglingwithself-doubtandresentment.Thesoul-numbing
pressures and demands of our jobs can cause us to grow out-of-
touchwithourselves.
Added to this is the inherent capacity at self-deception with
which we are all born and which just gets worse when we get
busyadeceptionthatdeludesusintothinkingthatalliswell,
evenwhileoursoulsarewitheringinsideus.
Inner healing comes to us through developing intimacy with
God. This is another foundational principle of spiritual
formation.
The word intimacy in English sounds like the words into-
me-see.Itremindsusofthosetropicalfishthataretransparent.
You can see all their little bones and intestines inside them. To
be intimate with God, we have to be like those fish. We have to
allowGodtoseeinsideofus.Butwedontlikebeingthoselittle
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fish. We dont like having anyone see into us. We only allow
ourselvestobevulnerablewhenwefeelabsolutelysafe.
Zacchaeus in the tree could admit who he was only after he
feltthatJesuslovedhim.Itsthesamewithus.Untilwefeelthat
Godlovesusandcaresforus,wewillfinditdifficulttobehonest
aboutourselves.
So, spiritual formation requires us to be honest with what is
inside us, but we will not be honest until we feel safe and loved.
Thatishowspiritualformationworks.Andthatiswhyspiritual
formationwritersplacesomuchemphasisontheloveofGod.
The heart of spiritual formation is not doing spiritual
disciplinesandgoingonperpetualretreats.Rather,itistobathe
our souls in the love of God. To grow spiritually, the secret is to
dwell on the love of God filling our hearts and minds with it
eachday!
BetrulyconvincedinyourheartthatGodisgoodandsafeand
loving.Realizethatheunderstandsyoulikeafatheroramother.
Heknowsallourstrengthsandweaknessesyetstillcaresforus.
You can talk to him freely about anything. When we know that
God loves us, it frees us and we can begin to experience inner
healing.

TheGoodSidetotheShadowSide
Thereisagoodsidetotheshadowside.Thedeepestpainwefeel
often becomes the motivation that fuels our strongest drives.
The point is not to deny our shadow side, but to have God
redeemitsoitcanbeusedforhisglory.
Our shadow side is intrinsic to us all. Just as we cannot
outrunourownshadowonasunnyday,noneofuscandenywho
weare.Todosowouldbetodisownourownhumanity.Weare
who we are, and God knows this. He understandsour humanity
and providentially shapes our personalities. God does not want
us to be false to ourselves. Instead, he desires us to be honest
about our humanity and to allow his grace to transform us into
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something more honoring to him. Gods grace does not change
ourpersonalitiesasmuchasitsanctifieswhoweare.

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STGEORGESANGLICANCHURCH,TUNIS
ABRIEFHISTORY
RevDrJosM.Strengholt
Abstract: This article describes some of the history of St Georges An-
glicanChurchinTunis.Ihavesoliberallyusedthefewexistentreports
and histories
1
that they should be fully acknowledged from the very
beginningofarticle.GiventheinterestinghistoryofTunisanditsenvi-
ronment, any further, more serious, study of the role of the Anglicans
andtheirmissioninTunisshouldbeencouraged.

KeyWords:AnglicanCommunion,Tunis,EpiscopalDioceseofEgypt,
LondonJewsSociety,LJS,CMJ,ECJME.

1 Protestant Grave-
yard
St Georges Anglican
Church in Tunis is build
on the location of the
Protestant graveyard
that was established on
a plot of land that was
supposedly donated to
the British Consul Tho-
mas Campion around
the year 1645 by Tunis
ruler, Hammouda Bey

1
TunisiaReport2004:AnOpenWindowatSt.George'sChurch,
www.crosbieandwilma.com/tunisiareport.htm(20December2011);Denys
Pringle,TheProtestantGraveyardinTunis:ACatalogueoftheInscriptions,
16481885,
www.stgeorgetunis.com/images/stories/Church/History/Graveyard-
Pringle.pdf(20December2011);RtRevBillMusk,StGeorgesAnglican
Church,Tunis:Abriefhistory(unpublishedpaper,received15July2011);
ChurchofEnglandNewspaperforMarch30,1961;CMJQuarterlyforAprilto
June1971;NorthoftheSaharaCMJPublication,n.d.;DenysPringle,AnExpatri-
ateCommunityinTunis1648-1885,BARInternationalSeries1811,2008.

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(1631-1666). Hammouda was given the title pasha in 1657 by
the Ottoman Sultan, underlining Ottoman Suzerainty over Tunis
atthattime.
Ivor J Rawlinson, British Ambassador in Tunisia from 1999-
2002, called the land grant legend in his Historical Reflections
on the Centenary of St George, Tunis, 1901-2001. There are no
historical records of the land grant extant. The dimness of our
historicalknowledgeoftheoriginsofthegraveyardisunderlined
bythefactthatthesupposedtimeofthelandgrantpredatesthe
appointment of Campion as Consul in Tunis in 1655 by more
thanadecade.
The oldest tombstone dates from 1648. The first stone com-
memorates a Samuel [W]ebbe (or Cobbe?); the unfortunate man
died when he was 21 years old. On the stone he is described in
Latin as a mercator anglicus, an English merchant. Thirteen
years later Consul Cam-
pion was buried in the
samegraveyard.
The graveyard was, in
accordance with Muslim
custom, outside the
walls of the medina, at
the Carthage Gate. That
wasfairlyclosetowhere
the foreign merchants
lived. The majority of
those buried in the
cemetery were under 45 years old when they died. Even the
richest in Tunis were relatively short-lived. The largest contin-
gent of Protestants buried before 1800 were from the United
Kingdom, but the gravestones also list deceased from Portugal,
Sweden,Denmark,NorwayandFrance.
Those expatriates who lived in 17th century Ottoman Tunisia
were used to seeing hundreds of Christian slaves in the city.
They were usually brought in from others parts of the Ottoman

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EmpireandconvertedtoIslam.Inthecitywerealsotheprison-
ersofthecorsairs,soldintoslaveryinTunis.
The Mediterranean in the 17th century was largely in the
hands of pirates. Robbing European ships provided the Bey of
Tunis with good income. The corsairs ransomed anyone they
could take captive. Their Christian prisoners, unless repatriated
by Consuls or merchants, were kept in specially constructed
prisons. There were several of those in Tunis. What is interest-
ingisthatthecemeterywasusedandacceptedbylocalsasaref-
uge for escaped English Christian slaves on the run in Tunis.
HenceitsnameinArabic:BledCheram(placeofrefuge).Curi-
ously, illegal immigrants still seek refuge there. The tradition
persists.
OneofthetombstonesinStGeorgescemeteryhasaskulland
crossbones under the epitaph. These symbols on the grave of
Marie Ronling, the Swedish Consuls wife who died in 1766, do
not refer to piracy but to freemasonry. A century later Henry
Howard Haylocks tombstone was erected, so the epitaph says,
byhisMasonicbrethren.
There are 25 tombs from the 18th century when Tunis was
slightlycalmerandprosperous.Anotabletombfromtheperiod
is of Richard Lawrence, British Consul General, born in 1668 in
Cornwall and who
diedin1750aged82
having served for no
less than 38 years
under three British
sovereigns. Three
other 18th Century
British Consuls have
theirresting-placein
thecemetery.Oneof
them had the bright
idea to fund the
maintenance of the

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cemetery by demanding a cemetery upkeep tax of five piasters
onallEnglishshipsarrivingintheharbor.
The earliest reference to the cemetery's dedication to St
George occurs in 1804 when the consuls of Britain, the United
States, Denmark, Sweden and the Netherlands divided between
themthecostofrepairingitsboundarywall.
Sir Thomas Reade, Consul General from 1824 to 1849, de-
serves special mention. In the spirit of the abolitionist move-
mentwhichwassweepingthroughEurope,hepersuadedAhmed
Bey in 1842 as his epitaph says, to abolish slavery throughout
hisdominionandgivefreedomtoeveryslave.Hisremainswere
removed to England in the 1950s but a commemorative plaque
in the church porch reproduces his full epitaph. Incidentally,
Reades son, also called Thomas, took over as Consul from his
father.
The most famous American of all commemorated at St
Georges is John Howard Payne (died 1852), actor, playwright,
poetandtwiceconsul.HeistheauthorofthesongHome,Sweet
Home and he is honoured by a cenotaph over two metres tall.
Hewasgivenapublicfuneral,atAhmedBeysinsistence,andhis
coffinwasescortedfromManoubatoTunisbyaguardofhonour.
His remains were exhumed and transferred to Washington in
1883forreburialthere.
Nineteenth century Tunis had the largest European colony in
the Maghreb in the early 1800s. St Georges cemetery reflects
this. Twenty-seven of the 108 tombs are from the period 1800-
1850. The last burial, according to the tombstones, dates from
1885,whentheFrenchwerealreadyinchargeofTunisia.During
its last period, the cemetery had been managed by a committee
oftheBritishcommunityinTuniswithsomefinancialassistance
fromtheBritishgovernment.

2StAugustine:FirstprotestantchurchinTunis
AccordingtotheRevMichaelRussell,writingintheHistoryand
Present Condition of the Barbary States in 1835, the relatively
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fewProtestantsatthattimeinTunisreceivedthesacramentina
Greek church and made use of the services of Greek priests for
marriages, baptisms and burials. A few years later, when the
missionaries came to convert the Jews in Tunis, divine service
washeldinthemissionarieshouse.
The English chaplaincy in Tunis started in 1860 by the Rev
William Fenner, a missionary working with the Church Mission
totheJews(CMJ),alsocalledtheLondonJewsSociety(LJS),who
wereresponsiblefortheconstructionofChristChurchinsidethe
Jaffa Gate, in Jerusalem. Anglican worship took place in private
houses.CMJhadbegunitsworkinTunisin1833atthehandsof
Dr Ferdinand Christian Ewald, a Hebrew Christian, who began a
regular Sunday service. Ewald returned, ill, to England in 1841.
Rev E. A. Page worked in Tunis 1853 to 1856 when he died of
cholera. Rev William Fenner arrived in Tunis in 1860, re-
opening a Boys School in 1861 and starting a Girls School 1862.
He died of diphtheria in 1874. Rev E.B. Frankel superintended
the work in Tunis until his retirement in 1881. Rev H.C.
RiechardtfollowedRevFrankeluntil1888whenhewasfollowed
byRevC.FrederickW.Flad.
By the 1870s the British community had grown considerably
and in 1877, despite his Catholic persuasion, Sir Richard Wood
obtained a site from the Bey or the municipality where a church
structure was built, called St. Augustine. Among the British Em-
bassy papers there is still a translation in English of a letter in
Arabicin1877toSirRichardWoodfromMohamedelArabiZar-
rouk, President of the Municipality of Tunis, agreeing to supply
one meter of Zagouan water to the Protestant church situated
near the fish market. This was just outside the walls of the
medina but some way away from the cemetery. It was on the
west side of the Rue dEspagne according to the map of 1878.
LittleisknownaboutStAugustinesbeyondthatitwasbuiltwith
somesortofiron-framebytheLondonSocietyforthePromotion
of Christianity amongst the Jewsthe official name of the LJS.
Within20yearsitwasdemolishedandthelandwassold.
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In the 1880s the municipality instructed Protestants (and
Catholics)tousethenewmunicipalcemeteryforEuropeansout-
side Bab al-Khadra - so no further burials were made in St
George'scemeteryfromthattime.
InMarch1891,responsibilityfortheStGeorge'scemeteryand
the church of St Augustine was passed to a new committee of St
Augustine's church. The new committee consisted of a delegate
from the bishop of Gibraltar, the chaplain and a member of the
British community. Before taking on responsibility for the man-
agementofthecemetery,thecommitteerequestedthatitfirstbe
putintoasecurestate.TheBritishgovernmentmadeafinancial
contribution lasting four years. Then, on 4 December 1894, the
British consul general, with the authorisation of the British for-
eign secretary, appointed three trustees to manage St
Augustine'schurchandStGeorge'scemetery:

Whereascertainpersonshereinaftercalledthesubscriberscontrib-
uted divers sums of money for the building of an English Church at
Tunis,namedbythemonitscompletionStAugustinesChurch;and
whereasthesubscribersaforesaidexpresslystipulatedatameeting
held on the 21st May 1877 that the said church so erected by them
bemaintainedandpreservedasanEnglishEpiscopalChurchforthe
celebration of the Established Church of England and for no other
use,objectoremploymentwhatsoever[]Thetrusteesaregivenre-
sponsibility for St Augustines Church and for St Georges Cemetery
and express permission [] even to sell this said land [the land on
which stands St Augustines Church], on condition, however, that in
caseofsuchsaletheproceedswouldbeemployedfortheerectionof
astonechurchinthegroundsofStGeorgesCemeteryorelsewhere.

In accordance with the terms of the trust, the trustees subse-


quentlysoldStAugustine'schurchanditssiteandusedthepro-
ceeds plus other donations to build a new church on the site of
thecemetery.
TheEmbassypaperscontainanevenmoreintriguingletterof
14 January 1887 from the Bishop of Gibraltar, writing from Al-
giers,totheRevReichardtwhichhintsatseriousproblemsabout
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thestatusofStAugustinesandtowhomitbelonged.TheBishop
regrets that there had been friction and ill-feeling between the
Consulate and the Rev Reichardt about this. He recognised the
value of the vicars long and gratuitous services, but wrote, I
cannotforamomentadmitthatyouhaveanypersonalorexclu-
sive right in the guardianship of the Church or its title deeds.
Both of these should be in my possession, or that of the Consul
whom the Bishop had appointed as his representative. The
Bishopformallyrequestedthevicardeliveroverthekeyandthe
titledeedstotheConsul.Heregrettedthatthevicarhaddiscon-
tinuedtoholdservicesinStAugustines,andsaidacommitteeof
three trustees should be appointed to regulate the affairs of the
church: the Consul, the Chaplain and a member of the congrega-
tion. Finally, the Bishop dismissed the vicars request that the
congregationshouldpaythefullwagesofhisservant.
It is not entirely surprising to discover such goings on in the
community at this time. The powerful, dominant Sir Richard
Wood was a master of intrigue. When he was unceremoniously
retired by the Foreign Office in 1879 at the age of 73, his place
was taken by Thomas Reade who was described as weak and
negligent, asleep most afternoons outside the cafes in what is
now Avenue de France. Reade evidently had let church affairs
slide.

3StGeorgesChurch
A manuscript in the British Embassy shows that a stone church
in the grounds of St George's cemetery was being considered
even in 1894. The building of St Georges took place between
1899and1901,onthesiteofpartoftheoldcemetery.ThePro-
testant section of the new European Cemetery at Bab-el-Khadra
was already in use. Those tombs at St Georges cemetery that
had to be disturbed had their headstones affixed to the walls of
thecemetery.
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Money for construction of the church was raised by the Rev
CameronFlad,thevicar.BorninAbyssiniaofGerman-Scotsmis-
sionaryparents,helivedinTunisfrom1888-1914,employedby
the Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jews. He
raised not only enough money
from the sale of the site of St
Augustines and from elsewhere
to build the church but also to
build two schools nearby, one
for boys and one for girls, to-
gether with a residence for the
missionary-teachers and a resi-
dence for himself. He lost both
his wife and child in an epi-
demic before the First World
War.
Because of his half-German
ancestry, he was forced to leave his church and the area when
theFirstWorldWarbrokeout.Thelocalauthoritiesweresuspi-
cious then about all the work being done by the missionary-
teachers and were threatening to requisition the whole Mission.
ABritishsuccessorwasquicklyfoundtocontinuetheRevFlads
work and the new vicars first task was
to deal with local attempts to sequester
thechurchandthechurchhouse.
The new church, of cut stone, was
modeled on the English church at Pa-
tras, in the Greek Peloponnese. The ar-
chitect/engineer was a certain J E Bal-
daull, though the signature on the plan
is indistinct. The church, which seats
100, is built of cut stone in Gothic style
andconsistsofchancel,nave,porchand
vestry.Onraisedlandwellabovestreet
level, it is built to last. The foundations

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are of concrete to a depth of 2-1/2 metres. The height from the
ground to the top of the cross on the belfry is 15.8 metres. It
possessesafinebelfrybuthasneverhadabell.
The first sermon in the church was the Memorial Service to
Queen Victoria who died in 1901.
The pulpit, made of local Chemtou
marble, was erected in 1902 in
memoryofthreeformermissionary
clergy of LJS (now known as the
CMJ).
Thefivestained-glasswindowsin
the church are of different periods.
Thetwooldest,depictingsaints,are
inthenaveonthesidebywhichone
enters the church. No documenta-
tionhasbeenseenconcerningthese
windows. Beside them is a window
donated by a mother in memory of
heronlyson,DonaldAnderson,who
diedatMedjezElBabin1943.This
beautiful window is most unusual
for its military detail -- mine detector, uniform, etc. It was in-
stalled in 1950. The three splendid windows (triforium) behind
the altar were installed in 1961 and today are perhaps the great
featureofStGeorges.Theydepictornameleadingfiguresofthe
first Christian era in nearby Carthage: St Cyprian and St
Augustine as well as the two female Christian martyrs, St Felici-
tasandStPerpetuawhorefusedtorenouncetheirfaithandwere
throwntothewildbeastsintheRomanamphitheatre.

4TheMissiontotheJewsanditsschools
The beginnings of St Georges were closely linked to the already
mentioned London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst
theJews,akaLJS,akaCMJ.StGeorgesislocatedrightbesidethe

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316
old Jewish quarter (El Hafsia) where a succession of Protestant
clergywentabouttheirmissionaryworkfrom1833onwards.
There were an estimated 15,000 Jews in the Hafsia at that
time. The two schools were started in 1861 and 1862 in rented
buildingsbeforemovingintopurpose-builtpremisesinPlacedes
Potiers in 1910. The building is still a school and there is still a
residual link with St Georges. The schools were founded by the
Rev William Fenner. He did not have an easy time of it. His
tombstone at St Georges records his peculiarly trying mission-
arylaboursamongsttheHouseofIsrael.Teacherstodaywould
find the conditions imposed on their predecessors at the Mis-
sionaryschoolsunbelievablyharsh.A1931contractforminthe
StGeorgesarchivesshowsthatiftheteachersdidnotlearnAra-
bic or French within a reasonable time they were dismissed.
They could not change their accommodation without the agree-
ment of the Head of the Mission. Permission to marry had to be
sought from the Mission and anyone who married without per-
mission would be considered as having resigned. After four
years a teacher would qualify for a return to Britain for the
summer holidays, second class! An average of 200 children at a
timeweretaughtintheirownspecialJudeo-Arabiclanguageand
French and Hebrew until the Six-Day War of 1967 when most
JewsleftTunisia.
There was a Bible Depot adjoining St Georges from which bi-
blesandbrochureswerefreelydistributeduntilitwasburnedby
a mob in 1967. The vicar had to lead his wife and children to
safety through the same mob. First, however, he buried a quan-
tity of bibles in the churchyard where no doubt they still are.
This was the time when the British Embassy not far away in
PlacedelaVictoire,wasattackedandsetalightbyangrycrowds
forcing the staff to flee across the rooftops. The Church Mission
totheJewsfinallywithdrewfromTunisiain1970.

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317
5SecondWorldWar
The church records show that St Georges had to close from No-
vember 1942 to May 1943 during the German occupation of Tu-
nis. The English and Jewish connections made St Georges, the
Mission,andthosewhoworkedtheretooeasyatarget.Thevicar
atthetime,theRevIsaacDunbar,wentintohiding.However,af-
tertheliberationofTunisthechurchwasmuchusedbytheBrit-
ish Armed Forces, to the extent that it acquired the title The
WestminsterAbbeyofNorthAfrica.RevDunbaractedaschap-
lain to the British Forces and did great work for which he was
awardedtheMBEin1944.Some300menwereconfirmedthere
duringthoseyears.Manymemorialslinethewallsofthechurch
placedtherebyBritishregimentsthatsawactionandlostmenin
what was to be the last part of the North African campaign and
theturningpointofthewar.
The RAF and the First Army have their own plaques. The roll
call of army regiments is sonorous and still very meaningful to
manyveterans-theHampshires,theFirstParachuteBrigade,the
Coldstream Guards, the Scots Guards, the Royal Artillery, the
Royal Tank Regiment, 4th Indian Division, the Household Divi-
sion,theQueensLancashireRegiment,theGrenadierGuards,the
Welsh Guards, the Yorkshire Light Infantry, the Royal Armoured
Corps,theIrishGuards,SixthArmouredDivision.Veteransofthe
SecondWorldWarstillcomeinpilgrimagetothebattlefieldsand
theeightwarcemeteriesinTunisiawhere9,702Commonwealth
wardeadarecommemorated.
Remembrance services, usually officiated by the vicar of St
Georges, are held at one of the Commonwealth War Graves
Cemeteriesintheopenair.ForthepastyearstheRemembrance
Services have been attended by over 500 people each time.
There is no way that that number of people would fit into St
Georges.ServiceshavebeenheldatStGeorgescommemorating
the lives of Kings (George I and George VI), Queens (Victoria),
Presidents (Eisenhower and Kennedy) and a Prime Minister (Sir
WinstonChurchill)aswellasthePrincessofWales.
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6Financeandstatus
St Georges depends almost entirely on congregational offerings
for its upkeep, preservation and the maintenance of the vicar or
pastor. There is no endowment or accumulated fund. The land
wasgiftedtotheBritishCrownandbothitandtheChurchbuild-
ing are technically the property of the British Government who,
however, accepts no financial responsibility for either. The
ChurchHouseisaseparatepropertyownedbyacompanyregis-
tered in Tunisia. The British Government has vested its respon-
sibilities,includingpossessionofthepropertyanditsproperuse,
in trustees, one of whom is the British Ambassador or his nomi-
nee. There are, or can be, up to five other trustees including, of
course,thevicarorpastorandtheChairmanoftheParishCoun-
cil.InpracticetodayitistheParishCouncilthattakesday-to-day
operating decisions. The trustees meet if needed for decisions
withintheirresponsibility.Twosmallshopsandanapartmentin
Rue Mongi Slim also belong to St Georges and produce a very
smallrentalincome.

7StGeorgestoday
Since the last World War, there have been one or two periods
whenStGeorgeshasbeenwithoutavicarandwhenthecongre-
gationhasdwindled.Thisisnotsurprising.Mostofthecongre-
gationtodaylivestenmilesormorefromtheChurchandfindsit
difficult to get to. Indeed, for a time services were held in the
AmericanSchooloutsidethecity.Presently,thecongregationof
about250adultsconsistsmostlyofAfricanworshippers.
St Georges is Anglican and comes within the diocese of Egypt
with North Africa, Ethiopia and Somalia, but the church congre-
gation comprises a kaleidoscope of believers. Many have young
children for whom there is a Sunday School in Church House on
Sundaymornings.Andthereare,ofcourse,otherregularandad
hocactivitiesthroughouttheyear.
The Right Reverend Mouneer Hanna Anis is the bishop of the
diocese, and as such he represents the diocese and all the Epis-
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319
copalorAnglicanchurchesunderhisjurisdictionbeforethegov-
ernmentsofthecountriesofthisregion,includingStGeorgesin
Tunis. Property and church buildings belonging to the Episcopal
or Anglican Diocese of Egypt with North Africa and the Horn of
Africaareadministeredbythediocesewhichislegallyresponsi-
bleforsuchpropertiesbeforethelegalauthoritiesineachcoun-
try.ServingunderBpAnisasassistantbishopsaretheRtRevBill
Musk,whoisalsothepastorofStGeorges,andtheRtRevGrant
Le Marquand, who was ordained bishop on April 25
th
of 2012 in
Cairo. Le Marquand will have responsibility over the diocesan
churchesandinstitutionsintheHornofAfrica.
This diocese itself is one of four dioceses that form the Angli-
can province called The Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the
MiddleEast.TheotherthreediocesesaretheDioceseofJerusa-
lem, the Diocese of Iran, and the Diocese of Cyprus and the Gulf
States. In 1974 The Sudan became its own province within the
world-wifeAnglicanCommunion.

8Chaplains/MinistersofStGeorgesAnglicanChurch
1901-1914RevCameronFrederickW.Flad
1914-1933RevH.C.Burrough;1933-1936RevL.F.Rice
1938-1956VenIsaacDunbar
1960-1967RevRonW.Oswald
1968-1969VenIsaacDunbar
1970-1971RevBasilPitt
1972-1978RevDerekEaton
1978-1982RevRussellAvery
1982-1986RevDanSealy
1987-1992RevPatrickBlair
1992-1993RevDonChurch(interim)
1993-1995RevPaul-GordonChandler
1997?-1998RevHowardMorton
1999-2000RevGeoffHolt
2000-2007RevGeraldBrulotte
2008-RtRevDrBillMusk
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S2u
A CUMPARISUN UF A CHRISTIAN VIEW UF EKKLESIA AND A
MUSLIM VIEW UF THE MUSQUE AS PART UF THE UMMAH
AND AN ANALYSIS UF THE MISSIULUCICAL IMPLICATIUNS
UF THESE VIEWS

By Cbris Ilint
1

.
1 Introduction
Eveiy missionaiy path has to finu the way between these two
uangeis: iiielevance anu syncietism.
2
So obseiveu veteian mis-
sionaiy, Lesslie Newbigin, in 1994. Since the publication of }ohn
Tiavis C1 to C6 spectium foui yeais latei,
S
mission to Nuslims
has been incieasingly polaiiseu aiounu Newbigins twin con-
ceins.
4

Tiavis spectium contiasteu tiauitional chuiches, anu otheis
which, to vaiying uegiees, aie cultuially foieign to the sui-
iounuing Nuslim community,
S
with Chiist-centeieu Communi-
ties of Nessianic Nuslims: CS believeis |whoj aie vieweu as
Nuslims by the Nuslim community anu iefei to themselves as
Nuslims who follow Isa the Nessiah,
6
yet aie oui biotheis anu
sisteis in the Loiu, even though they uo not change ieligions.
7


1
Chiis Flint is an NTh stuuent with ministiy expeiience in Nuslim-majoiity
countiies.
2
Lesslie Newbigin, A WorJ in Seoson: Perspectives on Cbristion WorlJ Hission
(uianu Rapius: Eeiumans, 1994), 67.
S
}ohn Tiavis, The C1 to C6 Spectium: A Piactical Tool foi Befining Six Types of
Chiist-centeieu Communities (C) Founu in the Nuslim Context, FH S4
(1998): 4u7-4u8. Note that }ohn Tiavis is a pseuuonym.
4
In a foithcoming issue of the St. Fiancis Nagazine, Natthew Sleeman chaits
the uiscussion fiom 1998-2u1u. See The 0iigins, Bevelopment anu Futuie of
the CS Insiuei Novement Bebate, SIH, foithcoming.
S
Tiavis, The C1 to C6 Spectium, 4u7.
6
Tiavis, The C1 to C6 Spectium, 4u8.
7
}ohn Tiavis, Nust all Nuslims Leave Islam to Follow }esus.. FH S4 (1998):
411.
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S21
uioups of CS Nuslims seeking to follow }esus whilst ietaining
theii Islamic ieligious iuentity latei came to be calleu Insiuei
Novements.
8
Beibeit Boefei is one of many missiologists touay
who, sensitive to the offense that teims like Chiistian anu
chuich can inauveitently cause in Islamic societies, auvise that

|njew believeis in these contexts uo not iuentify themselves as
Chiistians, but as membeis of theii own societies anu cultuies. By
cleaily anu publicly iejecting the name Chiistian, they can uissoci-
ate themselves to some extent fiom Chiistianity. By inventing a
teim iooteu in theii own societys ieligiouscultuial heiitage, they
can cleaily pioclaim who they tiuly aie as followeis of }esus in theii
own society.
9


0thei missiologists, howevei, feai that such stiategies pio-
mote syncietism. Phil Paishall iesponueu to Tiavis aiticle im-
meuiately, waining that CS falls along the syncietism spec-
tium.
1u
Noie iecently, the contiibutois to Cbrislom: Eow His-
sionories ore Promotinq on lslomizeJ 6ospel,
11
have juugeu In-
siuei Novements syncietistic.
Natthew Sleeman has obseiveu that, cuiiously, uespite moie
than a uecaue of missiological uebate, one of Paishalls initial as-
seitions, that |tjhe mosque is piegnant with Islamic theology,
12


8
Rebecca Lewis, Piomoting Novements to Chiist within Natuial Communi-
ties, l}IH 24 (2uu7): 7S, uefines an Insiuei Novement as any movement to
faith in Chiist wheie a) the gospel flows thiough pie-existing communities anu
social netwoiks, anu wheie b) believing families, as valiu expiessions of the
Bouy of Chiist, iemain insiue theii socioieligious communities, ietaining theii
iuentity as membeis of that community while living unuei the Loiuship of }esus
Chiist anu the authoiity of the Bible.
9
Beibeit Boefei, Whats in a Name. The Baggage of Teiminology in Contem-
poiaiy Nission, l}IH 2S (2uu8): 28.
1u
Phil Paishall, Bangei! New Biiections in Contextualization, FH S4 (1998):
4uS.
11
}oshua Lingel, }eff Noiton anu Bill Nikiues, eus., Cbrislom: Eow Hissionories
ore Promotinq on lslomizeJ 6ospel (uaiuen uiove, Calif.: i2 Ninistiies Publica-
tions, 2u11).
12
Paishall, Bangei!, 4u9.
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iemains iemaikably unexamineu in any uetail.
1S
Reuiessing
this oveisight may help to take the uiscussion foiwaiu, especially
as the two siues become incieasingly entiencheu.
In this uisseitation, I seek to lay some giounuwoik foi suc-
cessfully navigating between iiielevance anu syncietism in
Chiistian mission to Nuslims. Biawing upon Paul Biebeits
piocess of ciitical contextualization,
14
the mosque shall be nei-
thei iejecteu noi accepteu unciitically but explicitly examineu
with iegaiu to its meanings anu functions in the society, anu then
evaluateu in the light of biblical noims.
1S

In section one I shall outline a Chiistian view of ekklsio. It
shall be seen that ekklsio is a concept that incluues both the lo-
cal gatheiing anu the univeisal chuich. Thus, my coiiesponu-
ing stuuy in section two will consiuei a Nuslim view of the
mosque as pait of the ummob,
16
the woiluwiue Nuslim commu-
nity. In section thiee, I will then compaie these emic analyses,
17

anu consiuei the missiological implications.

1S
Sleeman, The 0iigins, Bevelopment anu Futuie of the CS Insiuei Nove-
ment Bebate.
14
Paul u. Biebeit, Ciitical Contextualization, Hissioloqy 12 (1984): 287-296.
1S
Biebeit, Ciitical Contextualization, 29u.
16
Foieign teims in the main text of this uisseitation will be tiansliteiateu foi
the ieaueis convenience.
17
Fmic analysis seeks to uiscovei how people view themselves fiom within.
This contiasts with etic analysis, in which the othei is unueistoou accoiuing to
the categoiies of the outsiue obseivei.
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Abbreviations
1QB EoJoyot oi Tbonksqivinq Eymns (Qumian)
1QS Serek EoyooJ oi Rule of tbe Community (Qumian)
ABB Ancbor Bible Bictionory
Ant. }ewish Antiquities (}osephus)
BBAu 6reek-Fnqlisb lexicon of tbe New Testoment onJ 0tber
Forly
Cbristion literoture
BCE Bictionory of Clossicol Eebrew
ESv English Stanuaiu veision
EAl0T Tbe Eebrew onJ Aromoic lexicon of tbe 0lJ Testoment
lBB lnterpreters Bictionory of tbe Bible
}.W. }ewisb Wor (}osephus)
life Tbe life (}osephus)
LXX Septuagint (the uieek 0T)
NT Nasoietic Text (of the 0T)
NT New Testament
0T 0lu Testament
Prob. uoJ 0mnis Probus liber Sit (Philo)
Spec. 2 Be Speciolibus leqibus ll (Philo)
TBNT Tbeoloqicol Bictionory of tbe New Testoment
Tbuc. Tbe Eistory of tbe Peloponnesion Wor (Thucyuiues)


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S24
2. A Cbristian View of Ekklsia
2.1Introduction
In this fiist section I will uevelop the concept of ekklesia which
will then be assumeu thioughout the iemainuei of this uisseita-
tion. To ensuie that this concept of ekklsia iepiesents a genu-
inely Chiistian position, I will ueiive it fiom an inuuctive stuuy
of the Biblical uata, suppoiteu by the finuings of wiuei Chiistian
scholaiship.
1

To set this Biblical stuuy in context, I shall begin with an inves-


tigation into how the woiu ekklsio functioneu in its fiist centuiy
context. Against this moie geneial backgiounu, I will then con-
siuei how the New Testament authois employeu the teim
ekklsio, to uiscein the new shaues of meaning ekklsio can auopt
in specifically Chiistian contexts.
2
These exegetical finuings will
then be augmenteu by othei Biblical ecclesial imageiy, anu fi-
nally set within wiuei Biblical anu Systematic Theological con-
texts, to show that a justifiably Cbristion view of ekklsio has
been pioposeu.
S


1
Ecclesiology being such a contesteu fielu within contempoiaiy Chiistian
scholaiship, my aim in this chaptei is not to piesent tbe uefinitive Chiistian
ecclesiology, but meiely to set out o legitimate Chiistian position. Foi an intio-
uuction to some of uiffeiences in ecclesiology amongst Chiistians touay, see,
e.g., Biau Baipei, Fxplorinq Fcclesioloqy: An Fvonqelicol onJ Fcumenicol lntro-
Juction (uianu Rapius: Biazos Piess, 2uu9), anu Fvonqelicol Fcclesioloqy: Reol-
ity or lllusion? (eu. }. u. Stackhouse; uianu Rapius: Bakei, 2uuS).
2
While suppoiting eviuence may at times be uiawn fiom eaily Chiistian uocu-
ments outsiue the New Testament, a thoiough stuuy of ekklsio in the apostolic
fatheis is beyonu the scope of this uisseitation.
S
This is baseu on the methouology auvocateu by Kuypei anu u. vos, who have
aigueu that biblical theology is a founuation foi systematic theology in that it
pioviues the iich fiuit of exegetical stuuy conuucteu with a piopei ielation to
the oiiginal context anu the uevelopment of uivine ievelation. Rogei Nicole,
The Relationship between Biblical Theology anu Systematic Theology, in
Fvonqelicol Roots: o Tribute to Wilbur Smitb (eu. Kenneth S. Kantzei; Nashville:
Thomas Nelson, 1978), 19S.
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2.2EkklesiainitsFirstCenturycontexts
The woiu ekklsio pieuates Chiistianity: it has been uocumenteu
fiom as eaily as the fifth centuiy B.C.,
4
anu was still useu in
common uieek pailance in the fiist centuiy A.B.
S
Fkklsio also
appeais neaily 1uu times in the Septuagint (heieaftei, LXX). It is
theiefoie necessaiy to consiuei how ekklsio functioneu both
within uieco-Roman anu }ewish contexts,
6
which aie geneially
acknowleugeu as significant backgiounus against which the New
Testament uocuments weie wiitten.
7

2.3EkklesiainitsJewishcontext
In the LXX, ekklsio always iefeis to gatheieu assemblies:
8
foi
example, an aimy gatheieu foi wai,
9
oi a hostile ciowu.
1u
In this
sense, ekklsio may also be useu of ieligious convocations,
11
but
again, only foi as long as they aie gatheieu.
It is instiuctive heie to compaie the semantic fielus of ekklsio
anu sunoqq. 0n the one hanu, theie is cleai semantic oveilap
between the two woius, foi when a gatheiing is in view, eithei
woiu may be useu inteichangeably to tianslate the Bebiew
qbl.
12
0n the othei hanu, howevei, ekklsio anu sunoqq aie

4
Fkklsio is attesteu in the wiitings of Thucyuiues, Beiouotus, Xenophon, Plato
anu Euiipiues. See Nichael }. vlach, Eos tbe Cburcb ReploceJ lsroel? A Tbeoloqi-
col Fvoluotion (Nashville: B&B, 2u1u), 2u7.
S
BBAu SuSB.
6
This uistinction between uieco-Roman anu }ewish contexts is maue heie
only to simplify the lexical analysis, not to ueny the genuine oveilap between
them, as embouieu by, e.g., }osephus anu Philo.
7
B. A. Caison anu B. }. Noo, An lntroJuction to tbe New Testoment (2u eu.;
Leicestei: Apollos, 2uuS), S2, note that |fjiom its inception, Chiistianity inevi-
tably uefineu itself, at least in pait, against the backgiounu of the vaiious foims
of }uuaism pievalent in the fiist centuiy.
8
0Biien, Colossions, Pbilemon, S7-8.
9
E.g. 1 Samuel 17:47; 2 Chionicles 28:14.
1u
E.g. Psalms 26 |LXX 2Sj:S; Siiach 26:S.
11
E.g. 1 Kings 8:22; Nehemiah 8:2.
12
E.g. In the chiastic stiuctuie of Psalms 4u:9-1u |LXX S9:1u-11j, qbl occuis
twice in synonymous paiallelism. The LXX tianslates the fiist instance of qbl
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not completely synonymous: when a non-gatheieu people is in
view, qbl may still be ienueieu by sunoqq,
1S
but nevei by
ekklsio. This inuicates that foi the LXX tianslatois, ekklsio was
a woiu consciously ieseiveu foi actual gatheiings;
14
a conclusion
unueiscoieu by the obseivation that Bebiew woiu
c
Jb, which
can be useu technically to speak of Isiael as a nation even when
not assembleu,
1S
is consistently tianslateu by sunoqq, anu
nevei by ekklsio.
This is not to suggest, howevei, that ekklsio gains no semantic
shauing at all fiom its use in the LXX. Inueeu, ekklsios fiist ap-
peaiance in the LXX, at Beuteionomy 4:1u, suggests otheiwise.
This veise looks back to the uay when the people assembleu
(ekklsioz, the cognate veib of ekklsio) at Sinai to heai uou
speaking the Ten Commanuments, anu chaiacteiises that occa-
sion as the uay of the assembly (t bmero ts ekklsios). This
uieek phiase is twice iepeateu in Beuteionomy,
16
both times
seemingly in a semi-technical sense to iefei to the events of Exo-
uus 19-2u. Compaiison with the unueilying Bebiew text con-
fiims that this phiase caiiieu special significance foi the LXX
tianslatois; foi wheieas its two subsequent appeaiances both
tianslate the Bebiew phiase b
e
ym boqbl, its initial occui-
ience, in Beuteionomy 4:1u, was intiouuceu in the absence of
any Bebiew equivalent.
17


with ekklsio, anu the seconu with sunoqq. The cognate veibs also shaie this
oveilap: compaie Leviticus 8:S-4, wheie ekklsioz is the veib useu to uesciibe
the convening of a sunoqq, with Numbeis 1:18, wheie sunoq is employeu.
1S
E.g. uenesis 28:S; Exouus 12:6.
14
Contro Kevin uiles, Wbot on Fortb is tbe Cburcb? A Biblicol onJ Tbeoloqicol
lnquiry (Lonuon: SPCK, 199S), 2S6, who, on the basis of a uetaileu woiu stuuy
of qbl, uiaws the unwaiianteu conclusion that a cleai uistinction between
the meaning of ekklsio anu sunoqq in the lXX is not possible.
1S
E.g. }oshua 9:21, 27.
16
Beuteionomy 9:1u (bmero ekklsios) anu 18:16 (t bmero ts ekklsios).
17
Cf. Beuteionomy 4:1u, 9:1u anu 18:16 in the Nasoietic Text (heieaftei, NT)
anu LXX. By choosing Beuteionomy 4:1u, a veise in which consiueiable em-
phasis is placeu on gatheiing in oiuei to listen to the voice of uou, as the veise
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2.4Summary
In the uieek-speaking woilu of the fiist centuiy A.B., the woiu
ekklsio was familiai both to uentiles, paiticulaily in political
contexts, anu to }ews, fiom the LXX.
18
Foi both gioups, ekklsio
was useu to uenote a vaiiety of assemblies. In }ewish ciicles,
howevei, the woiu ekklsio coulu also at times alluue specifically
to the national gatheiing at Sinai in Exouus 19-2u.
The New Testament, wiitten within this milieu, iecognises
both of these uses of ekklsio. In Acts 19, a uieek goveinment
official is quoteu using ekklsio accoiuing to its noimal seculai
sense to uesciibe both a political gatheiing (a lawful assembly,
ennomos ekklsio),
19
anu an uniuly mob.
2u
Conveisely, when in
Acts 7 ekklsio is founu on the lips of Stephen, a Bellenistic }ew,
its ieligious connotations aie cleaily in view.
21

3 Ekklsia in tbe New Testament - Word study


The fiist-centuiy backgiounu stuuy has alieauy shown that, in
seveial instances at least, the woiu ekklsio can occui in the New
Testament without any uistinctively Chiistian connotations.
22


to intiouuce theii gloss, t bmero ts ekklsios, the LXX tianslatois fiame the
ekklsio of Exouus 19-2u as an assembly conveneu specifically foi the puipose
of heaiing uous woius.
18
0Biien, Colossions, Pbilemon, S8, obseives it is still a uisputeu point
amongst scholais |wjhethei the Chiistian use of ekklesia was fiist auopteu
fiom }ewish oi uentile usage.
19
Acts 19:S9. Cf. 1 Coiinthians 6:4 wheie ekklsio may possibly also be taken in
this seculai sense.
2u
Acts 19:S2, 41. This gioup is also uesciibeu as a Jmos (19:Su, SS) anu an
ocblos (19:SS, SS).
21
|Nosesj was in the congiegation |ekklsioj in the wilueiness with the angel
who spoke to him at Nount Sinai, anu with oui fatheis. Be ieceiveu living oia-
cles to give to us (Acts 7:S8, ESv).
22
As uiles, Wbot on Fortb is tbe Cburcb?, 8S, obseives, New Testament wiiteis
fiequently use woius that have iich Chiistian meaning non-theologically. This
means we shoulu no moie ueiive Lukes Chiistian meaning of the teim ekklsio
fiom Acts 19 than we shoulu ueiive the Chiistian meaning of sJz save fiom
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This obseivation, howevei, uoes not necessaiily piecluue
ekklsio fiom uisplaying new polysemy elsewheie in the New
Testament. To investigate this, a numbei of veises will now be
examineu to uiscein how ekklsio functions in a vaiiety of imme-
uiate liteiaiy contexts.
2S
An exhaustive stuuy of the woiu
ekklsio in all its 114 New Testament appeaiances being beyonu
the scope of this uisseitation, I will limit the analysis heie only to
as many examples of ekklsio as will be necessaiy to illustiate the
uistinct semantic categoiies into which all the specifically Chiis-
tian New Testament uses of ekklsio natuially fall.
24

3.1AlocalgatheringofChristians
In 1 Coiinthians 11:18, Paul tells the Coiinthians that when you
come togethei as a chuich (sunercbomenn bumn en ekklsio), I
heai that theie aie uivisions among you.
2S
This is an example of
the New Testament using the woiu ekklsio accoiuing to its gen-
eial seculai sense of an assembly uuly summoneu, uesignating,
in this instance, an assembly of Coiinthian Chiistians. In this
passage, then, ekklsio maintains the same piimaiy sense as useu
in the wiuei fiist centuiy context, signifying a gatheieu Chiistian
ossembly.
26

Yet it is helpful to uistinguish heie between JenoteJ anu con-
noteJ meanings, anu obseive that this assembly, like otheis in

his usage of this teim in Acts 27.2u anu S1, wheie it iefeis to iescue fiom
uiowning.
2S
This methou safeguaius against illegitimate totality tiansfei anu the pie-
sciiptive fallacy. See Ciaig Blombeig, A EonJbook of New Testoment Fxeqesis
(uianu Rapius: Bakei Acauemic, 2u1u), 1S9-4u.
24
Being inteiesteu now in the specifically Cbristion meanings of ekklsio, I
excluue heie the examples fiom Acts 7 anu 19 which, as seen above, ieflect the
usage of ekklsio in the wiuei fiist centuiy context.
2S
1 Coiinthians 11:18, ESv. In this context, the coming togethei is in oiuei to
shaie the Loius Suppei.
26
Cf. 1 Coiinthians 14:19, 28, SS-SS, wheie Paul uses the teim ekklsio in this
same sense when uiscussing uecoious conuuct in the context of local Chiistian
gatheiings.
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the New Testament, is implicitly a Cbristion assembly. This nu-
ancing of ekklsio can be at times both conscious anu significant.
Foi example, Paul auuiesseu a local gatheiing of Thessalonian
Chiistians as the chuich of the Thessalonians (t ekklsio
Tbessoloniken) in uou the Fathei anu the Loiu }esus Chiist.
27

By means of the piepositional phiase in uou the Fathei, Paul
caiefully uistinguishes this paiticulai ekklsio fiom a political
gatheiing, anu the phiase the Loiu }esus Chiist fuithei uiffei-
entiates the ekklsio fiom a }ewish synagogue meeting;
28
a uis-
tinction also maue in Revelation.
29
Similaily, Paul auuiesses his
Coiinthian epistles to the chuich of uou (t ekklsio tou
tbeou),
Su
a uesciiptoi useu elsewheie in 1 Coiinthians to uistin-
guish Chiistians fiom both }ews anu uieeks.
S1


27
1 Thessalonians 1:1, ESv. Petei 0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Es-
chatological Entity, in Tbe Cburcb in tbe Bible onJ tbe WorlJ (eu. B. A. Caison;
Exetei: Pateinostei Piess 1987), 91, helpfully notes that |fjiom the closing
iemaiks of the lettei it is cleai Paul has in minu an actual gatheiing of the Thes-
salonian Chiistians. So he iequests that his lettei be ieau to all the biethien
anu that they gieet all biethien with a holy kiss (1 Thes. S:26f.). Contro uiles,
Wbot on Fortb is tbe Cburcb?, 7, who finus in this veise a New Testament piece-
uent foi pieuicating ekklsio of |ajll Chiistians in a city oi location.
28
R. Banks, Pouls lJeo of Community: Tbe Forly Eouse Cburcbes in tbeir Eistoric
Settinq (Exetei: Pateinostei, 198u), S6. While }ames 2:2 suggests that sunoqq
coulu on occasion iefei to Chiistian gatheiings, noimally the New Testament
uses sunoqq to uenote non-Chiistian }ewish gatheiings. Similai obseivations
may holu tiue of the apostolic fatheis: contiast, e.g., }ustin, Bioloque 1S4:S with
Beimas, HonJote 11:9, 1S, 14. Foi fuithei uetails on the use of sunoqq, see
W. Schiange, synagoge TBNT, 7:8u6-8.
29
Revelation 2:9 anu S:9 uistinguish the chuiches in Smyina anu Philauelphia
fiom the synagogue of Satan, a phiase in which uiles, Wbot on Fortb is tbe
Cburcb?, 17S, sees an implicit contiast to the chuich of uou.
Su
1 Coiinthians 1:2 anu 2 Coiinthians 1:1, ESv.
S1
1 Coiinthians 1u:S2: uive no offense to }ews oi to uieeks oi to the chuich of
uou (ESv). Similaily, 1 Thessalonians 2:14: Foi you, biotheis, became imita-
tois of the chuiches of uou in Chiist }esus that aie in }uuea. Foi you suffeieu
the same things fiom youi own countiymen as they uiu fiom the }ews (ESv).
Banks, Pouls lJeo of Community, S7, appaiently constiues the constiuction the
chuich of uou as a genitive of piouuction, oi maybe a genitive of souice, in the
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0ne way, then, in which fiist centuiy Chiistians coulu use the
woiu ekklsio, was in a non-technical sense, to uenote a local
gatheiing of Chiistians. Yet even in these instances, they weie
quick to invest this seculai woiu with uistinctively Chiistian
connotations.
S2

3.2Christianswhoregularlyattendalocalgathering
}ames auvises sick Chiistians to call foi the elueis of the
chuich.
SS
Beie, ekklsio iefeis not to a gatheieu assembly, but
iathei to an oiganiseu gioup of Chiistians with appointeu leau-
eis.
S4
0Biien suggests Acts 2u:17 as anothei example, uesciib-
ing such a use of ekklsio as a natuial extension oi linguistic ue-
velopment of gioup woius.
SS

In the New Testament, these local gatheiings often take place


in homes. Piisca anu Aquila,
S6
Nympha,
S7
Aichippus,
S8
anu pos-
sibly Lyuia,
S9
Naiy,
4u
anu Titius }ustus,
41
all host house
chuiches.
42
Aichaeological eviuence suggests that house sizes

sense that the chuich is not meiely a human association, a gatheiing of like-
minueu inuiviuuals foi a ieligious puipose, but a uivinely-cieateu affaii.
S2
This iapiu investituie of new semantic content is paiticulaily appaient if 1
Thessalonians is inueeu the eailiest of the Pauline epistles. Bowevei, even if 2
Thessalonians weie wiitten fiist, the same asciiption is given to the chuich in
this epistle, too (see 2 Thessalonians 1:1). Foi an oveiview of the issues in-
volveu in uating these epistles, see Caison anu Noo, An lntroJuction to tbe New
Testoment, S4S-44.
SS
}ames S:14, ESv.
S4
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 16u.
SS
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 92.
S6
Romans 16:S-S anu 1 Coiinthians 16:19.
S7
Colossians 4:1S.
S8
Philemon 2.
S9
Acts 16:1S, 4u.
4u
Acts 12:12-17.
41
Acts 18:7-11.
42
0n house chuiches in Acts, see e.g. }. B. Elliott, Temple veisus Bouseholu in
Luke-Acts, in Tbe Sociol WorlJ of luke-Acts: HoJels for lnterpretotion (eu.
}eiome. B. Neyiey; Peabouy: Benuiickson, 1991), 211-4u; anu Biauley Blue,
Acts anu the Bouse Chuich, in 6roeco-Romon Settinq (vol. 2 of Tbe Book of
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woulu have constiaineu such meetings to no moie than fifty
people at a time;
4S
foi laigei gatheiings, biggei venues weie
useu. So, foi example, the eaily }eiusalem believeis bioke bieau
fiom house to house, but the whole chuich gatheieu by theii
thousanus in the temple piecincts.
44
The chuich in Coiinth ap-
paiently followeu a similai pattein, gatheiing peiiouically as the
whole chuich in laigei, semi-public aieas.
4S

This uistinctive New Testament extension of the singulai
ekklsio to uenote a gioup of believeis outsiue theii iegulai time
anu place of assembly is not, howevei, extenueu fuithei to ue-
sciibe a collection of Chiistians who nevei assemble as one.
46

Such may insteau be uesciibeu using the pluial ekklsioi:
47
foi
example, the chuiches of }uuea,
48
the chuiches of ualatia,
49

the chuiches of Asia,
Su
the chuiches of Naceuonia,
S1
all the

Acts in its Iirst Century Settinq; eu. Baviu W. }. uill anu Coniau B. uempf; Cai-
lisle: Pateinostei, 1994), 119-222.
4S
}eiome Nuiphy-0Connoi, St. Pouls Corintb: Texts onJ Arcboeoloqy (Wilming-
ton, Bel.: Nichael ulaziei, Inc., 198S), 1S6.
44
Cf. Acts 2:46; S:11-12, 42. Luke iepoits S,uuu believeis in Acts 2:41, iising to
S,uuu in Acts 4:4. Such numbeis coulu easily have gatheieu in the temple
couits, which spanneu aiounu SS acies anu coulu accommouate as many as
7S,uuu people. Foi the temples uimensions, see Eckhaiu }. Schnabel, }esus onJ
tbe Twelve (vol. 1 of Forly Cbristion Hission; Leicestei: Inteivaisity Piess,
2uu4), 419.
4S
1 Coiinthians 14:2S. Laigei meetings of the whole chuich weie hosteu by
uaius: cf. Romans 16:2S anu the uiscussion in }. B. u. Bunn, Romons 9-16 (WBC
S8B; Ballas, Tex.: Woiu Books, 1988), 91u-11.
46
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 92, obseives
that |ajlthough we often speak of a gioup of congiegations collectively as the
chuich (i.e. of a uenomination) neithei Paul noi the iest of the New Testament
uses ekklsio in this collective way. Also the notion of a unifieu piovincial oi
national chuich is foieign to New Testament teaching.
47
The New Testaments fiequent use of ekklsioi contiasts with the LXX, wheie
the pluial foim appeais only once (Psalms 26 |LXX 2Sj:12). The phiase port of
the chuich |in a paiticulai placej nevei occuis.
48
tois ekklsiois ts louJoios (ualatians 1:22; cf. 1 Thessalonians 2:14).
49
tois ekklsiois ts 6olotios (1 Coiinthians 16:1; ualatians 1:2).
Su
boi ekklsioi ts Asios (1 Coiinthians 16:19).
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chuiches of the uentiles,
S2
anu all the chuiches of Chiist.
SS

This inuicates that a uynamic nuance iemains intiinsic to the
semantics of ekklsio; a nuance appaiently iecogniseu by Paul:
foi example, when gieeting the chuich of uou that is at Coiinth,
Paul immeuiately uistinguishes this ekklsio fiom all the saints
who aie in the whole of Achaia.
S4
If Banks is coiiect, ekklsios
intiinsic gatheiing connotations also explain why Paul uiu not
auuiess the Roman Chiistians as a chuich:
SS
in Rome, |tjhe
whole chuich nevei assembleu in one place as it uiu in Coi-
inth.
S6

A seconu way, then, in which fiist centuiy Chiistians coulu use
the woiu ekklsio, was in this new technical sense, uenoting spe-
cifically a gioup of Chiistians who iegulaily attenu a paiticulai
local gatheiing.
S7
Yet, since ekklsios uynamic connotations of
gatheiing, though not now piimaiy, aie neveitheless not en-

S1
tois ekklsiois ts HokeJonios (2 Coiinthians 8:1).
S2
posoi boi ekklsioi tn etbnn (Romans 16:4).
SS
boi ekklsioi posoi tou Cbristou (Romans 16:16).
S4
2 Coiinthians 1:1, ESv. Again, Contro uiles, Wbot on Fortb is tbe Cburcb?, 7,
Paul is not heie simply auuiessing |ajll Chiistians in a city oi location, but
iathei envisages an actual gatheiing of Coiinthian believeis, as eviuenceu, once
again, by Pauls concluuing exhoitation to |gjieet one anothei with a holy kiss
(2 Coiinthians 1S:12, ESv).
SS
Paul auuiesseu Romans to all those in Rome who aie loveu by uou anu
calleu to be saints (Romans 1:7, ESv). uiaham Cole, The Boctiine of the
Chuich: Towaius Conceptual Claiification in Cburcb, Worsbip onJ tbe locol
Conqreqotion (eu. B.u. Webb; Bomebush West: Lancei Books, 1987), 1u, sug-
gests a similai explanation foi the absence of the woiu ekklsio in 1 Petei,
which was wiitten to the elect exiles of the uispeision in Pontus, ualatia, Cap-
pauocia, Asia, anu Bithynia (1 Petei 1:1, ESv).
S6
Banks, Pouls lJeo of Community, 4u. Banks suggests such a gatheiing woulu
have been impiactical given Romes size, anu notes that in the seconu centuiy
A.B., combineu meetings of all Roman Chiistians weie unknown. Cf. HortyrJom
of }ustin Hortyr (ANI 1:SuS-Su6).
S7
Banks, Pouls lJeo of Community, S6.
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tiiely lost fiom sight,
S8
the woiu ekklsio is nowheie in the New
Testament pieuicateu of a piovincial oi national chuich.
S9
Ap-
paient counteiexamples, on inspection, piove unconvincing.
When Paul speaks of having peisecuteu the chuich,
6u
he is ie-
feiiing specifically to the chuich in }eiusalem:
61
Lukes uesciip-
tion of this Sauline peisecution aptly ieflects a chuich which, as
seen above, met both in smallei house gioups anu also collec-
tively in the temple.
62
The iefeience in Acts 9:S1 to the chuich
thioughout all }uuea anu ualilee anu Samaiia may be a manu-
sciipt eiioi,
6S
oi, moie likely, a liteiaiy uevice by which Luke ties
togethei the naiiative section, begun at Acts 8:1, tiacing what
became of the scatteieu }eiusalem chuich.
64
Finally, some pas-
sages appaiently use ekklsio teiminology in a uistinct univei-
sal sense; these veises shall be consiueieu sepaiately below.


S8
Contro uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 116, who holus that |wjhethei oi
not those calleu the chuich in a paiticulai location evei assembleu togethei in
theii entiiety is of no consequence.
S9
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 92.
6u
1 Coiinthians 1S:9; ualatians 1:1S; Philippians S:6.
61
Cf. Acts 9:1S, 21; 26:1u. Also Petei 0Biien, Tbe Fpistle to tbe Pbilippions: A
Commentory on tbe 6reek Text (NIuTC; uianu Rapius: Eeiumans, 1991), S78.
62
Acts 8:1-S uesciibes how Saul peisecuteu the chuich in }eiusalem by en-
teiing house aftei house. Contro uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 84-8S,
114, who uoubts that these believeis gatheieu as one. Acts 2u:2u might suggest
a similai pattein of public anu piivate meetings of the chuich in Ephesus. Cf.
Ben Witheiington III, Tbe Acts of tbe Apostles: A Socio-Rbetoricol Commentory
(uianu Rapius: Eeiumans, 1998), 617, n. 2SS.
6S
B. N. Netzgei, A Textuol Commentory on tbe 6reek New Testoment (2u eu.;
Stuttgait: Beutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1994), S22-2S, notes that some eaily
manusciipts attest heie to the pluial ekklsioi. Netzgei aigues, howevei, that
the singulai ekklsio is most likely to be oiiginal, this lectio Jifficilior being latei
emenueu to the moie conventional pluial foim to haimonise with, e.g., Acts
1S:41 anu 16:S.
64
Natthew Sleeman fuithei notes that the mention of ualilee in Acts 9:S1 is
not necessaiily inconsistent with this inteipietation, given that Acts 9:1 has
alieauy locateu some of the Loius uisciples as fai noith as Bamascus (pei-
sonal communication, 9 }anuaiy 2u12).
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3.3TheheavenlygatheringofChristians
Bebiews 12:18-24 poitiays 0lu Testament Isiael gatheieu at
Nount Sinai as typological of the New Testament Bebiew believ-
eis, who have come to Nount Zion.6S Wheieas the foimei
came to something that can be toucheu,66 the lattei aie pie-
senteu as paiticipating in the heavenly }eiusalem amiust the
assembly of the fiistboin (ekklsia pitotokn).67 This
phiase, as shall now be shown, illustiates anothei uistinctive
New Testament use of the woiu ekklsia.
The membeiship of the heavenly ekklsio may be ueuuceu
fiom the immeuiate liteiaiy context. Positively, the fiistboin
teiminology signifies those whom uou has ieueemeu.
68
This
gioup aie fuithei uesciibeu as eniolleu in heaven,
69
a biblical
motif uemaicating those appointeu foi salvation.
7u
Negatively,

6S
As Petei 0Biien, Tbe letter to tbe Eebrews (PNTC; Nottingham: Apollos,
2u1u), 48S, n. 21u, obseives, |tjhe typological paiallels between Isiael at Sinai
anu believeis gatheieu at the heavenly Zion aie cleai. 0n typology in geneial
see, e.g. B. S. Bockeiy, Biblicol lnterpretotion Tben onJ Now: Contemporory
Eermeneutics in tbe liqbt of tbe Forly Cburcb (uianu Rapius: Bakei, 1992), SS,
who explains that |tjypological exegesis is baseu on the conviction that cei-
tain events in the histoiy of Isiael piefiguie a futuie time when uous puiposes
will be ievealeu in theii fullness.
66
See Netzgei, Textuol Commentory, 6uS, foi a uiscussion of the textual vaiiant,
a mountain that can be toucheu. Eithei way theie is a contiast between the
tangible Nount Sinai anu the intangible Nount Zion.
67
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 1S6, notes that Qumian manusciipts have
been uiscoveieu which also envisage the faithful on eaith as shaiing in the woi-
ship of heaven, e.g. 1QS 11:7-8; 1QB S:21-2S.
68
Whethei fiom slaveiy in Egypt (e.g. Exouus 4:22-2S) oi fiom exile in Babylon
(e.g. }eiemiah S1:9-11).
69
Bebiews 12:2S, ESv. The concept of being eniolleu in beoven extenus heie
the typological schema between }eiusalem Zion anu its heavenly countei-
pait (cf. Isaiah 4:S anu Psalms 87 |LXX 86j:S-6).
7u
Cf. Exouus S2:S2-SS; Psalms 69:28; Baniel 12:1; Luke 1u:2u; Philippians 4:S;
Revelation S:S; 1S:8; 17:8; 2u:12, 1S; 21:27. The passive voice, enrolleJ in
heaven, is an example of a uivine passive. Cf. Baniel B. Wallace, 6reek 6rom-
mor BeyonJ tbe Bosics: An Fxeqeticol Syntox of tbe New Testoment witb Scrip-
ture, Subject, onJ 6reek WorJ lnJexes (uianu Rapius: Zonueivan, 1996), 4S7.
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howevei, the assembly of the fiistboin is uistinguisheu not only
fiom innumeiable angels in festal gatheiing,
71
but also fiom
the spiiits of the iighteous maue peifect,
72
best unueistoou as
0lu Covenant believeis.
7S
This heavenly gatheiing, then, in
which New Covenant believeis paiticipate even now,
74
shoulu be
unueistoou as consisting of all Chiistians, whethei living oi ueau.
The same heavenly ieality is assumeu thioughout the Pauline
epistles. Chiistians, living anu ueau, aie in Chiist,
7S
uniteu to
him though faith.
76
Baving uieu anu iisen with Chiist,
77
Chiis-
tians aie, in a sense, in heaven with }esus even now, albeit invisi-
bly until he ietuins,
78
foi uou has seateu us with him in the
heavenly places in Chiist }esus,
79
paiticipating in eveiy spiii-
tual blessing in the heavenly places.
8u
Chiistians aie theiefoie
to puisue piioiities on eaith consistent with theii iuentity in

71
Bebiews 12:22, ESv. That angels weie similaily piesent at Sinai is assumeu
both in the Biblical wiitings (e.g. Beuteionomy SS:2; Psalms 68:17 |LXX 67:18j;
Acts 7:SS; ualatians S:19) anu also, obseives Clowney, The Biblical Theology of
the Chuich, in Tbe Cburcb in tbe Bible onJ tbe WorlJ (eu. B. A. Caison; Exetei:
Pateinostei Piess, 1987), 18, in the Qumian wiitings (e.g. 1QS 2:2S; 1QB S:21;
11:11).
72
Bebiews 12:2S, ESv.
7S
So F. F. Biuce. Tbe Fpistle to tbe Eebrews (NICNT; iev. eu.; uianu Rapius:
Eeiumans, 199u), SS9-S6u. Cf. the similai expiessions in 1 Enoch 1u2:4; 1uS:S-
4 anu the theology of Bebiews 1u:14; 11:S9-4u.
74
W. }. Bumbiell, The Spiiits of }ust Nen maue Peifect, F 48 (1976), 1S9,
obseives that: |tjhe paiauox which is so chaiacteiistic of Bebiews is that these
pilgiims in theii conveision have come to that city (Beb. 12:22) foi which they
still seek (Beb. 1S:14).
7S
1 Thessalonians 4:16-17.
76
ualatians S:26-27.
77
Romans 6:4.
78
Colossians S:1-4. Cf. Natt }enson anu Baviu Wilhite, Tbe Cburcb: A 6uiJe for
tbe PerplexeJ (Lonuon: T. & T. Claik, 2u1u), 1S, who with iefeience to this text
speak of oui bi-locality in the chuich.
79
Ephesians 2:6, ESv.
8u
Ephesians 1:S, ESv. Banks, Pouls lJeo of Community, 46, suggests the heav-
enly chuich is also specifically in view in Ephesians S:1u, anu moie bioauly
thioughout the iest of the epistle.
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heaven,
81
which ueteimines anu uemanus theii piimaiy alle-
giance above eveiy othei institution, whethei political,
82
oi ielig-
ious.
8S

The thiiu uistinctive way, then, in which the New Testament
uses the woiu ekklsio, is to speak of the gatheiing in heaven in
which all Chiistians, living anu ueau, aie even now paiticipating.

3.4AllChristians
Sometimes in the New Testament the woiu ekklsio beais a uni-
veisal sense uenoting all Chiistians, even when the heavenly
gatheiing is not specifically in view. Foi example, in 1 Coiinthi-
ans 1u:S2 Paul wains the Coiinthian Chiistians to |gjive no of-
fense to }ews oi to uieeks oi to the chuich of uou.
84
That t
ekklsio tou tbeou is not heie iestiicteu meiely to the local Coi-
inthian congiegation is cleai both fiom its cooiuination with
}ews anu uieeks,
8S
anu also fiom the immeuiate liteiaiy con-
text, as Paul goes on to ioot this commanu in his wiuei appeal to
the Coiinthians to imitate him as he seeks to please eveiyone in
eveiything I uo.
86
Anothei univeisal use of ekklsio comes two
sections latei, wheie uou is saiu to have appointeu apostles in

81
Philippians S:2u; Colossians S:1-2.
82
Philippians S:19-2u, cf. Banks, Pouls lJeo of Community, 4S: In a highly sig-
nificant passage |Paulj contiasts those who have theii minus set on eaithly
things with those whose commonwealth is in heaven, his language piobably
echoing the piivilege of citizenship confeiieu upon the whole Roman colony of
Philippi.
8S
ualatians 4:21-S1 aigues that the tiue heiis of the Abiahamic covenant aie
not the }uuaizeis, associateu with Nount Sinai anu the piesent }eiusalem,
but the Chiistians, allieu with the }eiusalem above. See Chiis Flint, uous
Blessing to Ishmael with Special Refeience to Islam, SIH 7 (2u11): 2S-SS.
84
1 Coiinthians 1u:S2, ESv.
8S
Cf. }. A. Fitzmyei, Iirst Corintbions: A New Tronslotion witb lntroJuction onJ
Commentory (AB S2; Lonuon: Yale 0niveisity Piess, 2uu8), 4uS. Also R. C. B.
Lenski, Tbe lnterpretotion of St. Pouls Iirst onJ SeconJ Fpistles to tbe Corintbi-
ons (Ninneapolis: Augsbuig, 196S), 426-27.
86
1 Coiinthians 1u:SS-11:1, cf. 4:16. Cf. Roy E. Ciampa anu Biian S. Rosnei, Tbe
Iirst letter to tbe Corintbions (PNTC; uianu Rapius: Eeiumans, 2u1u), 497-498.
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the chuich:
87
apostolic ministiy is founuational foi eveiy Chiis-
tian congiegation.
88

Some have obseiveu an appaient incongiuity in ekklsio beai-
ing this technical univeisal meaning, foi in such cases, what has
become of the sense of gatheiing which is always piesent, even
if at times only implicitly, when ekklsio occuis elsewheie in the
New Testament.
89
Bowevei, as Colossians anu Ephesians ieveal,
this appaient absence of uynamic connotations is only supeifi-
cial, foi when ekklsio is useu in a univeisal sense in these epis-
tles,
9u
the heavenly gatheiing of all Chiistians is piesupposeu.
Foi example, while the univeisal ekklsio in Colossians is an
eaithly ieality that can suffei;
91
0Biien obseives that, when
ekklsio is fiist mentioneu in 1:18, the context of Col. 1:1S-2u
which is moving on a heavenly plane suggests it is not an eaithly
phenomenon that is being spoken of in v. 18, but a supeinatuial
anu heavenly one.
92
Similaily in Ephesians, the concept of
ekklsio is fiist intiouuceu, in 1:2u-2S, as the bouy of the as-
cenueu Chiist;
9S
yet it woulu suiely be incongiuous to envisage
Chiists concein foi his ekklsio, uesciibeu in S:29, as focuseu
exclusively upon the heavenly gatheiing.
94


87
1 Coiinthians 12:28.
88
Acts 1:21-22; Ephesians 2:2u. I heie take apostles in the technical sense of
those fiist centuiy men whom }esus peisonally appointeu as his witnesses, in-
cluuing Natthias anu Paul (cf. Acts 2u:24; 26:16).
89
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 9S, obseives
that it is uifficult to envisage how the woilu-wiue chuich coulu assemble.
9u
BBAu Su4A cites Colossians 1:18, 24 anu Ephesians 1:22; S:1u, 21; S:2S-24,
27, 29 anu S2 as examples of the global community of Chiistians, (universol)
cburcb.
91
Colossians 1:24.
92
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 9S.
9S
The bouy of Chiist metaphoi will be consiueieu in moie uetail in the next
section below.
94
Aiguably, othei occuiiences of ekklsio in Ephesians (e.g. S:2S, 2S) aie also
most natuially taken in a technical sense iefeiiing to all Chiistians, albeit with
heavenly connotations in the neai backgiounu.
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The final way, then, in which the New Testament uses the
woiu ekklsio, is in a technical univeisal sense to uenote all
Chiistians.
9S
Linguistically, ekklsio teiminology is again being
extenueu to a gioup of believeis outsiue theii usual time anu
place of assembly, though now, those believeis aie the special
case of those gatheieu in heaven.
96

3.5Summary
0ui stuuy has highlighteu foui uiffeient ways in which the woiu
ekklsio in the New Testament can be colouieu with uistinctively
Chiistian semantic shauing. Semantically, these foui categoiies
fuithei ieuuce to two.
0n the one hanu, ekklsio may be pieuicateu of gioups of
Chiistians envisoqeJ os ossembleJ, eithei in a local gatheiing of
Chiistians oi in the heavenly gatheiing of Chiistians. In such
cases, ekklsios fiist centuiy seculai meaning of an assembly
uuly summoneu iemains its piimaiy sense, though now shaueu
with the significant connotation that those assembling aie uis-
tinctly Chiistian.
0n the othei hanu, ekklsio may be pieuicateu of gioups of
Chiistians envisoqeJ os not ossembleJ. Beie, a natuial linguistic
extension ielegates ekklsios oiiginal sense of gatheiing to the
backgiounu, with the focus falling piimaiily on the membeis of
the gioup, whethei assembleu as an eaithly gatheiing, in which
case ekklsio uenotes Chiistians who iegulaily attenu a local
gatheiing, oi as the heavenly gatheiing, but vieweu fiom theii
eaithly peispective, in which case ekklsio beais a univeisal
sense uenoting all Chiistians.

9S
Not to be confuseu with a geneiic sense that uenotes Chiistians in gen-
eial, but not in theii entiiety.
96
Ephesians S:1S might also point in this uiiection, uepenuing on how the veise
is tianslateu (e.g. NIv: fiom whom his whole family in heaven anu on eaith
ueiives its name). Cf. Natthew Sleeman, 6eoqropby onJ tbe Ascension Norro-
tive in Acts (Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2uu9), 181, who uisceins a
notion of beovenly catholicism (emphasis oiiginal) implicit in the naiiation
of Acts 8:9-2S, by which the authoiity of the }eiusalem leaueis is ielativiseu.
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0n the assumption that these patteins of usage ieflect a
ueepei unueilying theological ieality, the New Testament woulu
seem to envisage Chiistian ekklsioi as Chiistians gatheieu
aiounu a locus which may be eithei in heaven oi on eaith. The
natuie of these ekklsioi, anu the unifying concept behinu
ekklsioi with such qualitatively uiffeient loci, iemains to be
seen, anu shall now be consiueieu in the light of some of the im-
ageiy by which New Testament ecclesiology is uevelopeu.

4 Ecclesial Imagery in tbe New Testament
Since concepts aie not woius, but iathei foim the ciiteiia by
which appiopiiate woius aie selecteu to uesciibe them,
97
the
concept of ekklsio may be in view in New Testament passages
that a woiu stuuy alone woulu oveilook.
98
A fully-oibeu Chiis-
tian ecclesiology must theiefoie be sensitive to, anu eniicheu by,
the vaiious ecclesial images the New Testament employs.
99
An
exhaustive stuuy of New Testament ecclesial imageiy being be-
yonu the scope of this uisseitation,
1uu
we will biiefly consiuei
heie just two of the main New Testament metaphois commonly
iecogniseu as images of the Chiistian ekklsio: the bouy of
Chiist,
1u1
anu the temple.
1u2


97
See }. Bospeis, An lntroJuction to Pbilosopbicol Anolysis (Su eu.; Lonuon:
Routleuge, 199u), S8.
98
Cole, The Boctiine of the Chuich, 9.
99
Baviu u. Peteison, The Locus of the Chuich: Beaven oi Eaith. Cburcbmon
112 (1998), 21S, insists: It is ceitainly inauequate to foimulate a uoctiine of
the chuich using meiely a woiu-stuuy appioach anu focusing on ekklsio to the
uetiiment of othei teiminology. Apait fiom the use of well-known metaphois
foi the New Testament people of uou, such as bouy anu temple, theie aie
passages that ueal with the life anu chaiactei of the chuich without using any
of the familiai teims.
1uu
Paul Nineai, lmoqes of tbe Cburcb in tbe New Testoment (Lonuon: Luttei-
woith Piess, 1961), anu his latei aiticle, Chuich, Iuea of, lBB 1:6u7-617 enu-
meiate ovei 1uu phiases in the New Testament that aie conceptually ielateu to
ekklsio.
1u1
E.g. Colossians 1:18; 1:24; Ephesians 1:22-2S; S:2S.
1u2
E.g. 1 Coiinthians S:16-17; 2 Coiinthians 6:16; Ephesians 2:19-21.
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It must be iemembeieu that, unlike the woiu ekklsio, which is a
uesciiptive teim foi an iuentifiable object, metaphois function
analogically.
1uS
Thus, to guaiu against unuuly impoiting too
much fiom these two metaphois, they will not be o priori pie-
sumeu coteiminous with the concept of ekklsio.
1u4
Rathei, pii-
maiy consiueiation will be given to how these metaphois func-
tion in theii immeuiate liteiaiy contexts,
1uS
so as to iuentify the
entity the metaphoi is uesciibing, anu the point being maue
about it.
1u6

4.1ThebodyofChrist
Chionologically, the bouy metaphoi fiist appeais in 1 Coiinthi-
ans 1u:17. In its immeuiate context,
1u7
Paul is auuiessing the
Coiinthian congiegation, anu unueiscoiing the incompatibility of
theii paiticipation in both the Loius Suppei anu in iuolatious
woiship.
1u8
Beie, the metaphoi functions to unueiscoie the
unity of the local congiegation, foi those who shaie the one
bieau also shaie togethei as one bouy in the benefits that flow
fiom Chiists saciificial ueath in his physical bouy.
1u9
Paitakeis
of the Loius Table, being paitneis with Chiist, must not piovoke
his jealousy by also paitneiing with uemons.
11u

The bouy metaphoi is uevelopeu moie extensively two chap-
teis latei, as Paul confionts the elitist attituue of the pneumat-
ics.
111
In 1 Coiinthians 12:27, Paul wiites: Now you aie the

1uS
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 92.
1u4
Cf. 0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 98.
1uS
Foi a uiscussion of the heimeneutical issues involveu, see Eumunu P.
Clowney, Inteipieting the Biblical Nouels of the Chuich: A Beimeneutical
Beepening of Ecclesiology, in Biblicol lnterpretotion onJ tbe Cburcb: Text onJ
Context (eu. B. A. Caison; Exetei: Pateinostei, 1984), 64-1u9.
1u6
Cf. 0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1uS.
1u7
1 Coiinthians 1u:14-22.
1u8
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 1uS.
1u9
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1u6.
11u
1 Coiinthians 1u:2u-22.
111
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 1uS.
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bouy of Chiist (bumeis Je este smo Cbristou) anu inuiviuually
membeis of it.
112
Beie once again, the local Coiinthian congie-
gation is in view,
11S
anu is metaphoiically uesciibeu as a
bouy:
114
in paiticulai, the bouy of Chiist.
11S
In view of the ex-
tenueu uesciiption which immeuiately pieceues in veises 14-26,
the metaphoi heie teaches that the local ekklsio is no meie ag-
giegation of inuiviuuals,
116
but iathei a haimonious uiveisity of
believeis who suffei anu iejoice togethei,
117
anu have been ai-
iangeu piecisely as uou has chosen.
118

Yet in the veises immeuiately befoie anu aftei this section,
119

the same piinciple anu bouy metaphoi aie applieu moie wiuely
to the universol chuich.
12u
A clue as to why this image may be
applieu both locally anu univeisally is given in veise 12, wheie
this epistolaiy section begins: Foi just as the bouy is one anu
has many membeis, anu all the membeis of the bouy, though
many, aie one bouy, so it is with Chiist (bouts koi bo Cbris-
tos).
121
0nity anu pluiality in the Chiistian ekklsio, whethei
local oi univeisal, is somehow iooteu in the peison of Chiist.
122


112
1 Coiinthians 12:27, ESv.
11S
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1u6.
114
The uieek giammai tells against iJentifyinq the Coiinthian congiegation
with Chiists physical bouy: smo is anaithious, anu so, being a post-veibal
pieuicate nominative, is heie best taken qualitatively. Cf. Wallace, 6reek
6rommor BeyonJ tbe Bosics, 26S.
11S
C. K. Baiiett, A Commentory on tbe Iirst Fpistle to tbe Corintbions (2u eu.;
Lonuon: A. anu C. Black, 1971), 292, iuentifies this constiuction as a genitive of
possession iathei than a genitive of iuentity.
116
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 1uS.
117
1 Coiinthians 12:26. Nb. The categoiy of coipoiate iuentity affiimeu heie,
anu elsewheie in the Bible, sits uneasily with the tenuencies towaiu nominal-
ism that unueilie much of westein philosophy touay.
118
1 Coiinthians 12:18.
119
1 Coiinthians 12:1S, 28-Su.
12u
R. Y. K. Fung, Some Pauline Pictuies of the Chuich, F SS (1981), 9S.
121
1 Coiinthians 12:12, ESv.
122
vaiious explanations of this have been suggesteu. B. B. Faiiow, Ascension
onJ Fcclesio: 0n tbe Siqnificonce of tbe Ascension for Fcclesioloqy onJ Cbristion
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Foi, the apostle goes on to explain, in one Spiiit we weie all
baptizeu into one bouy |sc. the bouy of Chiistj }ews oi uieeks,
slaves oi fiee anu all weie maue to uiink of one Spiiit.
12S
Im-
plicit within the bouy of Chiist metaphoi, then, is the ieality of
spiiitual union with Chiist foi vaiious types of believeis.
When the metaphoi is next employeu, the souice of the unity
is maue explicit by the phiase in Chiist:
124
we, though many,
aie one bouy in Chiist (en Cbrist), anu inuiviuually membeis
one of anothei.
12S
By theii common incoipoiation in Chiist,
126

Chiistians, with theii vaiieu gifts,
127
aie also uniteu to one an-
othei.
128


Cosmoloqy (Euinbuigh: T. &. T. Claik, 1999), 269, notes that }esus peisonal
iuentity cannot be uefineu in teims of meie inuiviuuality, since it is peiichoieti-
cally constituteu by his unity with the Fathei anu the Spiiit it is also consti-
tuteu by his union with the chuich. Nichael S. Boiton, People onJ Ploce: A
Covenont Fcclesioloqy (Louisville: Westminstei }ohn Knox Piess: 2uu8), 188,
auvances a covenantal ecclesiology in which |tjhe vassal is so iuentifieu with
the suzeiain that a thieat oi injuiy to the one is a thieat oi injuiy to the othei.
Yet this is not uue to a biological unity of a single subject consisting of suzeiain
anu vassal, but is baseu on the iesponsibility that the suzeiain has fieely as-
sumeu as the heau of the impeiial bouy. Foi Sleeman, 6eoqropby, 168, the
ascenueu }esus is in a place wheie all places aie. Biblically, one is ieminueu of
the Seivant of the L0RB who, in Isaiah 49:S, is auuiesseu both in the singulai
anu the pluial. Cf. }ohn E. uoluingay, Tbe Hessoqe of lsoiob 40-SS (Lonuon: T. &.
T. Claik Inteinational, 2uuS), S69 anu }. Alec Notyei, lsoiob: An lntroJuction onJ
Commentory (T0TC; Leicestei: Intei-vaisity Piess, 1999), Su9.
12S
1 Coiinthians 12:1S, ESv.
124
Banks, Pouls lJeo of Community, 6S.
12S
Romans 12:S, ESv.
126
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1u7, suggests
that the Chiistians in Rome uiu not gathei togethei, in which case Romans 12:S
is an example of the bouy of Chiist metaphoi being pieuicateu of a bioauei
gioup of Chiistians than a local congiegation. In the context of Romans, the
phiase the many (boi polloi) (cf. Romans S:1S, 19) might suggest the univeisal
chuich is in view.
127
Romans 12:6.
128
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 1uS.
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In the latei epistles of Ephesians anu Colossians, bouy im-
ageiy again teaches unity in uiveisity. In Ephesians, the unity of
}ew anu uentile believeis as membeis of the same bouy is a
mysteiy ievealeu thiough the gospel,
129
Chiist having iecon-
cile|uj us both to uou in one bouy thiough the cioss;
1Su
simi-
laily, the Colossians aie exhoiteu to let the peace of Chiist iule
in youi heaits, to which inueeu you weie calleu in one bouy.
1S1

Yet heie, the paiticulai application to haimony between Chiis-
tians is just one facet of the moie compiehensive theme that the
bouy metaphoi teaches in these two epistles: that uou intenus
believeis to giow to matuiity not only as inuiviuuals,
1S2
but coi-
poiately as well.
1SS

Ecclesial giowth uepenus on Chiist, who, uistinctively in Co-
lossians anu Ephesians, is uesciibeu as the heau of the bouy, the
chuich.
1S4
0n the one hanu, the heau is the bouys life-souice.
Chiist is the savioui, not only of inuiviuuals, but of the chuich,
1SS

which he nouiishes anu cheiishes because we aie membeis of
his bouy.
1S6
Be is the the Beau, fiom whom the whole bouy,
nouiisheu anu knit togethei thiough its joints anu ligaments,
giows with a giowth that is fiom uou.
1S7
It is Chiist who gives
vaiious gifts to those in the bouy foi builuing up the bouy of
Chiist.
1S8
0n the othei hanu, the heau is the bouys goal, to which

129
Ephesians S:6, ESv.
1Su
Ephesians 2:16, ESv.
1S1
Colossians S:1S, ESv.
1S2
E.g. Colossians 1:28.
1SS
E.g. Ephesians 4:11-16; S:2S-27; Colossians 1:21-22; 4:12. Banks, Pouls lJeo
of Community, 71, notes that uou has gieatei puiposes foi the ekklsio than it
meiely being a means to inuiviuual enus, such as giowth in peisonal holiness
(without uenying that paiticipation in the ekklsio is inueeu highly significant in
facilitating this.)
1S4
Colossians 1:18, ESv; cf. Ephesians 1:22-2S.
1SS
Ephesians S:2S.
1S6
Ephesians S:29-Su, ESv.
1S7
Colossians 2:19, ESv.
1S8
Ephesians 4:4-16.
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it is incieasingly confoimeu,
1S9
even while, in anothei sense, the
chuich, which is his bouy, may alieauy be uesciibeu as the full-
ness of him who fills all in all:
14u
that is, Lincoln explains, |ajs
Chiist is filleu with uou (Col 1:19; 2.9), so his bouy is filleu with
Chiist.
141

In summaiy, the bouy of Chiist is a metaphoi in the New
Testament which, though nevei applieu to isolateu inuiviuuals,
142

is iegulaily pieuicateu of Chiistian ekklsioi, be they univeisal oi
local,
14S
eaithly, anu peihaps also heavenly,
144
such that at times
it can be uifficult to be ceitain piecisely which iefeient is in-
tenueu.
14S
The metaphois compiehensive application inuicates
that theologically, ecclesiology is iooteu in Chiistology: each
Chiistian ekklsio is tbe bouy of Chiist, because, by the Spiiit,
}esus is piesent with those who gathei,
146
empoweiing the
ekklsioi to iealise evei moie uemonstiably the blessings that aie
alieauy theiis in Chiist, theii heau.
147

4.2TheTemple
1 Coiinthians is also the fiist epistle to use the temple meta-
phoi of the ekklsio. Confionting uisunity amongst the Coiin-

1S9
Ephesians 4:1S.
14u
Ephesians 1:22-2S, ESv.
141
A. T. Lincoln, Fpbesions (WBC 42; Ballas, Tex.: Woiu Books, 199u), 76.
142
Alan N. Stibbs, Tbe Cburcb 0niversol onJ locol (Lonuon: Chuich Book Room
Piess, 1946), 4S.
14S
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 1SS.
144
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1u7.
14S
Foi example, while Peteison, The Locus of the Chuich, 21u, consiueis the
ekklsio uesciibeu in Ephesians 4:1-16 to be localizeu anu congiegational be-
cause of the intimacy of ielationships envisageu, uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe
Cburcb?, 1S9, finus in the same passage the chuich in its univeisal uimension,
anu 0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 112, thinks
Paul is heie envisioning a heavenly entity.
146
Banks, Pouls lJeo of Community, 6S.
147
Consiuei, e.g., the inteiplay of the inuicative anu impeiative in Colossians
S:1S anu Ephesians 4:S-4.
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thian believeis,
148
Paul wains: Bo you not know that you aie
uous temple (noos tbeou este) anu that uous Spiiit uwells in you
(en bumin). If anyone uestioys uous temple, uou will uestioy
him. Foi uous temple is holy, anu you aie (este bumeis) that
temple.
149
Thiough emphatic iepetition of seconu-peison pluial
veibs anu pionouns (este bumin este bumeis), Paul viviuly
attests that the multiple Coiinthians aie the singulai noos
tbeou:
1Su
the innei sanctuaiy in which uou himself uwells;
1S1
a
holy temple which may by no means be uefileu by inteinal
schism.
1S2
In these veises, then, the temple metaphoi empha-
sises the holiness of the local congiegation,
1SS
which has been
sanctifieu by the Spiiit of uou who uwells within it: anu to this
uou, Chiistian uisunity is abhoiient.
Its seconu explicit application to Chiistians as a gioup comes
in 2 Coiinthians 6:16.
1S4
Concluuing a seiies of antitheses begun
in veise 14,
1SS
waining the Coiinthians against compiomising
with unbelieveis,
1S6
Paul concluues with a ihetoiical question:
What agieement has the temple of uou (noos tbeou) with iuols.
Foi we aie the temple of the living uou (bmeis qor noos tbeou
esmen zntos).
1S7
0nce again, iepetition emphasises the holi-

148
R. }. NcKelvey, Tbe New Temple tbe Cburcb in tbe New Testoment (Lonuon:
0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, 1969), 1u1.
149
1 Coiinthians S:16-17, ESv.
1Su
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 1uS.
1S1
Significantly, Paul heie uoes not use the woiu bieron, which uesignateu the
temple piecincts as well as the innei sanctuaiy, but the moie paiticulai noos,
uiawing a paiallel specifically with the holy of holies. uoiuon B. Fee, Tbe Iirst
Fpistle to tbe Corintbions (NICNT; uianu Rapius: Eeiumans, 1987), 146.
1S2
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1uu.
1SS
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 99.
1S4
The temple metaphoi is also useu in 1 Coiinthians 6:19, but of inuiviuual
believeis, not an ekklsio.
1SS
The antitheses aie: iighteousness lawlessness; light uaikness; Chiist
Belial; believei unbelievei.
1S6
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1uu.
1S7
2 Coiinthians 6:16, ESv.
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ness of the Coiinthians as uous temple.
1S8
Yet heie, this holiness
is to be uemonstiateu, not so much by pieseiving genuine intei-
nal haimony, as by eschewing false unity with outsiueis.
1S9
Sig-
nificantly heie, the giammatical foimulation, if oiiginal,
16u
also
incluues Paul with the Coiinthians, peihaps envisaging the tem-
ple metaphoi as applicable to Chiistians univeisally.
161

Finally, the temple metaphoi ieappeais in Ephesians 2:21-22,
concluuing Pauls aigument that thiough Chiist both }ews anu
uentiles have access in the Spiiit to the Fathei.
162
Beie, a mixing
of aichitectuial anu biological metaphois gives the temple im-
age of the chuich a new uynamism:
16S
Chiist is the coineistone
in whom the whole stiuctuie, being joineu togethei, giows into
a holy temple in the Loiu. In him you also aie being built to-
gethei into a uwelling place foi uou by the Spiiit.
164
These two
veises uesciibe, fiist, all Chiistians woilu-wiue,
16S
poitiayeu as a
heavenly temple,
166
befoie then tuining the focus to the specific
local eaithly congiegation to which Paul is wiiting,
167
which, sig-

1S8
NcKelvey, Tbe New Temple, 94.
1S9
Cf. u. K. Beale, The 0lu Testament Backgiounu of Reconciliation in 2 Coiin-
thians S-7 anu Its Beaiing on the Liteiaiy Pioblem of 2 Coiinthians 6:14-7:1, in
Tbe Riqbt Boctrine from tbe Wronq Texts? Fssoys on tbe 0se of tbe 0lJ Testoment
in tbe New (eu. u. K. Beale; uianu Rapius: Bakei Books, 1994), 2S6, who com-
ments of this veise: because the chuich is the temple of uou, it shoulu not live
in peaceful coexistence with iuolatois |sic.j anu theii iuols.
16u
Netzgei, Textuol Commentory, S12, consiueis bmeis esmen moie likely to
be oiiginal than bumeis este, which has pooiei attestation anu coulu be a latei
haimonisation influenceu by 1 Coiinthians S:16.
161
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1u1.
162
Ephesians 2:11-22.
16S
Paul Nineai, lmoqes of tbe Cburcb, 2SS, suimises that this piofuse mixing of
metaphois ieflects not logical confusion but theological vitality.
164
Ephesians 2:21-22, ESv.
16S
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 1S7.
166
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1u1.
167
If, as is possible, the oiiginal manusciipt of Ephesians uiu not specify
Ephesus as the epistles uestination (see Netzgei, Textuol Commentory, SS2),
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nificantly, is uesciibeu in a uistinctly paiallel fashion, both stiuc-
tuially,
168
anu veibally.
169

In sum, the New Testament uses the temple metaphoi to
poweiful ihetoiical effect to unueiscoie the impoitance of pie-
seiving a uistinctive Chiistian unity in the ekklsio, whethei posi-
tively, by being built up togethei acioss iacial oi paity lines, oi
negatively, by shunning compiomise with unbelieveis. Again,
the metaphoi ioots ecclesiology in Chiistology: each ekklsio is
tbe temple of uou, in Chiist the coineistone fiom which it
giows, anu upon whom it is built up by the inuwelling Spiiit who
has sanctifieu it.
17u
0nce moie, the theological ieality behinu the
metaphoi enables its application to Chiistian ekklsioi both local
anu univeisal,
171
eaithly, anu peihaps also heavenly:
172
a uivei-
sity encapsulateu in the paiallelism of Ephesians 2:21-22.
4.3Summary
The bouy of Chiist anu temple metaphois illuminate the com-
mon theological ieality behinu eveiy Chiistian ekklsio, whethei

it becomes yet moie appaient that the uesciiption in Ephesians 2:22 is equally
applicable to eveiy local Chiistian congiegation.
168
Both veises aie fiameu by uative piepositional phiases (en b en kuri
en b en pneumoti), anu within these aie paiallel eis + accusative constiuc-
tions (eis noon eis kotoiktrion).
169
Both veises contain piesent passive veibal foims pieceueu by the sun - pie-
fix (sunormoloqoumen sunoikoJomeistbe), which unueiscoie the unity of
the gatheiings in theii action; moieovei, kotoiktrion, the woiu chosen in
veise 22 to uenote a local ekklsio, is often useu in the LXX to uesciibe uous
heavenly uwelling (e.g. 1 Kings 8:S9, 4S; 2 Chionicles Su:27; Psalms SS |LXX
S2j:14), appaiently the noos which was in view in veise 21.
17u
A similai temple motif also appeais in 1 Petei 2:4-S. These veises, howevei,
weie excluueu at this stage of oui stuuy as heie we have been consiueiing how
ecclesial images function stiictly within theii immeuiate liteiaiy context; in this
context, it is unceitain that the specific entity Petei intenus to uesciibe with his
temple metaphoi is the ekklesio: a woiu which nevei occuis in this epistle, au-
uiesseu to those who aie elect exiles of the uispeision in Pontus, ualatia, Cap-
pauocia, Asia, anu Bithynia (1:1, ESv).
171
uiles, Wbot on Fortb ls tbe Cburcb?, 1SS.
172
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 1u7.
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whethei local oi univeisal, eaithly oi heavenly:
17S
union of its
membeis with Chiist thiough the Spiiit, anu hence also union
with one anothei. The bouy of Chiist anu temple metaphois
aie useu to encouiage local ekklsioi to giow coipoiately in
Chiistlikeness, though with slightly uiffeient emphases: the
bouy metaphoi emphasises that ecclesial unity in Chiist is Ji-
verse, whethei in the gifts, iace oi vocation of its membeis; the
temple metaphoi that ecclesial unity in Chiist is boly, a uistinct-
iveness which must nevei be compiomiseu, whethei by fiagmen-
tation oi by auulteiation.
174

5 Ekklsia in its Biblical tbeological context
Baving iuentifieu seveial themes associateu with the New Tes-
tament concept of Chiistian ekklsioi, we will now tiace how
these themes unfolu along the Bibles salvation-histoiical axis, in
oiuei to coiielate oui finuings with the wiuei Biblical metanai-
iative.
As noteu above, the 0lu Testament can use the woiu ekklsio
semi-technically to uenote the gatheiing in Exouus 19-2u. When
so chaiacteiiseu, seveial elements of the Sinai ekklsio aie pai-
ticulaily emphasiseu. Those gatheieu heaiu the L0RB speaking
to them uiiectly fiom a uaik clouu on a fieiy mountain,
17S
wheie
heaven anu eaith seemeu to meet:
176
an expeiience so awesome
that the people uesiieu an inteimeuiaiy; thencefoith, uou woulu

17S
0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, 11S-16.
174
Nb. The geneial analytical uistinction uiawn heie between the piimaiy
emphases of these two metaphois is not intenueu to ueny the possibility that
that both themes might inteiact within the same metaphoi; inueeu, in 1
Coiinthians 1u, uiscusseu above, the bouy image seems to stiess moie the
Coiinthians boliness than theii Jiversity.
17S
Cf. Beuteionomy 4:1u-11 (LXX); 9:1u; 18:16.
176
Cf. Exouus 19:2u anu 2u:22, appaiently synthesiseu in Nehemiah 9:1S, You
came uown on Nount Sinai

anu spoke with them fiom heaven (ESv). The Si-
naitic motifs of heavenly fiie anu angels iecui in Beuteionomy 4:11; SS:2; anu
Psalms 68:17.
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auuiess them only inuiiectly thiough Noses,
177
oi, in the futuie,
thiough a piophet like Noses who woulu uiiectly ieceive anu
fully convey uous commanus.
178
This piophet not yet having
aiisen by the enu of Beuteionomy,
179
piovision was maue foi the
piiests to assemble (ekklsioz) the people eveiy seven yeais to
heai the law ieau at the place that |the L0RBj will choose.
18u

Aftei the conquest of Canaan, uou chose }eiusalem as the site
foi his temple.
181
This temple was built, as piomiseu,
182
by the
son of Baviu.
18S
At its ueuication uous gloiious piesence was
manifesteu in a uaik clouu anu with fiie,
184
anu Solomon pon-
ueieu how the uou of heaven coulu uwell on eaith.
18S
Buiing
Solomons ieign, the whole assembly (poso b ekklsio) fiom Is-
iael anu }uuah gatheieu to woiship at the }eiusalem temple.
186

These uniteu gatheiings ceaseu unuei }eioboam anu his iuola-
tiy,
187
anu uou eventually punisheu his peoples peisistent sin
with exile anu the uestiuction of the temple.
188
Neveitheless, the
piophets foiesaw a new temple,
189
moie gloiious even than Solo-

177
Beuteionomy 18:16-19; cf. Exouus 2u:19.
178
Beuteionomy 18:1S, 18. Cf. Acts 7:S7-S8, wheie Stephen also closely associ-
ates the ekklesio in the ueseit motif with the piomise of a foithcoming
piophet like Noses.
179
Beuteionomy S4:1u.
18u
Beuteionomy S1:9-1S, ESv; cf. Bebiews 7:11. Refeiences to the place that
the L0RB youi uou will choose out of all youi tiibes to put his name anu make
his habitation theie, looking foiwaiu to the fixeu Solomonic temple, also occui
in Beuteionomy 12:S, 11; 16:2; 26:2. Inteiestingly, the woiu tabeinacle nevei
occuis in Beuteionomy.
181
Psalms 68:16; 76:2; 78:68-69; 87:1-2; 1S2:1S-14.
182
2 Samuel 7:12-16; cf. 1 Kings 8:24; 1 Chionicles 17:11-14; 28:6, 1u.
18S
1 Kings 6; cf. 2 Chionicles 6:4-11.
184
1 Kings 8:1u-1S; cf. 2 Chionicles 6:1-2; 7:1-S.
18S
1 Kings 8:27-4S; cf. 2 Chionicles 6:18-S9.
186
2 Chionicles Su:2S-26.
187
1 Kings 12:26-Su. Cf. Exouus S2, wheie iuolatiy of a goluen calf piovokeu
uous wiath at Sinai.
188
2 Kings 17:7-2S; 2S:8-17; cf. 2 Chionicles S6:18-19; }eiemiah S2:12-2S.
189
E.g. Ezekiel 4u-48.
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Solomons,
19u
to which not only the }ewish tiibes woulu gathei,
but also, so eviuent woulu it be that uou was with them,
191
all the
nations.
192
These high piophetic hopes weie not iealiseu unuei
the anticlimactic ietuin fiom exile anu temple-iebuiluing unuei
Ezia anu Nehemiah.
19S
Inteitestamental wiiteis still anticipateu
theii fulfilment.
194

This fulfilment came in }esus, the long-awaiteu piophet like
Noses,
19S
who heaiu uiiectly fiom his Fathei anu maue eveiy-
thing known to his fiienus.
196
uiven this iuentity, }esus supei-
seueu the 0lu Testament uay of the ekklsio, anu consequently
in his eaithly ministiy ieconfiguieu its associateu categoiies
with iefeience to himself.
Teaching with a peisonal authoiity suipassing that of the law-
teacheis,
197
}esus chose twelve }ewish apostles,
198
anu uesciibeu
those who gatheieu aiounu him to heai his teaching as his

19u
Baggai 2:9.
191
Zechaiiah 8:2u-2S; Isaiah 4S:14.
192
E.g. Isaiah 2:2-4; 2S:6-8; 66:18-21. Cf. Psalms 87, wheie people fiom nations
foimeily hostile to Isiael aie uesciibeu as having theii names wiitten in Zion.
19S
Ezia S:12; Baggai 2:S.
194
1 Enoch 9u:28-29; }ubilees 1:29. The Qumian community saw these hopes
fulfilleu in themselves: see Beitil uaitnei, Tbe Temple onJ tbe Community in
umron onJ tbe New Testoment: A Comporotive StuJy in tbe Temple Symbolism
of tbe umron Texts onJ tbe New Testoment (Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity
Piess, 196S), 16-46, anu NcKelvey, Tbe New Temple, 46-SS.
19S
Acts S:22-26.
196
}ohn 1S:1S. }esus being the piophet whom Noses foietolu is a paiticulaily
significant motif in }ohns gospel, with fuithei allusions to this theme occuiiing
in }ohn 1:4S; S:46; 6:14; 7:4u; 17:7-8.
197
Natthew 7:28-29; Naik 1:27; Luke 4:S2. Cf. Bouglas }. Noo, The Law of
Chiist as the Fulfillment of the Law of Noses: A Nouifieu Lutheian view, in
Iive views on low onJ 6ospel (eu. Wayne u. Stiicklanu; uianu Rapius: Zonuei-
van, 1996), SSu, who aigues that }esus iauical insistence on what be says as
binuing on his followeis belies an inuepenuence fiom both }ewish tiauition
anu fiom the Nosaic law itself (emphasis oiiginal).
198
Naik S:14, paialleling the twelve tiibes of Isiael. Cf. William L. Lane, Tbe
6ospel of Hork (NICNT; uianu Rapius: Eeiumans, 1974), 1SS.
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biotheis, the ekklsio.
199
Nembeiship in }esus ekklsio, which
}esus himself will builu, belongs to those who, by uivine ievela-
tion, shaie Peteis confession of Chiists uivine Sonship.
2uu

Being the focal point of his ekklsio, }esus necessaiily also ie-
uefineu temple categoiies.
2u1
The }eiusalem temple was his Fa-
theis house,
2u2
which he hau authoiity to cleanse;
2uS
but this
gieatei son of Baviu built an even gieatei temple,
2u4
iesuiiecting
his own bouy.
2uS
By his saciificial ueath, }esus piepaieu a place
foi his uisciples in his Fatheis house:
2u6
an ekklsio ieueemeu,
like the fiistboin at Sinai, by bloou saciifice.
2u7

Post-ascension, }esus sent the Spiiit so the Fathei anu Son
might be with all who love anu obey }esus, even those not seeing
him in the flesh.
2u8
The Spiiit completeu }esus piophet-like-

199
Naik S:S4-SS with Bebiews 2:12. Cf. 0Biien, Eebrews, 486.
2uu
Natthew 16:16-18, cf. B. B. Knox, The Chuich, in SelecteJ Works volume ll
(eu. Kiisten Biikett; Kingsfoiu: Natthias Neuia, 2uuS), 2u. Clowney, The Bibli-
cal Theology of the Chuich, 16, obseives that the thought of the congiegation
being establisheu upon the confession of the tiuth is also piominent in the Beau
Sea wiitings |asj is the figuie of the iock, anu of the builuing establisheu upon
it. Foi a iecent online uiscussion, see }onathan Leeman, What Aie the Keys of
the Kinguom., n.p. |citeu 1 Naich 2u12j. 0nline:
www.9maiks.oigblogwhat-aie-keys-kinguom.
2u1
Nicholas Peiiin, }esus tbe Temple (Lonuon: SPCK, 2u1u), 19u, concluues that
|tjhe eaily Chiistian language about }esus the temple was a way of speaking
that uiew togethei all that Isiael hopeu anu longeu foi, all that uous people
so went the fiim belief woulu one uay see.
2u2
Luke 2:49; }ohn 2:16.
2uS
Natthew 21:12-27; Naik 12:1S-SS; Luke 19:4S-2u:8; }ohn 2:1S-22. Peiiin,
}esus tbe Temple, 92, sees }esus temple cleansing as one of the essential as-
pects of }esus self-unueistanuing as the temple.
2u4
Natthew 12:6, 42.
2uS
}ohn 2:19-22.
2u6
}ohn 14:2, cf. B. A. Caison, Tbe 6ospel AccorJinq to }obn (PNTC; Nottingham:
Apollos, 1991), 489.
2u7
Acts 2u:28, cf. Exouus 4:22-2S; 12:12-Su.
2u8
}ohn 14:22-26. Cf. Faiiow, Ascension onJ Fcclesio, S6: What is accom-
plisheu in the ascension is a uecisive opening up not only of the Fatheis house
but of human being, which thiough the Spiiit now iealizes its tiue natuie in a
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Noses ministiy to the apostles,
2u9
that thiough believing theii
message subsequent geneiations might be uniteu to uou anu
each othei.
21u

Touay, woiship in spiiit anu tiuth is not tieu to specific eaithly
places,
211
but to the ascenueu Chiist,
212
who is piesent wheievei
two oi thiee gathei in his name.
21S
0lu Testament piophecies
aie fulfilleu as the nations come to the Chiistian ekklsio.
214

Bowevei, eschatological expectations aie not yet completely ful-
filleu: though believeis have alieauy come to the heavenly }eiu-
salem,
21S
they neveitheless still await it.
216
Chiistians, who be-
long to the }eiusalem above, must still be waineu against ie-
tuining to the piesent }eiusalem.
217
0nlike the ekklsio at Sinai,
Chiistians shoulu iathei accept uous woiu,
218
anu give thanks
foi the kinguom they aie ieceiving.
219

Chiistians await the piomiseu eschatological assembly: a mul-
tinational people,
22u
who will ieign on eaith.
221
In that new ciea-

peiichoietic anu communal foim of existence that is, in the co-existence of
the faithful with }esus anu his Fathei (emphasis oiiginal).
2u9
}ohn 16:12-1S piesents the Spiiit in piophet like Noses teims, heaiing
uiiectly fiom the Fathei anu then ievealing eveiything he heais to the apostles.
21u
}ohn 17:2u-21.
211
}ohn 4:21-24, cf. Clowney, The Biblical Theology of the Chuich, 27.
212
Cf. Acts 7:SS-S6, S9-6u. Natthew Sleeman notes that the piesence of a man
in heaven post-ascension, anu the piesence of the Spiiit on eaith post-
Pentecost, uemanus that salvation-geogiaphical consiueiations be integiateu
into any fully-oibeu Biblical theology (peisonal communication, 8 Septembei
2u11).
21S
Natthew 18:2u.
214
1 Coiinthians 14:2S, cf. Zechaiiah 8:2u-2S anu Isaiah 4S:14. So R. B. Bays,
The Conveision of the Imagination: Sciiptuie anu Eschatology in 1 Coiinthi-
ans, NTS 4S (1999): S91-9S.
21S
Bebiews 12:22; note especially the peifect tense-foim prosellutbote.
0Biien, Eebrews, 482 n. 2uu.
216
Bebiews 1S:14. 0Biien, Eebrews, 488.
217
ualatians 4:21-S1. Cf. Flint, uous Blessing to Ishmael, 28-SS.
218
Bebiews 12:2S-27, cf. 2:1-S.
219
Bebiews 12:28-29.
22u
Revelation 7:9.
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tion, poitiayeu as the holy of holies,
222
heaven anu eaith unite as
the new }eiusalem uescenus anu uou uwells with his people foi-
evei.
22S

Ekklsia in its systematic tbeological context
Synthesising the pieceuing exegetical anu biblical-theological
consiueiations, a Chiistian ekklsio may be uefineu as a gioup
which gatheis, oi is gatheieu, aiounu Chiist. In its systematic-
theological context, this conception of ekklsio is in haimony
with the uistinctively Chiistian uoctiines of the Tiinity, salvation,
anu eschatology.
Post-ascension, Chiist is bouily in heaven, spatially iemoveu
fiom Chiistians who aie on eaith.
224
Bow, then, is it possible to
gathei aiounu Chiist in this eia of salvation histoiy.
22S
The an-
swei is that, post-Pentecost, the Spiiit has been pouieu out on
eaith to unite to Chiist all those who heai anu believe the apos-

221
Revelation S:1u. Netzgei, Textuol Commentory, 666-67 thinks that the fu-
tuie tense bosileusousin is the piefeiieu ieauing heie. Thus, if, following Cole,
The Boctiine of the Chuich, 8-9, the Chiistian ekklsio is inueeu less ultimate
in uous puiposes than the moie inclusive concept of the people of uou, then
in view of the uiffeientiation obseiveu above in Bebiews 12 between 0lu anu
New Covenant believeis in the heavenly }eiusalem, anu Revelation 6:9-11,
wheie the numbei of maityis in heaven is still incomplete, the heavenly
ekklsio, anu hence the univeisal ekklsio, is best unueistoou as incluuing all
Chiistians who have liveu up to this point in time, but not yet those of uous
elect still to be boin again.
222
Revelation 21. u. K. Beale anu Sean N. NcBonough, Revelation, in Com-
mentory on tbe New Testoment 0se of tbe 0lJ Testoment (eu. u. K. Beale anu B. A.
Caison; Nottingham: Apollos, 2uu7), 11Su-S6, aigue that Revelations final vi-
sion poitiays the new cieation as equivalent to the new }eiusalem, the es-
chatological cubic temple, anu to enu-time Euen, the eteinal home of uous peo-
ple.
22S
Revelation 21:1-4.
224
Acts 1:9-11. Cf. }ohn Calvin, lnstitutes of tbe Cbristion Reliqion Iv.xxvii.27.
22S
Cf. Faiiow, Ascension onJ Fcclesio, 1S6: Bow aie we to have a Chiist who is
both heie in many places anu in heaven at the same time. Anu if he ieally is
heie, how can we lay holu of him with confiuence.
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tolic gospel.
226
Chiistian ekklsioi, then, aie not only the ciea-
tions of Chiist, by means of his saciificial ueath,
227
but also ciea-
tions of his Spiiit,
228
by whom eveiy Chiistian is now gatheieu
aiounu }esus in the heavenly ekklsio,
229
anu thiough whom
Chiist is piesent in the miust of those who gathei in his name to
heai his woiu in local eaithly ekklsioi.
2Su

The eschatological age, howevei, has as yet only been inaugu-
iateu, not consummateu.
2S1
0ntil the ultimate union of heaven
anu eaith, Chiistian ekklsioi, like Chiistian inuiviuuals, iemain
simul justus et peccotor:
2S2
by viitue of its iighteous heau, the
bouy of Chiist is holy in uous sight;
2SS
yet this bouy is uistinct
fiom, anu evei moie closely confoiming to, its heau,
2S4
as its
vaiious membeis,
2SS
matuiing unuei uous woiu,
2S6
exeicise in
loving unity the uiveise gifts given them by Tiinitaiian giace.
2S7


226
Acts 2; Ephesians S:16-18. Cf. Calvin, lnst. Iv.xxvii.12.
227
Acts 2u:28.
228
As Faiiow, Ascension onJ Fcclesio, 1Su-1S1, summaiises, the chuich has its
being fiom the Spiiit, who allows it to paiticipate in anu with the peison of }e-
sus Chiist, anu hence in a kinguom which uoes not ueiive fiom this woilu but
tronsforms it (emphasis oiiginal).
229
Bebiews 12:22-24. 0Biien, Eebrews, 488, suggests the giammai of Be-
biews 12:24 gives the name }esus piominence heie; this liteiaiy uevice pei-
haps uiaws attention to his enuuiing, paiticulai humanity.
2Su
Cf. Eumunu P. Clowney, Tbe Cburcb (Leicestei: Intei-vaisity Piess, 199S),
S1: Not only uo we come to the assembly wheie oui iisen Loiu is; he comes by
his Spiiit to the assembly wheie we aie.
2S1
See, e.g., Alan }. Thompson, Tbe Acts of tbe Risen lorJ }esus: lukes Account of
6oJs 0nfolJinq Plon (Nottingham: Apollos, 2u11), S9-47, 67.
2S2
Simultaneously iighteous anu a sinnei: a key iefoimation foimulation. See
especially Naitin Luthei, A Commentory on St. Pouls Fpistle to tbe 6olotions
(tians. Eiasmus Niuuleton; Lonuon: Baiiison Tiust, 18Su), 1Su, who
on ualatians S:6 comments, inter olio: a Chiistian man is both iighteous anu a
sinnei, holy anu piofane, an enemy of uou, anu yet a chilu of uou.
2SS
1 Coiinthians 1:2; Ephesians S:2S-27.
2S4
Ephesians 4:1S-16.
2SS
1 Coiinthians 12:12-S1.
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7 Conclusion
The concept of ekklsio uesciibeu in this aiticle was fiist uistin-
guisheu fiom seculai uses of ekklsio in the fiist centuiy uieco-
Roman context. Its specific Chiistian contouis weie then uis-
ceineu thiough a New Testament woiu stuuy, anu uevelopeu
thiough analysis of two majoi ecclesial images: the bouy of
Chiist, anu the temple. These finuings, when vieweu thiough
the lenses of Biblical anu Systematic theology, weie founu to be
consistent both with a Chiistocentiic ieauing of salvation-
histoiy,
2S8
anu with uoctiines that have histoiically been of cen-
tial significance in Chiistian theology. The piimaiy souice foi
this section was the Bible, in uialogue with mainstieam Chiistian
scholaiship. In conclusion, theiefoie, the ecclesiological peispec-
tive set out in this section may legitimately claim to be a Cbristion
concept of ekklsio.

8 A Muslim View of tbe Mosque as Part of tbe Ummab
8.1 Introduction
In the following sections I will outline a Nuslim view of the iela-
tionship between the mosque anu the ummob.
2S9
To aiiive at a

2S6
Ephesians 4:11-14. As noteu above, the motif of gatheiing to heai the woiu
of uou in assembly may be tiaceu thiough the Bible fiom the Isiaelite ekklsio
at Sinai, wheie uous woiu was meuiateu by Noses, thiough 0lu Testament
gatheiings, wheie the piiests inteipieteu the law, to the New Testament: befoie
the ascension, those gatheieu aiounu }esus heaiu him speak uous woiu to
them uiiectly; post-Pentecost, the Spiiit illuminates the Sciiptuies as pastois
pieach to Chiistians gatheieu in local ekklsioi.
2S7
1 Coiinthians 12:4-6. Cf. Fee, Iirst Fpistle to tbe Corintbions, S86-S88.
2S8
See Luke 24:2S-27, 44-48; }ohn S:S9-4u. Cf. uiaeme uoluswoithy, AccorJinq
to Plon: Tbe 0nfolJinq Revelotion of 6oJ in tbe Bible (Leicestei: Intei-vaisity
Piess, 1991).
2S9
Peihaps owing to the stiong Nuslim emphasis on Aiabic being the supieme
language foi conveying the teachings of Islam, a stanuaiu methou foi tianslitei-
ating Aiabic teims such as ummob anu kobob into English uoes not yet seem to
have evolveu. Thus, iathei than attempting a haimonisation, I shall pieseive
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genuinely Islamic peispective, I will piimaiily base my ieseaich
on the Quian anu accepteu boJitb,
24u
in the context of wiuei
Nuslim scholaiship, anu in uialogue with two Nuslim scholais,
241

tiaineu at al-Azhai 0niveisity.
242

I shall fiist consiuei the ummob. As with my above appioach
to ekklsio, I shall begin by consiueiing how the teim functioneu
in its wiuei histoiico-cultuial context, against which I will then
be able to obseive continuity anu uiscontinuity in its Quianic
usage anu so iuentify the new shaues of meaning ummob gaineu
uuiing Islams foimative uays. I will then biiefly note some his-
toiical uevelopments of the ummob concept in Islamic histoiy.
Next, I shall examine the mosque, heie giving consiueiation
also to the significance of mosque aichitectuie anu uesign, anu
stiuctuiing my appioach piimaiily aiounu the two paiauigms
which have histoiically shapeu the Nuslim view of the mosque:
the mosque as a temple, baseu on the kobob at Necca; anu the

theii oiiginal anu vaiieu authoiial tiansliteiations when these, anu othei, teims
appeai in quotations.
24u
While eveiy Nuslim accepts the authoiity of the Quian, Islamic peispectives
on the tiauitions (boJitb) aie moie mixeu. In this ieseaich, the boJitb I cite will
be uiawn almost exclusively fiom the collection of Al-Bukhii. Sunni Nuslims,
who account foi 8u-9u% of the woiluwiue Islamic community, ueem Al-
Bukhiis collection of tiauitions sobib (ieliable) anu thus authoiitative.
Nuhammau Nuhsin Khan, Tbe Tronslotion of tbe Heoninqs of Sobib Al-Bukbri:
Arobic-Fnqlisb (9 vols.; Riyauh: Baiussalam, 1997), 1:19, explains: Nany ielig-
ious scholais of Islm tiieu to finu fault in the gieat iemaikable collection
Sobb Al-Bukbr, but without success. It is foi this ieason, they unanimously
agieeu that the most authentic book aftei the Book of Allh is Sobb Al-Bukbr.
241
The uianu Nufti of Biitain, Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy, anu Sheikh Bi.
Nuhammau Al-Bussaini, both ieceiveu anu commenteu on uiafts of this chaptei
as it was being wiitten.
242
Founueu in A.B. 97u, al-Azhai univeisity in Egypt is the woilus oluest con-
tinuously functioning univeisity. Ameei Ali, The State, the Nosque, anu the
Nasses: Biscoiuant Biscouises, BA 22 (2uu9): 44, obseives that the fotwos oi
iulings on ieligious matteis that emanate fiom al-Azhai aie consiueieu
authoiitative in all Sunni Nuslim countiies.
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mosque as a meeting-house, baseu Nuhammaus house at
Neuina.
Finally, I will outline how the mosque, unuei each of these two
paiauigms, ielates to the ummob.

9 Tbe Ummab
Etymologically, the Aiabic noun ummob piobably ueiives fiom
the Aiamaic umetbo oi the Bebiew umm,
24S
meaning people,
tiibe.
244
The Aiabic teim pieuates Islam, anu is extant in the
Chiistian poet al-Nbigha,
24S
who askeu the question: Can a man
belonging to an ummob eii if he is pious.
246
In this instance,
ummob may peihaps uenote moie specifically a ieligious com-
munity.
Against this backgiounu, the meanings of the woiu ummob in
the Quian, anu in Islamic histoiy, shall now be consiueieu.



24S
Fieueiick Nathewson Benny, The Neaning of 0mmob in the Quin, ER 1S
(197S): S7.
244
BCE S12a. Cf. EAl0T 62a, tiibe, small gioup of people. In the NT, umm
occuis seven times, always in pluial foim: thiee times in synonymous paiallel-
ism with qyym (Psalms 44:14 |NT 1Sj; 117:1; 149:7), twice in synonymous
paiallelism with ommm (Psalms S7:9 |NT 1uj; 1u8:S |NT 4j), anu twice ue-
sciibing the clan stiuctuies of the Ishmaelites anu the Niuianites (uenesis
2S:16 anu Numbeis 2S:1S, iespectively). It is inteiesting to note that at times
the 0T can use Ishmaelite anu Niuianite inteichangeably (uenesis S7:2S-28,
S6; }uuges 8:22-24). Foi a uiscussion of the ielationship between Ishmaelites
anu Nuslims, see Chiis Flint, uous Blessing to Ishmael with Special Refeience
to Islam, SIH 7 (2u11): 1-SS.
24S
}ennifei Bill Boutz, assn ibn Thbit, a Tiue Hukbo rom: A Stuuy of the
uhassniu oues of assn ibn Thbit, (Ph.B. uiss., ueoigetown 0niveisity,
2uu9), 6, 12, notes that al-Nbigha was a uhassniu poet who, with his contem-
poiaiy assn ibn Thbit, competeu in poetiy competitions acioss the Aiabian
Peninsula in the pie-Islamic jbil peiiou.
246
Wo bol yotbomon Jb ummotin wobwo iu. As citeu in Benny, 0mmob
in the Quin, S7.
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9.1TheummahintheQuran
The woiu ummob occuis 64 times in the Quian,
247
beaiing the
geneial sense of a community.
248
Consistent with its likely lin-
guistic oiigins, ummob can specifically uesignate a people,
249
oi a
tiibe.
2Su
0n a much laigei scale, ummob can also be useu to ues-
ignate all mankinu.
2S1
Inueeu, the Quian teaches that humanity
was oiiginally one ummob,
2S2
but was latei uiviueu into vaiious
uiffeient ummobs.
2SS
To each of these ummobs, chaiacteiiseu by
false ieligion, Allah sent messengeis,
2S4
waining them to woiship
him iathei than iuols,
2SS
anu to follow theii appointeu iituals.
2S6

Bowevei, the ummobs uisbelieveu,
2S7
anu foi this unbelief all
ummobs will ultimately be juugeu.
2S8
To the }ewish anu Chiistian

247
0nline: coipus.quian.comquianuictionaiy.jsp.q=Amm#(2:1S4:2) |citeu 1
Naich 2u12j.
248
The appaient exceptions aie EJ (11):8 anu Ysuf (12):4S, wheie ummob
takes a chionological sense: Benny, 0mmob in the Quin, S8, consiueis theie
to be no ielation between ummob as peiiou, time anu ummob as community,
people, nation. In Al-Boqorob (2):1S4, 141 anu in An Nobl (16):12u, Abiaham
is uesciibeu as an ummob. Bowevei, although paiagon anu exemplai have
been suggesteu as alteinative tianslations foi ummob in these veises, Benny,
0mmob in the Quin, S9, notes that classical Nuslim scholais continueu to
see a communal sense to this Abiahamic appellation.
249
Ar-RoJ (1S):Su.
2Su
Al-Arf (7):16u uesciibes the twelve tiibes of Isiael as twelve ummobs.
2S1
EJ (11):118; An Nobl (16):9S; Asb-Sbr (42):8; Az-Zukbruf (4S):SS.
2S2
Al-Boqorob (2):21S; Ynus (1u):19.
2SS
Al-Arf (7):168.
2S4
Al-Anm (6):42; Ynus (1u):47; EJ (11):48; An Nobl (16):6S, 84; Al-
Huminm (2S):44. Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy uistinguishes between
the piophets Allah sent befoie Nuhammau, each of whom hau juiisuiction ovei
only specific local ummobs, anu Nuhammau himself, who was sent to be the
piophet, not only foi the Aiabs, but foi the whole woilu (peisonal communica-
tion, 1S Naich 2u12).
2SS
An Nobl (16):S6, 89; Al-Holikob (SS):24.
2S6
Al-Eojj (22):S4, 67.
2S7
Al-Ankobt (29):18; Al-Humin (4u):S; Az-Zukbruf (4S):22-24.
2S8
An-Noml (27):8S; Al-osos (28):7S.
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ummobs Allah also sent sciiptuie.
2S9
Although most of these
people of the book (obl ol-kitb) uisbelieveu,
26u
bieaking theii
ummob,
261
theie iemaineu some believeis among them:
262
these
faithful sub-gioups the Quian also calls ummobs.
26S

In foui ayahs,
264
all ueiiving fiom the latei Neuinan peiiou,
26S

the teim ummob is pieuicateu exclusively of the Nuslim commu-
nity,
266
which is poitiayeu as the ummob pai excellence.
267

The fiist of these iefeiences comes in the context of Abiaham
anu Ishmaels puiification of the Neccan kobob,
268
which Allah
uesciibes as a place of assembly foi men anu a place of safety
Ny Bouse foi those who compass it iounu, oi use it as a ietieat,
oi bow, oi piostiate themselves (theiein in piayei).
269
When
Abiaham anu Ishmael iaiseu the founuations of the Bouse,
27u

Abiaham piayeu that Allah woulu make theii uescenuants a
people Nuslim |ummoton muslimotonj,
271
anu fuithei entieateu
Allah to senu them an Apostle of theii own, who shall ieheaise
Thy Signs to them anu instiuct them in sciiptuie anu wisuom,

2S9
Al-HiJob (S):66; Al-Huminm (2S):49-S4.
26u
loy lmrn (S):11u-112.
261
Al-Anbiy (21):92-9S; Al-Huminm (2S):S2.
262
loy lmrn (S):11u.
26S
loy lmrn (S):11S; Al-Arf (7):1S9.
264
Al-Boqorob (2):128, 14S; loy lmrn (S):1u4, 11u. Ayah is the Nuslim
teim foi a Quianic veise.
26S
Although iuentifying the piecise histoiical context of the uiffeient suiahs,
anu the ayahs within them, can be uifficult, in this instance the consensus view
of both the Nolueke-Schwally chionology anu the Egyptian chionology (baseu
on tiauitional Nuslim scholaiship) is that suiahs 2 anu S aie Neuinan.
266
Benny, 0mmob in the Quin, 68.
267
Benny, 0mmob in the Quin, SS.
268
Al-Boqorob (2):12S-29.
269
Al-Boqorob (2):12S, Al (cf. a iesoit foi mankinu anu sanctuaiy Ny house
foi those who go aiounu anu those who meuitate theiein anu those who bow
uown anu piostiate themselves (in woiship), Pickthall).
27u
Al-Boqorob (2):127, Al (cf. Anu when Abiaham anu Ishmael weie iaising
the founuations of the Bouse, Pickthall).
271
Al-Boqorob (2):128, Al (cf. A nation submissive, Pickthall).
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anu sanctify them.
272
This piayei is unueistoou to have been
answeieu in Nuhammau, anu as the passage continues, the Nus-
lim community is chaiacteiiseu as continuing in the unuegenei-
ateu, aichetypal faith of Abiaham, Ishmael anu Isaac,
27S
as ie-
ceiveu by Noses anu }esus,
274
in explicit contiast to the }ews anu
Chiistians.
27S

At this point, the qiblo theme is intiouuceu,
276
which becomes
the cential motif in the ensuing compaiison between two
gioups.
277
0n the one hanu, theie is the 0mmat justly balanceu
|ummoton wosotonj,
278
who have changeu theii qiblo to piay
towaiu the sacieu Nosque |mosjiJi ol-bormij.
279
By obeui-
ently changing theii uiiection of piayei towaiu a Qibla that shall
please thee, they have passeu the test of faith,
28u
that ye might
be witnesses ovei the nations, anu the Apostle a witness ovei
youiselves.
281
They contiast, on the othei hanu, with the peo-

272
Al-Boqorob (2):129, Al (cf. a messengei fiom among them who shall iecite
unto them Thy ievelations, anu shall instiuct them in the Sciiptuie anu in wis-
uom anu shall make them giow, Pickthall).
27S
Al-Boqorob (2):1Su-SS. ueialu Bawting, The Religion of Abiaham anu Is-
lam, in Abrobom, tbe Notions, onJ tbe Eoqorites }ewisb, Cbristion, onJ lslomic
Perspectives on Kinsbip witb Abrobom (eu. Naitin uoouman, ueoige B. van Koo-
ten anu }acques T. A. u. N. van Ruiten; Leiuen: Biill, 2u1u), 484, notes that in the
Quian the iuea of the ieligion of Abiaham is piominent, anu theie aie links
between it anu the concept of submission (islm).
274
Al-Boqorob (2):1S6.
27S
Al-Boqorob (2):1SS-4u. Cf. loy lmrn (S):6S-68, which makes it cleai that
Abiaham was neithei a }ew noi a Chiistian, but a Nuslim, anu that it is not the
people of the book, but those who follow Nuhammau, who may legitimately
claim Abiahamic heiitage.
276
The woiu qiblo uenotes the uiiection of piayei.
277
iblo occuis six times in Al-Boqorob (2):142-4S.
278
Al-Boqorob (2):14S, Al (cf. miuule nation, Pickthall).
279
Al-Boqorob (2):144, Al (cf. the Inviolable Place of Woiship, Pickthall). So
also 2:149, 1Su.
28u
Al-Boqorob (2):144, Al (cf. a qiblah which is ueai to thee, Pickthall).
281
Al-Boqorob (2):14S, Al (cf. that ye may be witnesses against mankinu, anu
that the messengei may be a witness against you, Pickthall).
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S61
ple of the Book,
282
who conceal the tiuth which they them-
selves know,
28S
anu iefuse to follow Thy Qibla.
284

Similai themes chaiacteiise the Nuslim ummob in the next
suiah. Aftei an exhoitation to follow the ieligion of Abia-
ham,
28S
who was piesent at |tjhe fiist Bouse (of woiship) ap-
pointeu foi men,
286
to which pilgiimage must now be maue,
287

the Nuslims anu the people of the book aie again set in antithe-
sis: the lattei aie castigateu foi ieject|ingj the Signs of Allah,
288

obstiuct|ingj those who believe, fiom the path of Allah,
289

anu enticing believeis to become apostate;
29u
the foimei aie au-
uiesseu as ye who believe,
291
aie waineu to uie not except in a
state of Islam,
292
anu aie ieminueu of how Allah joineu youi
heaits in love, so that by Bis uiace, ye became biethien.
29S


282
Al-Boqorob (2):14S, Al (cf. those who have ieceiveu the Sciiptuie, Pick-
thall).
28S
Al-Boqorob (2):146, Al (cf. knowingly conceal the tiuth, Pickthall). Als
footnote 149 on this passage alleges that |gjlimmeiings of such a qiblah weie
alieauy foieshauoweu in }ewish anu Chiistian piactice but its univeisality was
only peifecteu in Islam.
284
Al-Boqorob (2):14S, Al (cf. they woulu not follow thy qiblah, Pickthall).
28S
loy lmrn (S):9S, Al (similaily, Pickthall).
286
loy lmrn (S):96, Al (cf. the fiist Sanctuaiy appointeu foi mankinu, Pick-
thall).
287
loy lmrn (S):97.
288
loy lmrn (S):98, Al (cf. uisbeliev|ingj in the ievelations of Allah, Pick-
thall).
289
loy lmrn (S):99, Al (cf. uiiv|ingj back believeis fiom the way of Al-
lah, Pickthall).
29u
loy lmrn (S):1uu.
291
loy lmrn (S):1uu, 1u2 Al (similaily, Pickthall). Fieueiick N. Benny,
Some Religio-Communal Teims anu Concepts in the Quin, Numen 24
(1977): S7, obseives that in the most uevelopeu usage of ummob, islm anu
mn |beliefj figuie piominently, paiticulaily iegaiuing the covenant iuea, as in
e.g., S:1u2, 1uS (wheie toqw, ieveiential feai is also piominent).
292
loy lmrn (S):1u2, Al (cf. uie not save as those who have suiienueieu
|unto Bimj, Pickthall).
29S
loy lmrn (S):1uS, Al (cf. maue fiienuship between youi heaits so that ye
became as biotheis by Bis giace, Pickthall).
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S62
Fiom this foimei gioup comes a banu of people |ummotunj in-
viting to all that is goou, enjoining what is iight, anu foibiuuing
what is wiong: They aie the ones to attain felicity.
294
In anti-
thetical paiallelism, the next ayah uesciibes the fate of the lattei:
Be not like those who aie uiviueu amongst themselves anu fall
into uisputations aftei ieceiving Cleai Signs: Foi them is a uieau-
ful penalty.
29S
The eschatological juugment awaiting the unbe-
lieving people of the book is uepicteu,
296
but the Nuslims, in
shaip ielief, aie tolu: Ye aie the best of peoples |ummotinj,
evolveu foi mankinu, enjoining what is iight, foibiuuing what is
wiong, anu believing in Allah.
297

A uiachionic appioach, then, suggests that ummob in the
Quian is not a static concept. In eaily suiahs, the meaning of
tiibe oi people is common, consistent with non-Islamic usage.
In latei suiahs, howevei, the label can be useu exclusively of
Nuslims, anu so beai uistinctively Islamic connotations.
298


294
loy lmrn (S):1u4, Al (cf. a nation who invite to goouness, anu enjoin
iight conuuct anu foibiu inuecency. Such aie they who aie successful, Pick-
thall). Benny, 0mmob in the Quin, 69, obseives that the woiu fol , heie
tianslateu felicity oi successful, is a centially impoitant soteiiological teim
anu concept in the Quin veiy closely connecteu with the concept of the Nus-
lim 0mmah.
29S
loy lmrn (S):1uS, Al (cf. Anu be ye not as those who sepaiateu anu uis-
puteu aftei the cleai pioofs hau come to them. Foi such theie is an awful
uoom, Pickthall).
296
loy lmrn (S):1u6-11.
297
loy lmrn (S):11u, Al (cf. Ye aie the best community that hath been
iaiseu up foi mankinu. Ye enjoin iight conuuct anu foibiu inuecency; anu ye
believe in Allah, Pickthall).
298
Cf. Benny, 0mmob in the Quin, S6, who aigues that in the Quin the
ummob concept itself uevelops fiom a geneial one, applying to non-Aiab
gioups, too, towaiu a moie exclusive one which is limiteu to the Nuslim com-
munity.
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S6S
9.2TheummahinIslamichistory
The Constitution of Neuina,
299
which Nuhammau uiafteu in
Neuina shoitly aftei the bijro,
Suu
is a useful Islamic histoiical
souice contempoiaiy with the Quian. In this uocument, the
woiu ummob appeais twice. In aiticle one, ummob iefeis to the
believeis anu Nuslims,
Su1
whethei of Yathiib (Neuina) oi of the
Quiaysh (who hau come with Nuhammau fiom Necca). This
miiiois the meaning of ummob in the Quians lattei suiahs. Ai-
ticle 2S, howevei, ieaus: The }ews of Ban Awf aie a community
(ummob) along with the believeis. To the }ews theii ieligion
(Jn) anu to the Nuslims theii ieligion.
Su2
This instance appai-
ently piesupposes ieligious pluialism within the ummob, an iuea
moie consistent with its pie-Islamic oi eaily Quianic usage. The
eviuence fiom the Constitution of Neuina, then, is consistent
with the finuings fiom the Quian that uuiing Nuhammaus life-
time, ummob was a teim unueigoing semantic evolution.
SuS


299
The Constitution of Neuina is iepiouuceu in William Nontgomeiy Watt,
HubommoJ ot HeJino (0xfoiu: Claienuon Piess, 19S6), 221-2S. Fieueiick N.
Benny, 0mmob in the Constitution of Neuina, }NFS S6 (1977): S9, obseives
that |tjheie is little uoubt among scholais that |the Constitution of Neuinaj is
authentic, anu that it, like the Quin, is intimately connecteu with
Nu ammaus thought anu activity. Petei Cotteiell, HubommoJ: Tbe Hon wbo
TronsformeJ Arobio (Biunswick East: Acoin Piess, 2u11), 81, consiueis the
Constitution of Neuina a majoi achievement, anu it intiouuceu a iauically new
concept: loyalty to ones own clan was ieplaceu by loyalty to the entiie commu-
nity.
Suu
The bijro iefeis to the emigiation of Nuhammau fiom Necca to Neuina in
A.B. 622, maiking the beginning of the Islamic calenuai.
Su1
Benny, 0mmob in the Constitution of Neuina, 4S, obseives that the teim
believei occuis in the Quian five times moie fiequently than Nuslim, anu
so suggests the phiase believeis anu Nuslims heie inuicates that the Constitu-
tion of Neuina was wiitten at an eaily uate befoie Nuslim hau, in the post-
Quian eia, become the uominant label foi Nuhammaus followeis.
Su2
As citeu in Watt, HubommoJ ot HeJino, 22S.
SuS
Benny, 0mmob in the Constitution of Neuina, 44, notes that aiticle 2S
coulu be tianslateu in such a way as to uesignate the }ews as anothei ummob
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S64
Neveitheless, in Nuhammau, political anu ieligious offices
weie insepaiable, anu foi the Nuslims in Neuina, anu, latei,
Necca, Nuhammau pionounceu uous will foi eveiy uimension of
life.
Su4
Islam claimeu both national,
SuS
anu cultuial space:
Su6
as
Al-Azami obseives, |tjhe ummob that was cieateu by the
Piophet claimeu the supieme loyalty of the new Nuslims, chang-
ing theii woilu view, thus maiginalizing theii tiibal iuentity but
not abolishing it completely.
Su7

Naintaining its semantic tiajectoiy, post-Nuhammau, ummob
came exclusively to uenote Nuslims.
Su8
Nuhammaus political
anu ieligious authoiity ovei the ummob passeu to the Caliph-
ate,
Su9
anu though uiffeiences of opinion latei ciystalliseu into
vaiious sects anu law-schools, a sense of unity in the ummob was
sustaineu thiough iitual piayei, the Ramauhan fast, anu the
bojj.
S1u
Inueeu, Schmiut notes, the ummob is a cential compo-
nent in Fiiuay piayeis.
S11


alongsiue the Nuslims; this tianslation woulu ieflect anothei way that ummob
is useu in the Quian: see, e.g., Al-HiJob (S):66; Al-Huminm (2S):S2.
Su4
Iia N. Lapiuus, The Sepaiation of State anu Religion in the Bevelopment of
Eaily Islamic Society, l}HFS 6 (197S): S6S-64.
SuS
Yaqub Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity: Nosques, Nauiasas anu Tombs, in Arcbi-
tecture of tbe lslomic WorlJ: lts Eistory onJ Sociol Heoninq (eu. ueoige Nichell;
iepi., Lonuon: Thames & Buuson, 2uu6), 1S, obseives that membeiship in
Nuhammaus ummob ieplaceu the genetic acciuent of biith as the ciiteiion of
nationality.
Su6
Bamilton A. R. uibb, The Community in Islamic Bistoiy, PAPS 1u7 (196S):
17S, suggests that |tjhe key woiu foi eveiything that has to uo with Islamic
cultuie is 0mmo, Community. 0mmo is at once a ieligious anu a social teim;
it implies totality, as opposeu to ekklesio.
Su7
Taiik Bamui Al-Azami, Review Aiticle: Religion, Iuentity, anu State in Nou-
ein Islam, HW 84 (1994): SSS.
Su8
Benny, 0mmob in the Constitution of Neuina, S9.
Su9
Lapiuus, Sepaiation of State anu Religion, S64.
S1u
uibb, The Community in Islamic Bistoiy, 174. Similaily Al-Azami, Review
Aiticle, SSS, notes that touay the unity of theii uiiection in piayeis unites all
Nuslims uespite sectaiian uiffeiences.
S11
uaibi Schmiut, The Tiansnational 0mmo Nyth oi Reality. Examples fiom
the Westein Biaspoias, HW 9S (2uuS): S7S.
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S6S
Touay, the ummob is consiueieu the biotheihoou of all pio-
fessing Nuslims,
S12
unlimiteu by national bounuaiies,
S1S
anu is
joineu by pionouncing the sbobJob.
S14
In Nuslim countiies,
ieligion, politics anu cultuie geneially continue to be unueistoou
as an unuiviueu whole,
S1S
as has been the case thioughout
Islamic histoiy.
S16

9.3Summary
0nuei the influence of Islamic theology, the teim ummob uevel-
opeu semantically fiom its geneial pie-Islamic ioots, to uesig-
nate specifically the Nuslim community.
S17

Biawing on its final stage of Quianic uevelopment, Nuslims
touay consiuei theii ummob the best human community,
S18

chaiacteiiseu by belief in Allah anu loyalty to Nuhammau, anu
patteineu on the authentic Abiahamic ieligion pieacheu by the

S12
Saleha S. Nahmoou, A Woiu about 0uiselves, }HHA 2S (2uuS): 29S.
S1S
Beibeit Boefei, Whats in a Name. The Baggage of Teiminology in Con-
tempoiaiy Nission, l}IH 2S (2uu8): 27.
S14
C. A. 0. van Nieuwenhuijze, The 0mmah An Analytic Appioach, Sl 1u
(19S9):18, n. 2. Note that this view of the ummob, although mainstieam, is not
helu unanimously by all Nuslims touay. vincent F. Bionuo III, The Aichitectuie
of Nosques in the 0S anu Biitain, }HHA 26 (2uu6), 4u7, locates cuiient Nuslim
views of the ummob on a spectium: In iegaius to envisioning the ummob, Nus-
lims iange fiom inclusive to exclusive in teims of theii view of iueological mes-
sianism. 0n the left, ummob can mean a pan-Islam inclusive to all Nuslims anu
not exclusive of non-believeis. 0n the iight, ummob can mean Sauui-influenceu
Islamic oithouoxy, exclusive of many Nuslim sects, anu exclusive of non-
believeis.
S1S
Boefei, Whats in a Name., 27.
S16
Asghai Fathi, The Islamic Pulpit as a Neuium of Political Communication,
in }SSR 2u (1981), 16S, obseives that |aj cuisoiy examination of the histoiy of
the vaiious Islamic lanus ieveals the special position of the mosque as the cen-
tei of the Noslem community anu the uominant iole of the Islamic pulpit in the
uevelopment of socio-political issues.
S17
Benny, 0mmob in the Quin, 7u.
S18
loy lmrn (S):11u.
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S66
piophets. This ummob enfoices iight moiality in this woilu,
S19

anu will enjoy eschatological felicity in the next.
S2u
It is iitually
uemaicateu fiom the people of the book by piayei towaius,
anu pilgiimage to, the kobob. Baseu upon Nuhammaus histoii-
cal pieceuent, this ummob unites eveiy spheie of life.
S21
As Zaki
summaiises: Islam is pie-eminently the ieligion of unity on all
levels: ontological, social, political. Socially anu politically, the
teim useu to uesciibe that unity is ummo.
S22

10 Tbe Mosque
The noun mosque occuis 28 times in the Quian,
S2S
wheie it can
be useu bioauly to iefei to a place of woiship,
S24
such as the }ew-
ish temple;
S2S
oi moie naiiowly, to iefei specifically to Islamic
places of woiship,
S26
uistinct fiom chuiches,
S27
such as the Nasjiu

S19
Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy obseives that in Aiabic, the woiu ummob
is ielateu both to the woiu foi mothei anu also to the woiu foi the top of the
heau above the biain: connotations he finus apt, given the ummobs puipose is
to contiol the whole univeise (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
S2u
Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy believes that on }uugment Bay,
Nuhammau will inteiceue foi the salvation of all his ummob, anu Allah will ac-
cept this piayei (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
S21
As an example of this inteiplay between politics, ieligion anu cultuie, con-
siuei the Nalaysian Feueial Constitution, which in Aiticle 16u(1) statutoiily
uefines a Nalay to be a peison who piofesses the ieligion of Islam, habitually
speaks the Nalay language, confoims to Nalay custom anu (a) was befoie
Neiueka Bay boin in the Feueiation oi in Singapoie oi boin of paients one of
whom was boin in the Feueiation oi in Singapoie, oi is on that uay uomicileu in
the Feueiation oi in Singapoie; oi (b) is the issue of such a peison. As citeu in
0SA Inteinational Business Publications, Holoysio Country StuJy 6uiJe (4th eu.;
Washington B.C.: Inteinational Business Publications 0SA, 2uu8), 192. Foi an
example of the confusion this can cause, see
www.asiafinest.comfoiumlofiveisioninuex.phpt247S78.html |citeu 1
Naich 2u12j.
S22
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, 1S.
S2S
0nline: coipus.quian.comquianuictionaiy.jsp.ioot=sju#%282:S4:4%29
|citeu 1 Naich 2u12j.
S24
Al-Arf (7):S1; At-Toubob (9):1u7, 1u8; Al-Kobf (18):21.
S2S
Boni lsrl (17):7.
S26
E.g. Al-Boqorob (2):187.
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S68
Foimally, mosque aichitectuie is not tightly contiolleu.
SSS

While a Nuslim consensus has been ieacheu ovei the essential
elements of a mosque,
SS4
no fixeu foims aie piesciibeu foi these
components.
SSS
Inueeu, mosque aichitectuie uemonstiates sig-
nificant iegional influence;
SS6
vaiiations which touay iest uncom-
foitably with piessuies to confoim to a moie globally iecogniseu
Islamic style.
SS7
Noieovei, while mosques aie iueally oiientateu
towaius Necca,
SS8
anu insiue aie wiue enough foi the woiship-
peis to piay in lines,
SS9
histoiically, othei ieligious places of woi-
ship, such as Binuu temples, have been conveiteu into
mosques,
S4u
inuicating that, at times, piagmatic consiueiations
may supeiseue foimal piefeiences.
S41


SSS
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S1, speaks of a well-nigh enuless vaiiety
of foims anu uses.
SS4
0leg uiabai, The Nosque in Islamic Society Touay, in Tbe Hosque: Eistory,
Arcbitecturol Bevelopment onJ Reqionol Biversity 24S, lists the following: laige
space, mibrob, minbor, fiequent (but optional) couityaiu occasionally with
composeu innei faaues, a place foi ablutions, as well as a cential location con-
venient to the living aieas of a community anu a stanuaiu pioceuuie foi the call
to piayei.
SSS
uiabai, The Nosque in Islamic Society Touay, 24S.
SS6
Ismail Seiageluin, Intiouuction: Regionalism, in Tbe Hosque: Eistory, Arcbi-
tecturol Bevelopment onJ Reqionol Biversity, 72.
SS7
Basan-0uuin Khan, An 0veiview of Contempoiaiy Nosques, in Tbe
Hosque: Eistory, Arcbitecturol Bevelopment onJ Reqionol Biversity, 267.
SS8
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS.
SS9
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S6-8.
S4u
Cf. Seiageluin, Intiouuction: Regionalism, 74, who obseives that the oii-
entation of the mosque stiuctuie in Inuonesia was until ielatively iecently al-
loweu to follow the caiuinal oiientations of pie-Islamic temples, with the iesult
that woishippeis hau to align themselves at an angle to the qiblo wall in oiuei
to face Necca.
S41
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, SS. Cf. the analysis of stoiefiont
mosques in Bionuo, The Aichitectuie of Nosques. Following Tuinei, The
Bistoiy of Islams Nosques, 1S8-9, a theological justification foi such piactices
might be maue fiom a thieefolu appeal to Al-Boqorob (2):11S, 177 (To uou
belongs the East anu the West; whichevei way you tuin, uous piesence is theie
Theie is no piety in tuining youi faces towaius the East oi the West.); to
Nuhammaus own example when, in Necca befoie the bijro, he anu his follow-
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St Francis Magazine Vol 8, No 3 | )une 2012

St Fiancis Nagazine is a publication of Inteiseive anu Aiab vision

S7u
mosjiJ anu jomi.
S46
The mosjiJ, ueiiveu fiom the veib suju oi
sojoJo,
S47
to piostiate,
S48
coulu simply be a small ioom within a
builuing set apait foi peisonal solot,
S49
in accoiu with its basic
etymological meaning: place of piostiations.
SSu
Foi the obliga-
toiy Fiiuay piayeis,
SS1
howevei, peifoimeu in congiegation,
SS2
a
laigei stiuctuie was iequiieu.
SSS
This became known as the mos-
jiJ-i jumo (Fiiuay mosque) oi jomi mosjiJ (congiegational
mosque),
SS4
Fiiuay being the Yowm ol-}umo (uay of assembly),
SSS

chosen in conscious uistinction fiom }ews anu Chiistians.
SS6
The
jomi is laigei than the mosjiJ,
SS7
anu auuitionally iequiies, out-

S46
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 4u. Note that this uistinction in vocabu-
laiy is iaiely maintaineu in non-Aiabic speaking countiies touay; Zaki, Allah
anu Eteinity, S6, cites Tuikey as a iaie exception.
S47
Belteshazzai anu Abeunego, Tbe Hosque onJ its Role in Society (Lonuon:
Pilciow Piess, 2uu6), 9.
S48
The veibal foim of the s-j-J ioot occuis fiequently in the Quian, in the sense
of to piostiate oi to woiship. See e.g. An-Noml (27):24-2S; Iussilot (41):S7;
An-Nojm (SS):62.
S49
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 44. Solot is the Aiabic teim foi Islamic
iitual piayei.
SSu
Naitin }. Fiishman anu Basan-0uuin Khan, Pieface, in Tbe Hosque: Eistory,
Arcbitecturol Bevelopment onJ Reqionol Biversity, 11. 0ne boJitb, citeu by Bil-
lenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S1, makes this etymology entiiely uefinitive:
Wheievei you piay, that place is a mosque (mosjiJ).
SS1
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, S4, explains that the congiegational piayei at
noon on Fiiuays involves the obligatoiy attenuance of all auult males anu the
optional attenuance of auult females.
SS2
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS.
SSS
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 44.
SS4
Naitin }. Fiishman, Islam anu the Foim of the Nosque, in Tbe Hosque: Eis-
tory, Arcbitecturol Bevelopment onJ Reqionol Biversity, 2u.
SSS
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, S6. }omi is ueiiveu fiom an Aiabic ioot woiu
meaning to assemble.
SS6
Nohammeu Aikoun, The Netamoiphosis of the Sacieu, in Tbe Hosque:
Eistory, Arcbitecturol Bevelopment onJ Reqionol Biversity, 269.
SS7
Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy calls the jomi the big mosque, because
Fiiuay piayeis cannot be offeieu unless at least foity oi fifty Nuslim woi-
shippeis aie piesent (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
St Francis Magazine Vol 8, No 3 | )une 2012

St Fiancis Nagazine is a publication of Inteiseive anu Aiab vision

S71
siue, a minaiet foi the oJbon,
SS8
anu insiue, a minbor foi the
kbutbo.
SS9
Yet, uespite these uiffeiences in function anu foim,
mosjiJ anu jomi aie both equally consiueieu mosques.
S6u
So too
aie Jqbs:
S61
laige open spaces foi public piayei,
S62
at which
whole towns may congiegate to piay at the J ol-AJbo festival,
S6S

in annual soliuaiity with pilgiims on the bojj.
S64

An alteinative to Lefebvies appioach, auvanceu by Tuinei,
sees in each mosque an inteiplay between two unueilying mou-
els: a sacial oi temple paiauigm; anu a non-sacial oi meet-
ing-house paiauigm.
S6S
These two mouels finu pieceuent in the
house of uou in Necca, anu the house of Nuhammau in
Neuina, iespectively; thus, Tuineis paiauigmatic appioach
piomises to ieplicate moie closely an inteinal, Nuslim view of
the mosque.
S66
To this enu, theiefoie, the iemaining analysis of
the mosque in this section shall be stiuctuieu aiounu Tuineis
two paiauigms: the mosque as a temple, anu the mosque as a
meeting-house.

10.1Themosqueasatemple
The Quian uesciibes the kobob, which is the Aiabic woiu foi
temple,
S67
as the house of Allah,
S68
to which pagans, on account

SS8
Fiishman, Islam anu the Foim of the Nosque, 4u. AJbon is the Aiabic teim
foi the call to piayei.
SS9
Hinbor is the Aiabic teim foi the pulpit, fiom which the Fiiuay seimon
(kbutbo) is pieacheu.
S6u
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 44, obseives that, foimally, mosjiJs weie
|oftenj built which yielueu nothing in uecoiative splenuoui to the finest jomis
of the same style.
S61
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS.
S62
Kuban, The Cential Aiab Lanus, 78.
S6S
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, 19.
S64
Iu al-Auha, in Tbe 0xforJ Bictionory of lslom (eu. }ohn L. Esposito; 0xfoiu:
0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, 2uuS), 1S1.
S6S
Tuinei, The Bistoiy of Islams Nosques, 1SS.
S66
Sheikh Bi. Nuhammau Al-Bussaini (peisonal communication, S }anuaiy
2u12).
S67
Tuinei, The Bistoiy of Islams Nosques, 1S6.
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St Francis Magazine Vol 8, No 3 | )une 2012

St Fiancis Nagazine is a publication of Inteiseive anu Aiab vision

S7S
tion fiom the seculai to the sacieu spheie.
S86
Enteiing the
mosque, he offeis supplication,
S87
coveis his heau,
S88
anu ie-
moves his shoes,
S89
to avoiu iitually uefiling this holy place.
S9u

Next, he ciosses the couityaiu:
S91
the vast, seiene, unbioken
space impiesses upon him that the woikauay woilu has been left
behinu,
S92
anu the uomes anu minaiets lift his eyes anu contem-
plations fiom eaithly to heavenly things.
S9S
Befoie piaying, to
attain iitual puiity,
S94
he peifoims the necessaiy ablutions
(wuJu),
S9S
peihaps in a pool in the couityaiu,
S96
oi using watei
uiawn fiom a jai insiue the mosque.
S97
Be then pioceeus to the

S86
}ale Nejuet Eizen, Reauing Nosques: Neaning anu Aichitectuie in Islam,
}AAC 69 (2u11), 128.
S87
Accoiuing to Nuhammau, The Role of the Nosque, 17, it is manuatoiy to
say uua (supplication) on entiy into a mosque. In the name of Allah, anu
peace be upon the Nessengei of Allah. 0 Allah! Foigive my sins anu open foi
me the gates, of Youi meicy.
S88
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS.
S89
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S2.
S9u
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, 2u. Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S2, cites a
boJitb iepoiteu by Abu Buiaiia: most favouieu of uou in cities aie theii
mosques anu most abhoiieu aie theii maikets.
S91
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S2, notes that mosques with couityaius
aie the pieuominant type thioughout the Islamic woilu.
S92
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, SS.
S9S
Bionuo The Aichitectuie of Nosques, 4u1.
S94
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, 2u.
S9S
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, SS. Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy ex-
plains that wuJu is impoitant because the woishippei must be puie on both
the insiue anu the outsiue befoie going to the mosque: Allah uoes not heai the
piayeis of those who aie impuie, noi can the woishippei ieceive Allahs bless-
ing unless he is fiist puie anu clean (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
S96
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S6. The Banbali law school (moJbbob)
iequiies that iunning watei be useu in ablutions, so in Banbali mosques touay
the watei is pioviueu by taps.
S97
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS, explains that these supplementaiy ablution
facilities may be pioviueu insiue the mosque, often in the shape of a colossal
maible jai with basin anu taps so that the elueily may comply with the law
without iisk of exposuie to the inclemency of the elements.
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St Fiancis Nagazine is a publication of Inteiseive anu Aiab vision

S76
piayei-hall (musollo),
S98
a caipeteu aiea kept apait fiom the wet
aiea of ablutions.
S99

The spaciousness of the piayei-hall ieminus the woishippei of
his eschatological iewaiu,
4uu
which the Quian uesciibes as a
home in Beaven, lofty mansions beneath which iiveis flow.
4u1

Anothei Quianic uepiction of paiauise, occuiiing in ovei 12u
passages,
4u2
is as a gaiuen with tiees anu spiings of watei,
4uS

suggesteu aichitectuially by the mosques ablution fountain, pil-
lais anu aiches.
4u4
By means of mosaics anu othei uecoiations, a
sense of weightlessness is cieateu:
4uS
an equilibiium of tensile
foices suggestive of the haimonious Islamic woilu, the house of
peace (Bor-el-lslom).
4u6
Reiteiateu geometiic uesigns anu floial
patteins evoke a sense of the infinite,
4u7
ieminiscent of the paia-
uise gaiuen,
4u8
which Aiualan uesciibes as a uefineu space en-
compassing within itself a total ieflection of the cosmos.
4u9
The

S98
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S2.
S99
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS.
4uu
Eizen, Reauing Nosques, 127.
4u1
Al-Ankobt (29):S8, Al (cf. in lofty uwellings of the uaiuen unueineath
which iiveis flow, Pickthall). A similai uesciiption is founu in Az-Zumor
(S9):2u.
4u2
Nauei Aiualan, Simultaneous Peiplexity: The Paiauise uaiuen as the Quin-
tessential visual Paiauigm of Islamic Aichitectuie anu Beyonu, in 0nJerstonJ-
inq lslomic Arcbitecture (eu. Attilio Petiuccioli anu Khalil K. Piiani; Lonuon:
RoutleugeCuizon, 2uu2), 1u.
4uS
E.g. Al-Wqiob (S6):1u-S4; Al-Hursolt (76):11-22.
4u4
Eizen, Reauing Nosques, 128.
4uS
uiube, What is Islamic Aichitectuie., 1S.
4u6
Eizen, Reauing Nosques, 127.
4u7
uiube, What is Islamic Aichitectuie., 14. }ale Nejuet Eizen, Islamic Aichi-
tectuie: An Alteinative Way to Knowleuge, }AAC 6S (2uu7), 71, explains that
Islamic symbolism is paiticulaily uevelopeu within the Sufi tiauition.
4u8
Aiualan, Simultaneous Peiplexity, 1u-12, obseives that |tjhe English woiu
paiauise is simply a tiansliteiation of the olu Peisian woiu poiriJoezo, iefei-
iing to the walleu gaiuens of this ancient time.
4u9
Aiualan, Simultaneous Peiplexity, 1u. Cf. }oige Luis Boiges, The Aleph
(tians. Noiman Thomas Bi uiovanni), n.p. |citeu 1 Naich 2u12j, a shoit stoiy at
the enu of which is mentioneu a mosque in Caiio, within a pillai of which the
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St Francis Magazine Vol 8, No 3 | )une 2012

St Fiancis Nagazine is a publication of Inteiseive anu Aiab vision

S78
It is not, howevei, the mibrob itself which is sacieu, but the
uiiection in which it points.
42u
This oiientation, baseu on the
Quianic injunction to piay towaiu the kobob,
421
is touay the ba-
sic constiaint upon mosque constiuction.
422
The change of
piayei uiiection towaiu Necca, when vieweu in its histoiic con-
text,
42S
signals a cleai uisjunction between Nuslims anu the
people of the book:
424
befoie Nuhammau pionounceu suiah Al-
Boqorob, Nuslims, with Chiistians anu }ews, piayeu towaiu }eiu-
salem;
42S
thencefoith, the locus of piayei shifteu to Necca. Con-
sequently, Zaki, explains, we may pictuie the Nuslim woilu as a
gigantic wheel with Necca as the hub, with lines uiawn fiom all
the mosques in the woilu foiming the spokes. But as well as
this hoiizontal axis theie is a veitical one, that of the spiiit. At
the Kaba the two inteisect.
426
Nuslim piayei, then, is the use

the wall of the mosque (facing the iblob.) I nevei saw such a goou anu bau
thing as I saw touay. Be iepeateu the last statement thiice.
42u
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, S4; Fiishman, Islam anu the Foim of the
Nosque, SS.
421
Al-Boqorob (2):144.
422
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS-6.
42S
The piecise uate of this change is contioveiteu: Bionuo, The Aichitectuie of
Nosques, 4u1, thinks it came in A.B. 62S; Cotteiell, HubommoJ, 8S, suggests
A.B. 624; anu Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS, piefeis a uate as late as A.B. 629.
All agiee, howevei, that the change of qiblo occuiieu aftei the bijro. The loca-
tion of the Nasjiu al-Qiblatayn (Nosque of the Two iblos), wheie, uuiing a
time of communal piayei, Nuhammau announceu this change of qiblo, is also
uisputeu. Bionuo iuentifies the mosque with Nuhammaus house in Neuina;
Zaki locates the mosque on the outskiits of Neuina; anu Kuban, The Cential
Aiab Lanus, 78, believes it is the mosque at Quba, also mentioneu in At-Toubob
(9):1u8.
424
This contiast is maue explicit in Al-Boqorob (2):142-147, a passage alieauy
uiscusseu above. As Petei u. Riuuell anu Petei Cotteiell, lslom in Context: Post,
Present onJ Iuture (uianu Rapius: Bakei Acauemic, 2uuS), 46, explain, the
change was maue to uistinguish }ew anu Chiistian fiom Nuslim.
42S
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, S4.
426
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, 16. Cyiil ulass, Tbe Concise FncyclopoeJio of ls-
lom (iev. eu.; Lonuon: Stacey Inteinational, 2uu1), 247, puts it similaily: the
kobob is the centei of a Boly of Bolies that stietches out in all uiiections; thus
St Francis Magazine Vol 8, No 3 | )une 2012

St Fiancis Nagazine is a publication of Inteiseive anu Aiab vision

S79
of the hoiizontal axis by which one ielates oneself to the veitical
axis as iepiesenteu by the Kaba.
427

These two axes, coinciuent in the kobob, aie also symbolically
uniteu in the mosque: just as the mibrob aligns the woishippei
hoiizontally towaiu the kobob anu the centie of the woilu, so
also the veitical spaces of uomes anu minaiets oiientate him
within the univeise.
428
Bomes iepiesent the vault of heaven,
429

anu aie fiequently insciibeu with heavenly motifs,
4Su
such as
stais,
4S1
oi the tiee of paiauise;
4S2
the omniuiiectional light ema-
nating fiom them is also suggestive of heaven.
4SS
Noieovei, Is-
lamic ait, in which patteins ueiiveu by iotation of a squaie
within a ciicle iepiesent a union of eaith anu heaven, finus simi-
lai expiession in the uomeu mosque, wheie these two polaiities
aie uniteu aichitectuially.
4S4

Nosque aichitectuie, Eizen obseives, is also scaleu to com-
plement the human bouy, which is pickeu out as an actoi to be
watcheu.
4SS
The mosque is a stage foi piayei,
4S6
a heavenly

the whole eaith becomes the locus of piayei foi eveiy Nuslim, who each uay
fulfils the iole that the }ewish high piiest peifoimeu only on the Bay of Atone-
ment.
427
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS. Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy explains
that this unseen veitical link connects the kobob to the house of woiship ui-
iectly above it in the seventh heaven, wheie each uay 7u,uuu angels offei theii
woiship, also facing towaiu the kobob (peisonal communication, 1S Naich
2u12).
428
Eizen, Islamic Aichitectuie, 7u-71.
429
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, S4. Tuinei, The Bistoiy of Islams Nosques, 14S,
consiueis that uomes have an almost unavoiuable suggestion of the heavenly.
4Su
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 18.
4S1
Eizen, Islamic Aichitectuie, 7u.
4S2
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, S4.
4SS
Eizen, Reauing Nosques, 127. Cf. Tuinei, The Bistoiy of Islams
Nosques, 14S.
4S4
Eizen, Reauing Nosques, 1Su; Islamic Aichitectuie, 7u.
4SS
Eizen, Reauing Nosques, 128.
4S6
Eizen, Reauing Nosques, 126.
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S8S
of iuolatiy.
462
Positively, Nuslims consiuei calligiaphy the gieat-
est ait foim, embellishing the Quian, Allahs own speech:
46S
a
point emphasiseu by the consistent use of Aiabic foi all Quianic
insciiptions.
464
Thus these insciiptions, too, both in foim anu in
content, emphasise that mosques aie holy:
46S
the houses of Al-
lah on eaith.
466

10.2Themosqueasameeting-house
Along with the kobob, a seconu paiauigm upon which mosques
aie uelibeiately mouelleu is Nuhammaus house in Neuina.
467
A
uiagiam of this house is given in figuie 1, below.

462
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 128. A contiast Nuslims sometimes uiaw
heie with Chiistianity is paiticulaily staik in 0zbekistan, wheie the local woiu
foi chuich is, liteially tianslateu, house of iuols (Tim uieen, peisonal com-
munication, 1u Febiuaiy 2u12).
46S
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, 16. Cf. Zakis comment on page S7: The ait of
tojwJ, oi cantillation of the Quin, is one of the most cultivateu aits in Islam,
being the phonic equivalent of calligiaphy, the Islamic ait pai excellence.
464
Balu }ones, The Elements of Becoiation: Suiface, Pattein anu Light, in
Arcbitecture of tbe lslomic WorlJ, 168.
46S
Fiishman anu Khan, Pieface, 14.
466
Tabain ieciteu the boJitb: Nasjius aie the houses of Allah on the eaith.
They shine up to the inhabitants of the heavens just as the stais in the sky shine
uown to the inhabitants of the eaith. As citeu in Abuui-Rahman Ibn Yusuf,
Nasjiu oi Nusalla, n.p. |citeu 1 Naich 2u12j. 0nline: www.cential-
mosque.comfiqhmmussalla1.htm. Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy consiu-
eis this to be a stiong hauith (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
467
Belteshazzai anu Abeunego, Tbe Hosque onJ its Role in Society, 12.
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S84
Figuie 1. Nuhammaus Neuinan Resiuence.
468


The houses main featuie was the squaie couityaiu, measui-
ing fifty-six meties on each siue,
469
anu encloseu by plain
walls.
47u
To one siue weie locateu, almost inciuentally, the pii-
vate quaiteis foi Nuhammau anu his wives:
471
theii location out-
siJe the couityaiu,
472
anu the couityaius compaiatively vast
size, suggests that Nuhammaus house in Neuina was puipose-
built piimaiily as a public builuing.
47S
Appaiently, aftei the bijro,
Nuhammau wanteu a iesiuence which woulu seive not only his
own family, but also the exileu Nuslim community.
474

0thei featuies of the builuing confiim this. A poitico (zullo),
constiucteu fiom palm-tiunks anu palm bianches,
47S
ian along

468
Auapteu fiom Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S9.
469
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S9.
47u
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 4u.
471
Kuban, The Cential Aiab Lanus, 77, uesciibes this iesiuential accommoua-
tion as consisting of just two iooms (latei incieaseu to nine to accommouate
his wives) in the south-east.
472
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S9, points out that, juug|ingj by latei uo-
mestic aichitectuie, the obvious location foi iooms intenueu to be liveu in
woulu have been insiue, not outsiue, the enclosuie.
47S
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 4u.
474
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S9.
47S
Kuban, The Cential Aiab Lanus, 77.

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S8S
the qiblo wall, pioviuing shaue foi Nuhammaus companions
(soboJo) when they gatheieu in the couityaiu foi piayei;
476
anu
the opposite wall was paitially oveihung by a sheu ioof
(suffo),
477
unuei which inuigent Nuslims took sheltei.
478
This
also pioviueu a foium foi community uiscussions.
479

The flexibility of Nuhammaus Neuinan iesiuence maue it an
iueal focal point foi the Nuslim community,
48u
a social hub foi
the integiateu puisuit of the spiiitual anu the seculai.
481
It func-
tioneu not only as a place of woiship, but also, inter olio as: an
infoimation centie; a law couit; a moJrossob wheie Islam was
taught; anu the heauquaiteis of the Islamic state wheie tiibal
uelegations weie ieceiveu anu tieaties weie signeu.
482

Both in foim anu in function, this fiist mosque at Neuina has
been the pattein foi eveiy subsequent mosque in Islamic his-
toiy.
48S
Behinu theii many histoiical anu iegional stylistic vaiia-
tions, Kuban obseives that Nuhammaus aichetyp|alj mouel,
consisting of a couityaiu, a sanctuaiy, anu a hypostyle hall, still
suivives to this uay;
484
anu Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaiauawi,
48S
in a

476
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 4u.
477
Kuban, The Cential Aiab Lanus, 77.
478
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 4u.
479
Kuban, The Cential Aiab Lanus, 77.
48u
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S9.
481
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 4u.
482
See Nuhammau, The Role of the Nosque, 7, anu Belteshazzai anu Abeu-
nego, Tbe Hosque onJ its Role in Society, 12-1S, foi a list of these, anu othei
ioles peifoimeu at the Neuinan mosque. Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy
uesciibes Nuhammaus Neuinan mosque as Buckingham Palace anu 1u Bown-
ing Stieet togethei (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
48S
Tuinei, The Bistoiy of Islams Nosques, 1S9, suggests that |wje finu heie
the peimanent pattein foi the Nuslim mosque, with basic featuies that have
peisisteu in spite of latei anu somewhat contiauictoiy influences.
484
Kuban, The Cential Aiab Lanus, 77. Kuban uefines a hypostyle hall as an
inteiioi space with multiple suppoits foi the ioof.
48S
Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaiauawi is a highly significant voice in the Nuslim woilu
touay: a tiustee of the 0xfoiu 0niveisity Centie foi Islamic Stuuies, who, in
St Francis Magazine Vol 8, No 3 | )une 2012

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S86
fotwob ieleaseu in 2uu6,
486
explains that foi the Caliphs aftei
Nuhammau, the mosque continueu to function as theii base foi
all activities political as well as non-political.
487
Although, ovei
time, the mosques iole in ieligious euucation was incieasingly
outsouiceu to puipose-built moJrossos,
488
its juuicial iole, con-
uucteu by the imms, peisisteu,
489
anu by the twelfth centuiy,
uiabai notes, the mosque hau establisheu itself as the focal
point foi activities involving almost all aspects of collective life,
fiom teaching to the exchange of infoimation, fiom piayei to
shelteiing oveinight while tiavelling.
49u
Touay, Billenbianu ob-
seives: the mosque can pioviue a place to live, foou anu accom-
mouation foi tiavelleis, anu facilities foi teaching, auministiation
anu buiial; all this in auuition to its piincipal function of woi-
ship.
491

Functionally, Nuhammaus oiiginal Neuinan mosque finus its
closest counteipait in touays jmi mosque, since Fiiuay congie-
gations auu to the ieligious anu social elements a uistinctly po-
litical uimension.
492
In Islam, politics is closely associateu with
the minbor.
49S
Initially Nuhammau ueliveieu his Fiiuay seimons

2uu8, came thiiu in a Foieign Policy Nagazine poll of the woilus top 2u public
intellectuals.
486
The Aiabic text of this fotwob is available online:
web.aichive.oigweb2uu6u721uSu124http:www.islamonline.netseivletS
atellite.ciu=1122S286uu828&pagename=Islam0nline-Aiabic-
Ask_ScholaiFatwaAFatwaAAskTheScholai |citeu 1 Naich 2u12j.
487
As tianslateu by Naik Buiie, What is a Nosque., n.p. |citeu 1 Naich 2u12j.
0nline: maikuuiie.blogspot.com2u1uu9what-is-mosque.html.
488
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S9-6u.
489
Eizen, Reauing Nosques, 126.
49u
uiabai, The Nosque in Islamic Society Touay, 24S.
491
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S.
492
Fiishman, Islam anu the Foim of the Nosque, S2. Note that this is a puiely
functional obseivation; as Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 44, explains, the
basic schema of open couityaiu anu coveieu sanctuaiy |isj common to both
mosjiJ anu jomi.
49S
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, S8.
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S87
leaning against a pillai,
494
but as the congiegation giew, an ele-
vateu pulpit eventually became necessaiy.
49S
Customaiily lo-
cateu immeuiately to the iight of the mibrob,
496
the minbor, pat-
teineu aftei a thione,
497
viviuly illustiates the Islamic synthesis
of ieligion anu politics.
498
The Caliphs, following Nuhammaus
example, leu piayeis fiom the mibrob,
499
befoie going on to
pieach fiom the minbor, one step uown, out of iespect foi
Nuhammau.
Suu
The content of the kbutbo was geneially political,
iathei than uogmatic.
Su1
Although latei Caliphs uevolveu these
uuties to the imms, the close connection between the mosque
anu politics iemaineu:
Su2
mosques weie the places wheie iuleis
weie installeu,
SuS
anu foimal mention of the iuleis name in the
kbutbo was an essential maik of his continuing political legiti-
macy.
Su4
Fathi obseives that, thioughout the histoiy of Islam
the mosque has been the centei anu the scene of numeious po-
litical upiisings, ievolts anu social movements, often leu by
populai pieacheis fiom the minbor.
SuS


494
Kuban, The Cential Aiab Lanus, 77.
49S
Fiishman, Islam anu the Foim of the Nosque, SS.
496
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 46.
497
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, S6.
498
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 4S.
499
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 17.
Suu
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, S6, iecoius: The fiist minbor was a iuuimentaiy
affaii of thiee steps fashioneu fiom tamaiisk woou, fiom the topmost of which
Nuhammau auuiesseu the Companions. 0ut of iespect, Ab Baki, the fiist ca-
liph, occupieu the inteimeuiate step, anu 0mai mouestly useu the loweimost;
but 0thmn saiu, Shall we uescenu into the bowels of the eaith., anu theieaf-
tei eveiyone has useu the fiist step fiom the top.
Su1
Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, 18. Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy feels
stiongly that all oui issues must be uiscusseu in the Fiiuay piayeis, not just
piayei anu fasting (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
Su2
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S4.
SuS
Tuinei, The Bistoiy of Islams Nosques, 141.
Su4
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, 46.
SuS
Fathi, The Islamic Pulpit, 16S.
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We may see heie an expiession of the Sboriob piinciple,
uiawn fiom the boJitb,
S21
that Islam iises above all.
S22
As
Belteshazzai anu Abeunego explain, |aj mosque must be the
highest anu, especially in the lanu of the unbelieveis when sui-
iounueu by unbelief, the tallest, bioauest, wiuest in whatevei
othei mannei its supeiioiity can be uemonstiateu.
S2S

10.3Summary
The teim mosque, in some ways analogously to the semantic
tiajectoiy of ummob, tiaceu above, became ovei time incieas-
ingly specific, ueveloping fiom uenoting geneiic places of woi-
ship, to touay exclusively iefeiiing to what Billenbianu ueems
the Islamic builuing por excellence.
S24
The funuamental inte-
giation of the sacieu anu the seculai in Islam finus cleai expies-
sion in these builuings, anu aiises fiom the synthesis of the two
uistinct paiauigms which unueilie them.
Fiist, theie is the sacial oi temple paiauigm, baseu on the
Neccan kobob, which the Quian styles as Allahs holy house. A
similai, albeit attenuateu, quality of holiness is attiibuteu to
eveiy mosque,
S2S
anu is fosteieu by mosque aichitectuie,
S26

symbolism anu iituals, especially lituigical piayei. The mosques

centuiy that mosques with uomes weie fiist built in South-East Asia. Touay,
howevei, uomeu mosques aie becoming the local noim.
S21
Bukhaii iepoiteu that the Nessengei of Allah (saw) saiu, Islam stanus
highest anu nothing else can stanu above it. As citeu in Nuhammau, The Role
of the Nosque, S.
S22
Belteshazzai anu Abeunego, Tbe Hosque onJ its Role in Society, S7.
S2S
Belteshazzai anu Abeunego, Tbe Hosque onJ its Role in Society, S7. Consiuei,
foi instance, that both the tallest builuing in the Islamic woilu (the Buij Khalifa,
in Bubai) anu the tallest builuing in the Euiopean 0nion (the Shaiu, in Lonuon:
scheuuleu to be completeu in time foi the 2u12 0lympics), aie uistinctively
Islamic stiuctuies.
S24
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S1.
S2S
Tuinei, The Bistoiy of Islams Nosques, 14S.
S26
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S2, ueems mosque aichitectuie pio-
founuly ieligious in its intent.
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piimaiy function is to pioviue a stage foi solot,
S27
by means of
which woishippeis, piopeily oiientateu towaius the kobob, ex-
piess theii submission to Allah, ieceive foigiveness of sins, anu
paiticipate in the union of heaven anu eaith.
S28
Zepp, then, is
iight to speak of the mosque as theology in conciete.
S29

Seconu, theie is a non-sacial oi meeting-house paiauigm,
baseu on Nuhammaus house in Neuina. As Nuhammaus house
was the focal point of the Nuslim community, so too aie mosques
touay.
SSu
The place of piayei uoes not stanu in isolation, but is
complementeu by spaces cateiing foi wiuei community neeus;
SS1

spaces in which ieligious, social anu political uimensions aie in-
sepaiably linkeu. This seconu paiauigm also gives the mosque
its outwaiu face to the non-Nuslim woilu: the mosque is the cen-
tie fiom which Islam is to be piopagateu to the wiuei commu-
nity. Inueeu, this puipose is inheient in its veiy uesign: in mou-
ein society, Fiishman anu Khan agiee, the mosque seives as
the single most impoitant visible iepiesentation of Nuslim iuen-
tity anu values.
SS2


11 Tbe Relationsbip of tbe Mosque to tbe Ummab
The above suiveys of the ummob anu the mosque suggest that
the two aie significantly inteiielateu. 0n the one hanu, the
mosque upholus the Neccan focus by which the ummob is

S27
Billenbianu, lslomic Arcbitecture, S1.
S28
Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy notes that, in the seventh heaven, the an-
gels themselves aie piaying towaiu the kobob anu ciicumambulating it (pei-
sonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
S29
Iia u. Zepp, A Huslim Primer: Beqinners 6uiJe to lslom (Lonuon: Sheu anu
Waiu, 1992), 197.
SSu
Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy insists that a key puipose of the mosque is
to gathei the people togethei anu stiengthen the peoples ielationships (pei-
sonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
SS1
Khan, An 0veiview of Contempoiaiy Nosques, 267.
SS2
Fiishman anu Khan, Pieface, 14.
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uniteu;
SSS
on the othei, the mosque is the foium wheiein the
imagineu coipoiate soliuaiity of the woiluwiue ummob is en-
acteu piactically at the local level.
SS4
Foi analytical puiposes,
these two ielationships may be bioauly coiielateu with the two
mosque paiauigms outlineu above.
11.1TheTempleandtheUmmah
In suiah Al-Boqorob, the uistinguishing maik of the ummob
justly balanceu, showing that they, not the people of the book,
aie the genuine ummob of Abiaham, is that the Nuslims have a
qiblo that points towaiu the kobob that Abiaham puiifieu.
SSS

The mosque gives this theology tangible expiession. As seen
above, mosques aie aichitectuially uesigneu to cieate an atmos-
pheie of balance,
SS6
anu theii uecoiative focus falls inevitably
upon the mibrob in the qiblo wall. The solot enacteu theie has a
significant unitive iole:
SS7
the highly stanuaiuiseu foim of this
intensely paiticipatoiy iitual enables a Nuslim to attenu any
mosque in the woilu, line up alongsiue woishippeis he has nevei
pieviously met, anu, by facing in a common uiiection, speaking in

SSS
Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy obseives that, since Necca is the centie of
the eaith, when Nuslims aiounu the woilu all piay towaiu the kobob, in effect,
eveiybouys looking at each othei (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12).
SS4
Schmiut, The Tiansnational 0mmo, S77, explains that |tjhe ummo is,
above all, an iuea oi vision Within ceitain uisciplines (e.g., Islamic stuuies,
political science, tiansnational stuuies), a iecuiiing conceptualization of the
tiansnational ummo is that of an imagineu oi ieimagineu community. 0liv-
iei Roy, 6loboliseJ lslom: Tbe Seorcb for o New 0mmob (Lonuon: Buist anu
Company, 2uu4), 2u2-2uS, peiceives a conceptual link between a ueteiiitoiial-
iseu ummob anu Islamic neofunuamentalism. Sheikh Bi. Nohameu El-
shaikawy says that, in a sense, you cant uistinguish the mosque anu the um-
mob. If the mosque is being useu in the iight way as a community centie, a
school, a univeisity, a tiaining centie, a meeting place, etc., then this will be an
expiession that we aie one ummob. It iepiesents the ummob (peisonal com-
munication, 1S Naich 2u12).
SSS
Al-Boqorob (2):124-1S1.
SS6
Eizen, Islamic Aichitectuie, 71.
SS7
Tuinei, The Bistoiy of Islams Nosques, 14u.
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a common Aiabic language, anu moving in a common pattein, to
lituigically expiess soliuaiity in submission to Allah.
In Fiiuay piayeis, the ummob is a significant theme;
SS8
anu the
boJitb make iegulai mosque attenuance a uefinitive maik of the
faithful Nuslim.
SS9
0nsuipiisingly, then, when countiies wish to
moie stiongly asseit theii Islamic iuentity, theie is often a coiie-
lating inciease in emphasis on paiticipating in the five times
uaily mosque piayeis.
S4u


11.2Themeeting-houseandtheummah
As seen above, the meeting-house paiauigm entails the mosque
being the public face of the local Nuslim community; a face in-
cieasingly coming to symbolise the woilu-wiue ummob, as a
global pan-Islamic aichitectuial style becomes evei-moie uomi-
nant.
S41

Suiah loy lmrn uesciibes Nuslims as the best of peoples
|ummotinj, evolveu foi mankinu, enjoining what is iight, foibiu-
uing what is wiong, anu believing in Allah.
S42
In its immeuiate
liteiaiy context, a cential facet of what it means to be the best
ummob must incluue the biotheily unity existing within the Nus-

SS8
Schmiut, The Tiansnational 0mmo, S7S. Inueeu, Sheikh Bi. Nohameu El-
shaikawy connects the puipose of the Fiiuay piayeis uiiectly to the Islamic
theology of the ummob: baseu on an aspiiational ieauing of Quianic uesciip-
tions of the whole woilu as one ummob, Elshaikawy explains: we piay in con-
giegation because the aim of Islam is to get people togethei (peisonal commu-
nication, 1S Naich 2u12).
SS9
Ahmau, al Tiimiuhi anu Ibn Najah iepoiteu on the authoiity of Ibn Sa'iu
that the Nessengei of Allah (saw) saiu, If you see a man going fiequently to the
mosques, beai witness that he is a believei. As citeu in Nuhammau, The Role
of the Nosque, 11.
S4u
Tim uieen (peisonal communication, 1u Febiuaiy 2u12).
S41
Khan, An 0veiview of Contempoiaiy Nosques, 267.
S42
loy lmrn (S):11u, Al (cf. Ye aie the best community that hath been
iaiseu up foi mankinu. Ye enjoin iight conuuct anu foibiu inuecency; anu ye
believe in Allah, Pickthall). Cf. loy lmrn (S):1u4.
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lim ummob,
S4S
wheie tiibal iuentities aie, as Al-Azamis puts it,
maiginaliseu.
S44
At the global level, the egalitaiianism of the
tiansnational ummob is actualiseu on the bojj;
S4S
at the city level,
howevei, this Nuslim soliuaiity finus its equivalent expiession at
the mosque,
S46
wheie, as solot expiesses coipoiate theological
unity, so too the piactice of sboriob law enfoices haimony at the
social level.
Nosques themselves uiaw Nuslims togethei,
S47
helpeu by
populai belief that they signify uivine piesence in the commu-
nity.
S48
Expiession of Nuslim unity ieaches its highpoint at the
annual J ol-AJbo festival when, Zaki explains, the climax of the
pilgiimage iites in the Plain of Aiafat outsiue Necca coinciues
with the J piayeis being saiu thioughout the Islamic woilu.
Thus the J

iitual is a local ieflection of the pilgiimage;
S49
anu

S4S
loy lmrn (S):1uS-1u4.
S44
Al-Azami, Review Aiticle, SSS.
S4S
Philip K. Bitti, Eistory of tbe Arobs: Irom tbe Forliest Times to tbe Present
(1uth eu.; Lonuon: Nacmillan, 197u), 1S6, uesciibes the bojj as the majoi uni-
fying influence in Islam anu the most effective common bonu among the uiveise
believeis. . The socializing influence of such a gatheiing of the biotheihoou of
believeis fiom the fai quaiteis of the eaith is haiu to oveiestimate. Sheikh Bi.
Nohameu Elshaikawy explains that the puipose of the bojj is not meiely foi
woiship, but also that Nuslims might meet togethei foi uiscussion, foi tiaue,
anu to make plans foi the yeai aheau (peisonal communication, 1S Naich
2u12).
S46
Basim Nusallam, The 0iueiing of Nuslim Societies, in Tbe CombriJqe lllus-
troteJ Eistory of tbe lslomic WorlJ (eu. Fiancis Robinson; iepi., Cambiiuge:
Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2uu2), 164.
S47
E.g. uoolam vaheu, Changing Islamic Tiauitions anu Emeiging Iuentities in
South Afiica, }HHA 2u (2uuu): 4S, uesciibes how in South Afiica, |ajn impoi-
tant step in ieconstiucting ieligious life among the Nuslim community was the
builuing of mosques. Nosques became the centie of Nuslim woiship anu con-
giegational piayei anu became the means to builu community spiiit. Ray Poi-
tei obseives that an incieaseu iate of mosque constiuction often coiielates
with a heightening of a iegions Islamic self-iuentity (peisonal communication,
24 Febiuaiy 2u12).
S48
Aikoun, The Netamoiphosis of the Sacieu, 268.
S49
Yaqub Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity, SS.
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hence, simultaneously, a local expiession of the woiluwiue um-
mob.

11.3Summary
In some ways, the mosque is to the local Nuslim community
what the kobob is to the woiluwiue ummob. Paiallels may be
uiawn between the compulsoiy Fiiuay gatheiings at the mosque
anu the compulsoiy pilgiimage to Necca; between the symbolic
union of heaven anu eaith in the local mosque anu the convei-
gence of veitical anu hoiizontal axes at the kobob; anu peihaps
even between the ciicumambulation of the kobob uuiing the bojj
anu the necessaiily convoluteu appioaches to many local
mosques.
SSu

This ielationship, howevei, is asymmetiic: the mosque anu the
local Nuslim community ueiive theii Islamic iuentities in iela-
tion to the kobob anu the ummob, not vice-veisa. To quote Zaki:

The Nuslim woilu is spieau out like a gigantic wheel with Necca as
the hub, with lines uiawn fiom all the mosques in the woilu foiming
the spokes. These lines conveige on a city anu within that city on a
point. The city is Necca, anu the point is the Kaba at its centie.
Necca, the biithplace of Nuhammau, is Islams holy city anu the goal
of pilgiimage. The Kaba, a hollow cube of stone, many times iebuilt,
the oiiginal of which goes back beyonu the time of Nuhammau, is
the oxis munJi of Islamic cosmology the piimoiuial symbol of the
inteisection between the veitical axis of the spiiit anu the hoiizontal
plane of phenomenal existence.
SS1


SSu
Eizen, Reauing Nosques, 129, suggests that |aj compaiison between the
appioach to the gieat mosque of Suleymaniye in Istanbul anu the appioach to a
Chiistian basilica, such as St. Peteis Basilica in Rome, is ievealing in this ie-
spect. In the foimei, although we see the builuing in all its monumentality fiom
a uistance, as we come neai, we aie leu thiough labyiinth stieets, anu access to
the entiance of the mosque becomes possible only aftei spiialing |sic.j towaiu
it. In Rome, aftei a ceitain point, a stiaight path, cieating a lineai peispective,
will leau us uiiectly to the fiont of St. Peteis.
SS1
Yaqub Zaki, Allah anu Eteinity,16. Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy ex-
plains that the black stone in the coinei of the kobob comes fiom heaven, anu
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12 Conclusion
This section has iuentifieu anu uesciibeu the Nuslim concepts of
ummob anu mosque anu consiueieu theii inteiielation. The ma-
joi souices uiawn upon weie Islamic sciiptuies, tiauitions anu
aichitectuie, in uialogue with Nuslim scholais. Sheikh Bi. Nu-
hammau Al-Bussaini has ieau the final uiaft of this section anu
comments: In my humble opinion, theie is nothing in the
chaptei that contiauicts an oithouox Sunni Nuslim peispec-
tive.
SS2

In conclusion, theiefoie, the peispective set out in this section
may legitimately claim to be a Huslim view of the mosque as pait
of the ummob.

13 Comparison and Missiologial Analysis
13.1Introduction
In this section I will fiist summaiise my finuings fiom sections
one anu two, outlining in tabulai foim the similaiities anu uiffei-

is a sign that Allah is heie. Nuslims who come to the kobob shoulu kiss the
black stone oi, if this is impossible uue to the ciowu, at least stanu opposite the
black stone anu salute it (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12). Accoiuing
to Sunon At-Tormozi, boJitb 968, anu Sobib lbn Kbozimo 422S, boJitb 27SS:
Regaiuing the Black Stone, the Nessengei says: By Allah, Allah will biing it
foith on the Bay of Resuiiection, anu it will have two eyes with which it will see
anu a tongue with which it will speak, anu it will testify in favoui of those who
toucheu it sinceiely. As citeu in Al Nojan, Tbe Eonoroble Kobob, 29. A iecent
uisplay at the Biitish Nuseum obseiveu of the Black Stone that |ajccoiuing to
some Nuslim tiauitions it hau come fiom Paiauise whitei than milk, but the
sins of the uescenuants of Auam tuineu it black (noteu on a peisonal visit to
the Bajj: }ouiney to the Beait of Islam, Biitish Nuseum exhibition, 22 Naich
2u12).
SS2
Peisonal communication, 19 Apiil 2u12. Sheikh Bi. Nuhammau Al-Bussaini
latei commenteu: I was honouieu to be of some assistance with his excellent
uisseitation, anu veiy pleaseu to offei the iecommenuation fiom my ieauing of
his uiligent ieseaich anu analysis, which inuicates that he has accuiately ie-
flecteu the unueistanuing of Islam among a veiy laige piopoition of 0ithouox
Sunni Nuslims. Peisonal communication, 2S Apiil 2u12.
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ences between a Chiistian view of ekklsio anu a Nuslim view of
the mosque as pait of the ummob. I will then consiuei how these
finuings can help auvance cuiient missiological uiscussions con-
ceining Insiuei Novements.

13.2TableofComparison
Eleven similaiities anu uiffeiences obseiveu between the Chiis-
tian view of ekklsio outlineu in section one, anu the Nuslim
view of the mosque as pait of the ummob outlineu in section
two, aie tabulateu below.
Similarities Differences
Coipoiate ieligious iuentity is
expiesseu at thiee uistinct
sociological levels: in the home
(house chuich mosjiJ); in the
wiuei community (local gathei-
ing jomi); anu in the tiansna-
tional imagineu community
(univeisal chuich ummob).
In Chiistianity, the qotberinq is
holy, uefining the builuing; in
Islam, the builJinq is holy,
uefining the gatheiing. Thus,
while the Chiistian ekklsio
existeu at all thiee levels foi
ovei two centuiies befoie the
fiist chuich builuing was con-
stiucteu,
SSS
mosque builuings
(the kobob in Necca anu
Nuhammaus house in
Neuina) have been a pait of
Islam fiom the bijro onwaius.
Regulai attenuance at a local
ekklsio mosque iuentifies the
woishippei as pait of the wiuei
ieligious Chiistian Nuslim
Chiistians gathei as a conse-
quence of theii piioi salvation
in Chiist; foi Nuslims, mosque
attenuance is itself salvific,
anu foigiveness of sins is

SSS
Petei 0Biien, The Chuich as a Beavenly anu Eschatological Entity, in Tbe
Cburcb in tbe Bible onJ tbe WorlJ (eu. B. A. Caison; Exetei: Pateinostei Piess
1987), 9S.
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community. sought by means of Islamic
iituals (wuJu, solot) pei-
foimeu in a holy space.
Pieaching anu piayei aie pait
of the local gatheiing.
Whilst gatheiing to heai anu
iesponu to uous woiu is an
essential component foi all
Chiistian ekklsioi, foi Nus-
lims, the kbutbo is associateu
only with the jomi mosque,
anu its content is fiequently
moie political than sciiptuial.
Foi Nuslims, by contiast, a
mosque is piincipally a stage
foi the peifoimance of solot.
Both the local ekklsio anu the
mosque weie quickly investeu
with uistinctively Chiistian
Islamic connotations to uistin-
guish them fiom othei gathei-
ings builuings at the time (e.g.
synagogues; political assem-
blies).
Nosques anu the gatheiings
theiein weie consciously uis-
tinguisheu fiom chuich builu-
ings anu meetings thiough uif-
feiences in: the uay of meeting
(Fiiuay not Sunuay); the sum-
mons to assemble (by voice
not bells); the uiiection of
piayei (towaiu Necca not
}eiusalem); anu a lituigy
which enacts Islam anu iepu-
uiates Chiistianity.
Both Chiistian ekklsioi anu
Nuslim gatheiings aie intenueu
to expiess the haimony anu
ieinfoice the unity of foimei
enemies uniteu as biethien by
Foi Chiistians, biotheily unity
is founueu on theii spiiitual
union with uou anu one an-
othei won by Chiist at the
cioss; ieinfoiceu by stiength-
ening the congiegations faith
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uou Allah. in the gospel; anu expiesseu as
uiffeient membeis of the bouy
of Chiist seive one anothei
with vaiieu spiiitual gifts. Foi
Nuslims, biotheily unity is
founueu on a common submis-
sion to Allah; ieinfoiceu by
intense coipoiate iituals
(solot, the romoJbon fast, anu
the bojj); anu expiesseu
thiough synchioniseu solot
towaiu the kobob.
A theological inteiielationship
is envisageu between gathei-
ings in local ekklsioi mosques
anu the univeisal ekklsio
ummob.
Both the local anu univeisal
ekklsioi have Chiist as theii
common locus anu ueiive
theii iuentity in ielationship to
him, the temple in whom both
heaven anu eaith unite. By
contiast, in Islam, the veitical
anu hoiizontal axes unite in
the kobob, anu thus the kobob
is the focal point anu souice of
iuentity both foi local mosque
gatheiings anu foi the univei-
sal ummob.
A union of heaven anu eaith is
envisageu both in Chiistian
ekklsioi anu in Nuslim
mosques.
The Chiistian ekklsio achieves
this union by means of the
Boly Spirit: by his Spiiit, }esus
is piesent with Chiistians in
local eaithly ekklsioi, anu
Chiistians aie piesent with
}esus in the heavenly ekklsio.
Nuslims, by contiast, seek pai-
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ticipation in heaven by means
of solot peifoimeu in the holy
Jirection.
Both Chiistians anu Nuslims
aie to puisue piioiities on
eaith consistent with theii
membeiship in the univeisal
chuich ummob. This iuentity
uemanus piimaiy allegiance
ovei othei iuentities, whethei
cultuial heiitage, political af-
filiation, social status oi nation-
ality.
A Chiistians iuentity as pait of
the univeisal chuich is uistinct
fiom, ielativises anu sanctifies
these othei iuentities. By con-
tiast, in Islam, ieligion, politics
anu cultuie foim an unuiviueu
whole in the Nuslim ummob
which not only influences, but
claims national anu cultuial
space, anu is extenueu thiough
both spiiitual anu physical
waifaie.
The univeisal chuich ummob
each consiuei themselves to be
the sole authentically Abia-
hamic ieligious community, anu
membeiship of this univeisal
biotheihoou is insepaiable
fiom salvation.
The Chiistian univeisal chuich
claims continuity with Abia-
ham thiough faith-union with
Chiist, who is the salvation-
histoiical fulfilment of the
Abiahamic covenant; the Nus-
lim ummob claims continuity
with Abiaham by piactising
the oiiginal Abiahamic ielig-
ion pieacheu by all the pioph-
ets.
Both Chiistianity anu Islam
teach that it is possible foi be-
lieveis, in this life, to paitici-
pate to some uegiee in the uni-
veisal gatheiing of all tiue be-
Chiistians touay, thiough faith,
paiticipate in the intangible
heavenly gatheiing of all tiue
believeis, of which the Sinai
assembly was a typological
foieshauowing. By contiast,
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lieveis in the most holy place. Nuslims touay, who iuentify
uous holy temple as the
eaithly kobob, seek to paitici-
pate in the tangible eaithly
gatheiing of all tiue believeis
thiough the bojj to Necca.
Iuolatiy is abhoiieu by Chiis-
tian ekklsioi both local anu
univeisal; anu both in Nuslim
mosques anu thioughout the
Nuslim ummob.
Fiom the Chiistian peispec-
tive, Nuslim piayei towaiu the
black stone is iuolatious woi-
ship. Fiom the Nuslim pei-
spective, Chiistian piayei of-
feieu in }esus name to the tii-
une uou is iuolatious woiship.

I have uiscusseu this table with Sheikh Bi. Nuhammau Al-
Bussaini, anu he agiees that it gives a faii compaiison of the two
views.
SS4

13.3MissiologicalImplications
Fiom te above table we see that the Nuslim view of the mosque
as pait of the ummob stanus in antithetical ielation to the Chiis-
tian view of the ekklsio. The unueilying stiuctuial similaiities
ieveal that the uiffeiences between these views aie not
incommensuiable, but aie genuinely contiauictoiy. We thus
have two mutually exclusive sets. Nembeiship of the mosque
anu the Nuslim ummob is theologically incompatible with mem-
beiship of the Chiistian ekklsio, anu hence, by necessaiy impli-
cation, with a new iuentity in Chiist.
Shoulu Chiistian missionaiies, then, be encouiaging Nuslims
to ietain theii Islamic ieligio-cultuial iuentity anu follow }esus as
CS believeis. I shall now show how the above finuings can

SS4
Peisonal communication, 19 Apiil 2u12.
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sheu light on this question, thiough inteiaction with two aiticles
wiitten by piominent auvocates of Insiuei Novements. Fiist, I
will engage with }. Buuley Wooubeiiys Contextualization
Among Nuslims: Reusing Common Pillais,
SSS
which }ohn Tiavis
has uesciibeu as a lanumaik papei that pusheu oui thinking
aheau in this aiea.
SS6
Seconu, I will consiuei Bonouiing uou-
uiven Iuentity anu Community,
SS7
in which Rebecca Lewis eluci-
uates the position of Insiuei Novements with iespect to Chiis-
tian ecclesiology.

13.3.1 Reusing Common Pillars
The Common Pillais auvocateu foi ieuse in Wooubeiiys aiti-
cle aie the five pillais of Islam: the sboboJo;
SS8
solot; zokot;
SS9

sowm;
S6u
anu the bojj. Wooubeiiy aigues that Islam ueiiveu each
of these pillais fiom eailiei }ewish anu Chiistian tiauitions.
Theie weie, of couise, alteiations of meaning as woius anu
piactices moveu fiom }ewish anu Chiistian systems of thought to
a Nuslim one; but, as will be seen, the systems weie similai
enough that the coie meanings iemaineu.
S61
Consiueiing each
pillai in tuin, Wooubeiiy uiaws paiallels with, iespectively: the

SSS
}. Buuley Wooubeiiy, Contextualization Among Nuslims: Reusing Common
Pillais, in Tbe WorJ Amonq 0s: Contextuolizinq Tbeoloqy for Hission ToJoy (eu.
Bean S. uillilanu; Ballas: Woiu Publishing, 1989). This aiticle was latei ie-
piinteu in the lnternotionol }ournol of Irontier Hissions, anu it is the page num-
beis fiom this seconu piinting that I shall cite hencefoith.
SS6
}ohn anu Anna Tiavis, Appiopiiate Appioaches in Nuslim Contexts, in Ap-
propriote Cbristionity (eu. Chailes B. Kiaft; Pasauena, Calif.: William Caiey Li-
biaiy, 2uuS), S98.
SS7
Rebecca Lewis, Insiuei Novements: Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Com-
munity, l}IH 26 (2uu9): 16-19.
SS8
Confession of faith: I testify that theie is no uou but Allah, anu Nuhammau
is the Apostle of Allah.
SS9
Almsgiving.
S6u
The Ramauhan fast.
S61
}. Buuley Wooubeiiy, Contextualization Among Nuslims: Reusing Common
Pillais, l}IH 1S (1996): 174.
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sbemo;
S62
Chiistian piayei;
S6S
Chiistian giving;
S64
Chiistian
fasting;
S6S
anu 0lu Testament }ewish pilgiimages.
S66
uiven these
similaiities, Wooubeiiy concluues that the five pillais of Islam
can be auapteu to beai the weight of new allegiances to uou in
Chiist in the Nuslim woilu.
S67

Wooubeiiys piovocative conclusion has been hotly contesteu
by subsequent missiologists. Waiien Chastain, foi example, ie-
sponueu with 1S ieasons foi iejecting piaying the Nuslim
piayei salat.
S68
}onathan Culvei, by contiast, welcomeu Woou-
beiiys seminal aiticle, anu stiove to complement Woou-
beiiys insights.
S69

Rathei than enteiing heie into what has become a pio-
tiacteu anu incieasingly entiencheu uebate, the ieseaich unuei-
taken in this uisseitation makes it possible to appioach the topic
fiom a fiesh peispective. Let us giant, foi sake of aigument, that
Wooubeiiy is coiiect: with appiopiiate iefinements, Islamic
foims can inueeu be biought into haimony with faith in }esus.
The question that now aiises is: aie Wooubeiiys iefashioneu
foims still authentically Islamic.
Consiuei, foi instance, Wooubeiiys suggesteu alteiations foi
the Nuslim solot. Functionally, Wooubeiiy obseives that |tjhe
concept of acquiiing meiit thiough piayei is stiong in Islamic
thought both in the Tiauitions anu in contempoiaiy piac-
tice.
S7u
By contiast, in the Bible, |sjalvation is not seen as a ie-
sult of meiit (Tit S:S); theiefoie, Piotestants woulu want to

S62
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 174-17S.
S6S
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 17S-179.
S64
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 179-18u.
S6S
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 18u-181.
S66
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 181-182.
S67
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 171.
S68
Waiien C. Chastain, Shoulu Chiistians Piay the Nuslim Salat., l}IH 12
(199S): 161-164.
S69
}onathan Culvei, The Ishmael Piomise anu Contextualization Among Nus-
lims, l}IH 17 (2uuu): 61.
S7u
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 177.
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eliminate this function of piayei.
S71
Thematically, Wooubeiiy
juuges that Chiistian piayei can incluue most of Nuslim piayei
except the emphasis on Nuhammau anu, foi Piotestants, piayei
foi the ueau.
S72
Finally, Wooubeiiy gives a case stuuy of Nus-
lim conveit couples |whoj uevelopeu a piayei iitual which fol-
lows the Nuslim pattein but expiesses theii new allegiance to
uou thiough }esus.
S7S
This involveu auu|ingj in the name of
my Loiu anu Savioi }esus Chiist befoie the tiauitional exclama-
tion uou is gieatei (Allobu okbor), anu substituting Bible pas-
sages, anu the phiase All piaise to }esus Chiist, foi ceitain
Quianic texts.
S74

Nissiologists who cite Wooubeiiys aiticle as confiimation of
the viability of combining faith in }esus with genuine membei-
ship of the Islamic ieligious community seem not to have giap-
pleu with the uifficulty that the iefashioneu solot Wooubeiiy
pioposes woulu be uenounceu as heietical by mainstieam Islam.
Fiom the Nuslim peispective outlineu in section two of this uis-
seitation, Wooubeiiys alteiations aie not meiely inciuental to
the solot, but, in seveial ways, challenge its veiy essence.
Fiist, to ueny the salvific efficacy of solot, anu the piophetic
supiemacy of Nuhammau, is to ieject founuational tenets of Is-
lamic oithouoxy. Seconu, to incoipoiate the lituigical elements
Wooubeiiy uesciibes in his case stuuy is to affiim beliefs which
Wooubeiiy himself aumits, elsewheie in the aiticle, aie iiiecon-
cilable with Islamic theology: Nuslim piayei cannot incluue
quite as much of Chiistian piayei because of the iefeiences to
uou as Fathei, }esus as Loiu, the Tiinity, anu the ciucifixion of
Chiist.
S7S
Thiiu, the uiiection of piayei unueimines any possi-
bility of haimonising faith in }esus with peifoimance of a iecog-
nisably Islamic foim of solot. As uiscusseu in the pievious sec-

S71
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 177.
S72
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 178.
S7S
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 18S.
S74
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 18S.
S7S
Wooubeiiy, Reusing Common Pillais, 178.
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tion of this uisseitation, in Islam, the qiblo functions both nega-
tively anu positively. Negatively, piaying towaiu Necca ex-
piessly uistinguishes the Nuslim community fiom the people of
the book. In an Islamic context, theiefoie, it woulu be inappio-
piiate foi a followei of }esus to face Necca in piayei. Yet posi-
tively, this Neccan oiientation is itself essential to Islamic solot,
foi it is by means of this holy uiiection that Nuslim woishippeis
attempt to make a spiiitual connection to heaven. Piayei to-
waius Necca, then, is incumbent upon all Nuslims.
Nuslim followeis of }esus aie thus caught in a uilemma.
S76

To peifoim solot towaiu Necca woulu be publicly to ienounce
theii iuentity among the people of the book; yet to piay in any
othei uiiection woulu be, quite liteially, to iepent oveitly of theii
Islamic ieligious iuentity. The uilemma is inescapable. Even if
some of the uifficulties coulu be oveicome by uiscieetly piaying
Chiistianiseu woius of a ieviseu solot lituigy, a manifest choice
of qiblo iemains an unavoiuable pait of the iitual.

13.3.2 Honoring Cod-Civen Identity and Community
Rebecca Lewis, who stiongly enuoises Wooubeiiys conclu-
sions,
S77
is conceineu to honoui the socio-political-ieligious
iuentity of believeis in }esus.
S78
Citing Acts 17:26, Lewis aigues:
|wjhen we encouiage believeis to iemain in theii families anu
netwoiks, anu to ietain theii biith iuentities, we honoi these
uou-given ielationships.
S79
Lewis contiasts plontinq a

S76
I use heie Tiavis teiminology foi inuiviuual CS believeis.
S77
Wiiting in Bick Bioguen, Insiue 0ut: Piobing Piesuppositions among In-
siuei Novements, l}IH 27 (2u1u): S8, Rebecca Lewis comments: Buuley
Wooubeiiys aiticle on Reusing Common Pillais of Islam explains that Noham-
meu himself got his iecommenuations fiom eaily Chiistian souices, so we uo
not neeu to be afiaiu if believeis continue to fast, give alms, abstain fiom alco-
hol, anu piay five times a uay, etc., while uepenuing solely on Chiist foi theii
salvation.
S78
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 17.
S79
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 17.
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chuich,
S8u
wheie |ijnuiviuual believeis, often stiangeis to one
anothei, aie gatheieu togethei into new fellowship gioups,
S81

with implontinq a chuich in a pre-existinq community. No
longei uoes a new gioup tiy to become like a family; insteau, the
uou-given family oi social gioup becomes the chuich. The stiong
ielational bonus alieauy exist; what is new is theii commitment
to }esus Chiist.
S82

Lewis, keenly awaie that |ijn many countiies touay, it is al-
most impossible foi a new followei of Chiist to iemain in vital
ielationship with theii community without olso ietaining theii
socio-ieligious iuentity,
S8S
auvocates that believeis |livej unuei
the Loiuship of }esus Chiist anu the authoiity of the Bible, but
retoin tbeir socio-reliqious iJentity.
S84
This is a uistinct ele-
ment of any insiuei movement,
S8S
foi which Lewis finus justi-
fication by uistinguishing spirituol iJentity in the Kinguom of
uou, enteieu thiough faith in the Loiu }esus Chiist alone, fiom
socio-reliqious iJentities, an example of which woulu be Chiis-
tianity, which, foi Lewis, is a socio-ieligious system encompass-
ing much moie than simply faith in Chiist |namelyj vaiious cul-
tuial tiauitions, ieligious foims, anu ethnic oi political associa-

S8u
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 17 (emphasis oiigi-
nal).
S81
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 17.
S82
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 17 (emphasis oiigi-
nal).
S8S
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 17 (emphasis oiigi-
nal).
S84
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 17 (emphasis oiigi-
nal).
S8S
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 16, who consiueis
the othei uistinct element to be that |tjhe gospel takes ioot within pre-
existinq communities oi social netwoiks, which become the main expiession of
chuich in that context. Believeis aie not gatheieu fiom uiveise social net-
woiks to cieate a chuich. New paiallel social stiuctuies aie not inventeu oi
intiouuceu (emphasis oiiginal).
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tions.
S86
Lewis uiagiammatic iepiesentation of this is iepio-
uuceu below.

Figuie 2. Kinguom Ciicles.
S87

Lewis Kinguom Ciicles uistinguish seveial uiffeient gioups
of people. Nany who belong to Chiistianity, uefineu socio-
ieligiously, aie still outsiue the Kinguom of uou (u). Thiough
faith in Chiist, howevei, these people may entei uous Kinguom
uiiectly, without changing theii socio-ieligious iuentity (F). In
the same way, a socio-ieligious Non-Chiistian may also,
thiough faith in Chiist, entei uous Kinguom uiiectly, without
neeuing to leave theii socio-ieligious milieu (I). They shoulu not
fiist auopt Chiistian cultuie (B); inueeu, Lewis counsels mis-
sionaiies: |ijf well-meaning Chiistians tell seekeis that they

S86
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 18 (emphasis oiigi-
nal).
S87
Repiouuceu fiom Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 18.

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must come to uou not just thiough Chiist but also thiough Chiis-
tianity, help the Chiistians unueistanu this iequiiement is not in
line with the tiuth of the uospel.
S88

Lewis aiticle is susceptible to ciitique along analogous
lines to oui iesponse to Wooubeiiy. Let us assume, once again,
foi sake of aigument, that implanteu chuiches may inueeu be
ieconcileu with a genuine communal expiession of Nuslim
faith.
S89
Now, we ask: given the ecclesiological ievisions that will
be neeueu to achieve this ieconciliation, is the iesultant foimula-
tion still consistent with the Bible. In light of the Chiistian view
of ekklsio uesciibeu in this uisseitation, the answei to this ques-
tion must be: ueciueuly not.
Lewis is coiiect to obseive that inuiviuual believeis,
thiough faith alone, ieceive a new spiiitual iuentity in ielation
to uou. She is mistaken, howevei, to oveilook the new ielation-
ships with othei believeis that this spiiitual iuentity also en-
tails. As outlineu above in section one, being in Chiist is fun-
uamental to biblical ecclesiology. In him, iestoieu veitical anu
hoiizontal ielationships insepaiably coheie, anu it is foi this iea-
son that the Bible poitiays Chiistian congiegations as not meiely
aggiegations of inuiviuuals, but as shaiing a genuine coipoiate
iuentity. Lewis, howevei, influenceu peihaps by an unuuly inui-
viuualistic peispective, sees chuich planting only as the estab-
lishment of aggiegate chuiches; explains the success oi othei-

S88
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 19. Lewis iefeiences
Biblical texts fiom Acts, 1 Coiinthians, ualatians, Ephesians anu Colossians in
suppoit of this asseition. Cf. Rebecca Lewis, The Integiity of the uospel anu
Insiuei Novements, l}IH 27 (2u1u), 47: if we uemanu that all believeis auopt
oui own ieligious tiauitions anu iuentity, then we aie actually unueimining the
integiity of the gospel. We aie subtly communicating that }esus Chiist cannot
save people anu gathei them into Bis kinguom without using othei ieligious
tiauitions anu institutions of gouly men who have gone befoie. We aie saying
that the gospel alone is not poweiful enough to save to the utteimost.
S89
The analysis conuucteu in chaptei two of this uisseitation inuicates that
such implanteu chuiches will neeu to be haimoniseu with both the meeting-
house anu temple mosque paiauigms.
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wise of such piojects in puiely natuialistic, cultuial teims;
S9u
anu
thus, foi piagmatic ieasons, auvances family bonus as an equally
valiu alteinative basis foi chuich membeiship. Lewis analysis of
both the pioblem anu the solution thus uiscloses unueilying ec-
clesiological assumptions which contiauict the biblical teaching
that membeiship of Chiists ekklsio has a supeinatuial oiigin:
incoipoiation in Chiist. To insteau ioot congiegational iela-
tionality in some cultuial factoi, whethei it be inuiviuualistic
self-selection, oi collectivistic familial ties, is to ielegate the
chuich to a sub-Chiistian institution: foi uo not even pagans
uo that.
S91

Lewis inattention to the inteiconnections between ecclesiol-
ogy anu Chiistology comes into shaip ielief when hei uesciiption
of chuich implanting is measuieu against New Testament ec-
clesial imageiy. Consiuei, foi example, the two metaphois uis-
cusseu in section one. Fiist, the bouy of Chiist metaphoi is
employeu biblically to emphasise the chuichs Jiverse unity at
both local anu univeisal levels. Foi piagmatic ieasons, howevei,
Lewis scheme minimises uiveisity at the local level,
S92
anu en-
tiiely lacks any conception of unity at the univeisal level. Sec-

S9u
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 17, wiites: Chuich
planteis tiy to help these inuiviuual believeis become like a family oi a commu-
nity. This pattein of aggiegate chuich planting can woik in inuiviuualistic
Westein societies. Bowevei, in societies with tightly-knit communities, the
community is unueimineu when believeis aie taken out of theii families into
new authoiity stiuctuies.
S91
Cf. Natthew S:47. Consiuei also }ohn 1S:SS; it woulu be ieuuctionistic to
uismiss this uistinctive love as meie Chiistian cultuie.
S92
Lewis appioach heie seems to be an extension of the Bomogeneous 0nit
Piinciple championeu by the Chuich uiowth Novement. See, e.g. Bonalu A.
Ncuavian, 0nJerstonJinq Cburcb 6rowtb (iev. anu eu. Su eu.; uianu Rapius:
Eeiumans, 199u), 16S: People like to become Chiistians without ciossing ia-
cial, linguistic, oi class baiiieis. Kevin Biggins, Insiue What. Chuich, Cultuie,
Religion anu Insiuei Novements in Biblical Peispective, SIH S (2uu9): 7S, ob-
seives that Insiuei movements combine the insights of people movement oi
mass movement thinking conceining the chuich with the point of view often
iefeiieu to as CS.
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onu, the New Testament uevelops the temple of uou metaphoi
so as to highlight the chuichs boly unity, which uemanus that, at
both local anu univeisal levels, the chuich guaius itself against
both fiagmentation anu auulteiation. Lewis Kinguom Ciicles
uiagiam, howevei, appaiently uisiegaius both of these impeia-
tives. 0n the one hanu, with no iecognition of the univeisal
chuich, common paiticipation in the Kinguom of uou is not
ueemeu in itself to be a sufficient basis foi coipoiate iuentity:
S9S

believeis aie expecteu to fellowship only within non-
oveilapping, cultuially homogenous gioups. 0n the othei hanu,
since chuich implanting uepenus upon each gioup pieseiving
its paiticulai socio-ieligious basis, it is haiu to see how the be-
lieveis in these congiegations, still less the congiegations them-
selves, can be meaningfully uistinguisheu fiom the unbelieving
society aiounu them.
S94

Lewis mouel seems fai iemoveu fiom the New Testament
poitiayal of the fiist centuiy chuiches, which intentionally uis-
tinguisheu themselves fiom othei assemblies in the suiiounuing
socio-ieligious milieu, both ieligious anu political. As alieauy
noteu, theii pointeu choice of the woiu ekklsio iathei than the
woiu sunoqq to label theii congiegations uiffeientiateu them
fiom the }ews, anu theii iuentity as those gatheieu in uou the
Fathei anu in the Loiu }esus Chiist showeu that uistinctive
theological anu Chiistological affiimations weie intiinsic to theii

S9S
Contro the moie biblically uefensible ielationship of the Kinguom to the
chuich auvanceu by ueoige Eluon Lauu, }esus onJ tbe KinqJom: Tbe Fscbotoloqy
of Biblicol Reolism (Lonuon: SPCK, 1966), 27S, who consiueis the two to be in-
sepaiable but not iuentifieu: The Kinguom cieates the chuich, woiks
thiough the chuich, anu is pioclaimeu in the woilu by the chuich. Theie can be
no Kinguom without a chuich those who have acknowleugeu uous iule anu
theie anu be no chuich without uous kinguom; but they iemain two uistin-
guishable concepts: the iule of uou anu the fellowship of men.
S94
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 19, suggests that in
these gioups, the believeis will be uistinguishable fiom the unbelieveis by theii
spontaneous piaise anu infectious joy. The uistinctive saciaments of Bap-
tism anu the Loius Suppei aie conspicuous by theii absence.
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self-unueistanuing. To minimise these claims, as woulu be nec-
essaiy if an implanteu chuich weie to take ioot anu within an
oithouox Islamic context,
S9S
woulu thus ieuefine the natuie of
that chuich so funuamentally as to ienuei it no longei Chiis-
tian.
S96

In sum, Lewis is iight to seek to honoui uou-given iuentity
anu community. Iionically, though, an inauequate iecognition
of the coipoiate implications of faith-union means that hei pio-
posal seiiously backfiies, anu actually Jishonouis the piimaiy
uou-given iuentity anu community of eveiy believei in Chiist.
Bei aiticle, then, uoes not iesolve the uichotomy facing Chiist-
centeieu Communities of Nessianic Nuslims;
S97
iathei, it
seives only to unueiline the iauical theological gulf which sepa-
iates chuiches founueu on Biblical faith fiom communities baseu
on Islamic oithouoxy: a gulf which cannot be biiugeu. Foi a Nus-
lim simultaneously to |livej unuei the Loiuship of }esus Chiist
anu the authoiity of the Bible, but retoin tbeir socio-reliqious
iJentity,
S98
as Lewis pioposes, is a chimeia.
13.4Summary
0n the basis of the emic analyses conuucteu eailiei in this uissei-
tation, we have been able to offei symmetiical ciitiques of two
significant aiticles useu to piomote Insiuei Novements. In ie-

S9S
Ray Poitei offeis the following o fortiori aigument: if oithouox Islam abomi-
nates the Ahmauiyya sect as heietical foi accepting the piophet Ahmau, how
much moie unacceptable, fiom an Islamic peispective, must be a community
that pioclaims }esus Chiist as Loiu (peisonal communication, 2S Apiil 2u12).
S96
Cf. Boug Coleman, A Tbeoloqicol Anolysis of tbe lnsiJer Hovement PoroJiqm
from Iour Perspectives: Tbeoloqy of Reliqions, Revelotion, Soterioloqy onJ Fccle-
sioloqy (Pasauena, Calif.: WCI0 Piess, 2u11), Kinule e-book, loc. SuS-Su4, who
consiueis Rebecca Lewis uefinition anu uistinctives of Insiuei Novements
to be pioblematic in light of the claiity necessitateu by biblical teaching on
chuich membeiship, chuich uiscipline, anu the oiuinances. Note that Boug
Coleman is a pseuuonym.
S97
I am heie using Tiavis coipoiate teiminology foi CS believeis.
S98
Lewis, Bonoiing uou-uiven Iuentity anu Community, 17 (emphasis oiigi-
nal).
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sponse to Wooubeiiys claim that Nuslim woiship foims may
legitimately be haimoniseu with faith in Chiist, we have shown
that, even if this weie possible, when consiueieu fiom a Nuslim
peispective, the alteiations Wooubeiiy iequiies aie so iauical as
to ienuei the iesultant foims no longei authentically Islamic.
Similaily, in iesponse to Lewis pioposal that chuiches be im-
planteu within Islamic ieligious communities, we have seen that
the iesultant chuich, even if genuinely Islamic, must piesup-
pose an ecclesiology so fai iemoveu fiom the biblical peispective
as to be no longei iecognisably Chiistian. At the inuiviuual anu
the coipoiate levels, then, Wooubeiiy anu Lewis have, iespec-
tively, faileu to offei mouels which can upholu the uual iuentities
envisageu in Tiavis CS position: Nuslim followeis of }esus,
who belong to Chiist-centeieu Communities of Nessianic Nus-
lims.
S99

The symmetiy of the above ciitiques inuicates that the uefi-
ciencies in both aiticles stem fiom a ueepei common unueilying
fallacy. Ciucial to the methouology of both Wooubeiiy anu Lewis
is an atomistic tieatment of Islam anu Chiistianity. To assume,
howevei, that paiticulai elements of a ieligion, such as the Nus-
lim solot, oi Chiistian ecclesial ielationships, may be inuepenu-
ently abstiacteu fiom the ieligion anu ieinteipieteu, iuns con-
tiaiy to the systemic natuie of ieligions in geneial,
6uu
anu, as this
uisseitation has illustiateu, the cohesiveness of biblical Chiisti-
anity anu oithouox Sunni Islam in paiticulai. As Benuiik Kiae-
mei famously obseiveu at the thiiu Woilu Nissionaiy Confei-
ence at Tambaiam in 19S8:


S99
Tiavis, The C1 to C6 Spectium, 4u8.
6uu
Foi a caiefully nuanceu biblical Chiistian appiaisal of othei ieligions, see
Baniel Stiange, Peiilous Exchange, Piecious uoou News: A Refoimeu Subvei-
sive Fulfilment Inteipietation of 0thei Religions, in 0nly 0ne Woy? Tbree
Cbristion Responses on tbe 0niqueness of Cbrist in o Reliqiously Plurol WorlJ (eu.
uavin BCosta; Lonuon: SCN Piess, 2u11).
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eveiy ieligion is an inuivisible, anu not to be uiviueu, unity of exis-
tential appiehension. It is not a seiies of tenets, uogmas, piesciip-
tions, institutions, piactices, that can be taken one by one as inue-
penuent items of ieligious life, conception oi oiganization, anu that
can aibitiaiily be compaieu with, anu somehow ielateu to, anu
giafteu upon, the similai item of anothei ieligion.
Eveiy ieligion is a living inuivisible unity. Eveiy pait of it a uogma,
a iite, a myth, an institution, a cult is so vitally ielateu to the whole
that it can nevei be unueistoou in its ieal function, significance anu
tenuency, as these occui in the ieality of life, without keeping con-
stantly in minu the vast anu living unity of existential appiehension
in which this pait moves anu has its being.
6u1


Appaiently, Kiaemeis waining went unheeueu by Wooubeiiy
anu Lewis: theii enthusiasm foi ieusing common pillais ie-
veals little awaieness of how these pillais aie oiganically con-
necteu to the ieligion as a whole.
6u2
In view of the piominence of
Wooubeiiy anu Lewis in contempoiaiy missiological uiscussion,
a fuithei ieseaich pioject investigating how many othei missi-
ologists shaie theii eiioneous piesupposition may piove highly
illuminating. Coulu it be that the entiie Insiuei Novement
paiauigm is pieuicateu upon a theology of ieligions which is, at
this funuamental point, misconceiveu.
6uS


6u1
Benuiik Kiaemei, Tbe Cbristion Hessoqe in o Non-Cbristion WorlJ (Lonuon:
Baipei & Biotheis, 19S8), 1SS.
6u2
Cf. Paul u. Biebeit, Ciitical Contextualization, Hissioloqy 12 (1984): 294-
29S, who, builuing on Polanyis obseivation that the ielationship between
foim anu meaning lies along a spectium, wains missionaiies against incau-
tiously assuming any paiticulai ieligious foim to be infinitely malleable: sym-
bols, whethei woius, objects oi behavioial piactices, opeiate in histoiical anu
cultuial settings. 0nce foims have been given meanings, the ielationship be-
tween them is no longei aibitiaiy. Attempts to ieuefine foims must always
take into account the histoiy anu contempoiaiy usage of those foims.
6uS
Boug Coleman has iecently begun to open up this uiscussion. In A Tbeoloqi-
col Anolysis of tbe lnsiJer Hovement PoroJiqm, Kinule e-book, loc. 262-26S, 664-
66S, Coleman obseives that Kevin Biggins is the only majoi INP |Insiuei
Novement Paiauigmj pioponent to specifically auuiess the issue of the INP
anu theology of ieligions, anu goes on to aigue that Biggins appioach iests on
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14 Final Conclusion
Phil Paishalls claim has been vinuicateu: an emic analysis has
confiimeu that the mosque is inueeu piegnant with Islamic the-
ology.
6u4
Paishall was also iight to iuentify CS ministiies as
syncietistic,
6uS
foi the mosques spiiitual anu sociological uimen-
sions cannot be uecoupleu: any legitimate claims to sociological
continuity with the mosque community inevitably also enuoise
the Islamic theological commitments upon which that commu-
nity is founueu, anu to which it in tuin gives expiession. 0n
compaiison with a Chiistian view of ekklsio, these Islamic be-
liefs have been founu piofounuly antagonistic towaius, anu
theiefoie incompatible with, faith in the }esus of the Bible.
The concepts of Nuslim followeis of }esus in communities of
Nessianic Nuslims, wiuely accepteu by pioponents of Insiuei
Novements, aie theologically incoheient. 0ne may be a Nuslim,
anu, within Nuhammaus woiluwiue ummob, seek salvation
thiough solot towaiu the eaithly Necca; oi, one may be a fol-
lowei of }esus, anu within his holy ekklsio seek the heavenly }e-
iusalem, to which, thiough faith in Chiist, tiue believeis have
alieauy spiiitually come. 0ne may not, howevei, be both.
Foi too long, Insiuei Novements have waveieu between two
uiffeient opinions, but ultimately, a choice is inescapable. Will
we bow the knee to Allah anu kiss the kobobs black stone,
staineu black by the sins of the woilu.
6u6
0i, will we bow to the

the shaky founuations of speculative exegesis, an oveily positive view of ielig-
ions, anu a misplacement of non-Chiistian ieligions within the kinguom of uou.
Coleman uoes not, howevei, give specific attention to whethei oi not those
whom he iuentifies as INP pioponents iecognise the oiganic natuie of ielig-
ions.
6u4
Phil Paishall, Bangei! New Biiections in Contextualization, FH S4
(1998): 4u9.
6uS
Paishall, Bangei!, 4uS.
6u6
A iecent uisplay at the Biitish Nuseum obseiveu of the Black Stone that
|ajccoiuing to some Nuslim tiauitions it hau come fiom Paiauise whitei than
milk, but the sins of the uescenuants of Auam tuineu it black (noteu on a pei-
sonal visit to the Bajj: }ouiney to the Beait of Islam, Biitish Nuseum exhibi-
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L0RB anu kiss the Son, the living stone, who conqueieu sin anu
ueath, now ieigns fiom heaven, anu calls sinneis by giace into
his holy chuich.
Suiely theii iock is not as oui iock. Let us choose this uay
whom we will seive.

tion, 22 Naich 2u12). Sheikh Bi. Nohameu Elshaikawy notes that pilgiims
stiive to kiss this stone (peisonal communication, 1S Naich 2u12). Sunon At-
Tormozi, boJitb 968 anu Sobib lbn Kbozimo 422S, boJitb 27SS, may explain
why: Regaiuing the Black Stone, the Nessengei says: By Allah, Allah will biing
it foith on the Bay of Resuiiection, anu it will have two eyes with which it will
see anu a tongue with which it will speak, anu it will testify in favoui of those
who toucheu it sinceiely. As citeu in Nohammeu B. Al Nojan, Tbe Eonoroble
Kobob: Arcbitecture onJ Kiswob (Nakkah: Al-Kawn Centei, 2u1u), 29.
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416
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pioach. StuJio lslomico 1u (19S9): S-22.
vlach, Nichael }. Eos tbe Cburcb ReploceJ lsroel? A Tbeoloqicol
Fvoluotion. Nashville: B&B, 2u1u.
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Wallace, Baniel B. 6reek 6rommor BeyonJ tbe Bosics: An Fxeqeti-
col Syntox of tbe New Testoment witb Scripture, Subject,
onJ 6reek WorJ lnJexes. uianu Rapius: Zonueivan, 1996.
Watt, William Nontgomeiy. HubommoJ ot HeJino. 0xfoiu: Clai-
enuon Piess, 19S6.
Witheiington, Ben III. Tbe Acts of tbe Apostles: A Socio-Rbetoricol
Commentory. uianu Rapius: Eeiumans, 1998.
Wooubeiiy, }. Buuley. Contextualization Among Nuslims: Reus-
ing Common Pillais. Pages 282-S12 in Tbe WorJ Amonq
0s: Contextuolizinq Tbeoloqy for Hission ToJoy. Euiteu by
Bean S. uillilanu. Ballas: Woiu Publishing, 1989.
Wooubeiiy, }. Buuley. Contextualization Among Nuslims: Reus-
ing Common Pillais. lnternotionol }ournol of Irontier
Hissions 1S (1996):171-186.
Yusuf, Abuui-Rahman, Ibn. Nasjiu oi Nusalla. No pages. Citeu
1 Naich 2u12. 0nline: www.cential-
mosque.comfiqhmmussalla1.htm.
Zaki, Yaqub. Allah anu Eteinity: Nosques, Nauiasas anu
Tombs. Pages 1S-47 in Arcbitecture of tbe lslomic WorlJ:
lts Eistory onJ Sociol Heoninq. Euiteu by ueoige Nichell.
Repi., Lonuon: Thames & Buuson, 2uu6.



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4Su
THE SUNC AT THE SEA: A HEBREW TESTAMENT PER-
SPECTIVE UN UTHER RELICIUNS

By Soloom Cornicbe

At the Naich 16
th
, 2u12 Evangelical Nissions Society meeting, a
papei was piesenteu by Naik Bailan wheie he appiovingly
quoteu anothei scholai who stateu, Abiaham iemaineu within
the Canaanite ieligious system.
1
Fuithei pioof foi this state-
ment came by suggesting that the patiiaichs woishippeu at oi
neai tiauitional Canaanite shiines.
2
These quotes weie a pait of
Bailans stateu objective to offei fiesh peispective fiom the an-
gle of an 0lu Testament theology of ieligions, so as to uiscovei
theological founuations that might suppoit insiuei movements
among least-ieacheu peoples.
In a woiu, Bailans papei woulu leau one to believe that he
has auopteu a view of ieligions that sees them as iathei haim-
less. Bailan is not alone in this view, as it has been wiuely
auopteu by pluialists, inclusivists anu pioponents of the Insiuei
Novement. A common theme thiough these wiitings is appeals
to the likes of Abiaham, Nelchiziueck, }ethio, Rahab, anu Naaman
as champions of the view that the 0lu Testament infeis that
theie aie some constiuctive things that Isiael coulu appiopiiate
oi leain fiom these ieligions.
S


1
Naik Bailan, 0lu Testament Founuations foi Insiuei Novements, piesenteu
to the Evangelical Nissions Society at Biola 0niveisity, Naich 16, 2u12, p. 6.
Beie he is citing Caiioll Stuhlmuelleis Tbe Biblicol IounJotions for Hission, p.
18.
2
Ibiu, p. S. Foi anothei view on Abiaham anu his ielationship to Canaanite
ieligion see "The Call of Abiaham: Beginning of a pilgiim movement (pait I) in
the St Ironcis Hoqozine 7:S (Bec 2u11), pp. 1-28 by this authoi. Theie it is as-
seiteu that builuing altais to Yahweh in pioximity to Canaanite altais consti-
tuteu a ueclaiation of wai on them.
S
Bailan, Ibiu, p. 1.
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In this papei I woulu like to challenge Bailans position by
using The Song at the Sea fiom Exouus 1S as an example. This
song which has been calleu the eailiest victoiy psalm will be
shown to be a commentaiy on the uniqueness of YBWB, an in-
uepth poitiayal of othei ieligionsboth Egyptian anu Canaanite-
--anu a souice of iuentity foimation of the newly libeiateu chil-
uien of Isiael.
As much as the woiu polemic has gone out of vogue, it will
be the finuing of this papei that the fiist 1S chapteis of Exouus
constitute an extenueu polemic against Egyptian ieligion, anu
this seives as a mouel foi a Biblical view of othei ieligions.

Polemical Tbeology
The Egyptologist anu Bible scholai, }ohn Cuiiiu, in his commen-
taiy on uenesis helps us to unueistanu that, just because a Neai-
Eastein thought foim has been useu by a Biblical wiitei, he has
not necessaiily espouseu the philosophies behinu it. Au con-
tiaiie, says Cuiiiu. The wiiteis hau quite anothei agenua, anu
he calls this polemical theology. This is uone, he suggests by
the act of the biblical authoi in using thought-foims anu stoiies
common in ancient Neai-Eastein cultuie anu filling them with
iauically new meaning.
4
Examples that Cuiiiu shows fiom the
Biblical wiiteis incluue the cieation account, the iou anu snake
inciuent in Exouus, as well as the haiuening of Phaiaohs heait,
the phiase thus says YBWB anu the stiong aim.
S
Each of
these is useu to uemonstiate, as Cuiiiu ielates, the essential uis-
tinctions between 0lu Testament teachings anu those of the an-
cient Neai East. Although we coulu multiply examples of othei
polemics such the cieation stoiy against Naiuuk of Bablylon, the
stoiy of Bagon in I Samuel anu the confiontation of Elijah anu the

4
}ohn B. Cuiiiu. 6enesis 1:1-2S:18. (Bailington: Evangelical Piess, 2uuS), p. 4S
S
The wiitei is awaie that the King of Egypt is moie piecise uesciiption than is
the woiu Phaiaoh but this papei will use the two inteichangeably.
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Baal piophets, this papei will only examine those founu in Exo-
uus.
6

Examples from Exodus
}ames Boffmeiei, anothei Egyptologist, caiefully examineu many
of the Biblical texts in Exouus anu maue the cogent obseivation
that the wiitei hau maue extensive use of Bebiew ueiivations
oi counteipaits to Egyptian expiessions that symbolizeu Egyp-
tian ioyal powei foi polemical use. What bettei way he asks,
was theie to uesciibe uous victoiy ovei Phaiaoh.
7
These
statements seive to illuminate the ueclaiation of YBWB to show
his absolute anu unique soveieignty when he tolu Noses in Exo-
uus 12:12:

Foi I will pass thioughout the lanu of Egypt uuiing this night, anu I
will slay eveiy fiistboin thioughout the lanu of Egyptfiom man to
beast; anu upon all of the "gous" of Egypt I will |continually, fie-
quently, ie-continue toj execute juugments. I am the L0RB |Ex.
12:12j
8


This was not just a ueclaiation of biavauo. It happeneu, foi we
ieau ietiospectively in Numbeis SS: S-4 that:

The Isiaelites set out fiom Rameses on the fifteenth uay of the fiist
month, the uay aftei the Passovei. They maicheu out boluly in full
view of all the Egyptians, who weie buiying all theii fiistboin,

6
See Biuce K. Waltke anu Chailes Yu. An 0lJ Testoment Tbeoloqy: An Fxeqeti-
col, Cononicol, onJ Tbemotic Approocb. (uianu Rapius, NI : Zonueivan, 2uu7), S.
177, S74, S46, 69S, 746
7
}ames K. Boffmeiei, "The Aim of uou veisus the Aim of Phaiaoh in the Exouus
Naiiatives," Biblico 67 (1986), p.S87.
8
Robeit K. Kilpatiick, Against the gous of Egypt: An examination of the naiia-
tive of the ten plagues in the light of Exouus 12:12 (PhB: Biscs. Niu-Ameiica
Baptist Theological Seminaiy, 199S). See his pp.67-71 foi his uefense of the
veib having a fiequentive oi continuative foice. Inteiestingly Teience Fietheim
obseives that in the plague naiiatives the woiu "all," (Beb kl) is peivasive anu
is useu ovei fifty times in his The plagues as ecological signs of histoiical uisas-
tei, }ournol of Biblicol literoture, 11u no S (Fall 1991), p. S86.
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whom the L0RB hau stiuck uown among them; foi the L0RB hau
biought juugments upon theii gous.

It was this veiy juugment that hau causeu the feai of YBWB to
ieach to the suiiounuing nations, anu which we will obseive in
the lattei pait of Exouus 1S. It was Rahab heiself who ueclaieu:

"I know that the L0RB has given this lanu to you anu that a gieat
feai of you has fallen on us, so that all who live in this countiy aie
melting in feai because of you.

We have heaiu how the L0RB uiieu
up the watei of the Reu Sea

foi you when you came out of Egypt, anu
what you uiu to Sihon anu 0g, the two kings of the Amoiites east of
the }oiuan, whom you completely uestioyeu.

When we heaiu of it,
oui heaits melteu anu eveiyone's couiage faileu because of you, foi
the L0RB youi uou is uou in heaven above anu on the eaith below.
(}os 2:8-11)

Each of the above veises highlights the L0RB oi YBWB as
supieme. Foui examples fiom the eaily chapteis of Exouus will
highlight this ueclaiation.
9


a.Thussays
In Exouus S:1 Noses, as Yahwehs authoiizeu spokesman, says to
the King of Egypt, Thus says the L0RB, the uou of Isiael... As
innocuous as it might sounu to mouein eais, this was an invita-
tion to a contest of soveieignty by Noses speaking foi Yahweh.
The Egyptians weie well familiai with similai woius fiom the
Book of tbe BeoJ wheie Atum, the fathei of the gous, fiequently
saiu, Thus says Atum The Phaiaoh, who was saiu to be the
"Son of Atum" anu his incaination on eaith, knew exactly what
Noses was saying.
1u

Bis iesponse in v. 2 is pieuictable. "Who is the L0RB, that I
shoulu obey him anu let Isiael go. I uo not know the L0RB anu I
will not let Isiael go." Fuithei to that, he auus in v. 1u, Thus says

9
Space uoes not peimit a uiscussion of the polemical natuie of the 1u plagues.
1u
Foi example the King of Egypt, Tutankhamen s name means tbe livinq
Stotue of Amuna supieme Egyptian ueity like Atum.
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Phaiaoh... In his aiiogance which will be iecounteu at the Song
by the Sea (1S:9) he is telling this intiuuei Yahweh, who is the
uou woithy only of slaves, that he can take a hike. Bis woius
will come to haunt him as like it oi not, he will come to know
who Yahweh is.

b.Therodandsnakeincident
Into the couit of the King of Egypt walk Noses anu Aaion. 0n his
ciown was the symbol of the uiaeus oi the spitting cobia iepie-
senting the gouuess Waujet who was the souice of his powei,
anu ability to stiike teiioi into the heait of his enemies.
11
With a
symbolism that coulu only be inteipieteu as thiowing uown the
gauntlet Noses thiows uown his iou anu it tuineu into the sym-
bol of Phaionic powei. As much as the Egyptian magicians iepli-
cateu the feat by theii magic aits, they coulu not have anticipateu
the final symbolic act wheie the seipent-like iou of Noses swal-
loweu up the seipent-like iou of Phaiaoh. In a woiu, this was a
ueclaiation of wai in a lanu wheie, as Cuiiiu obseiveu, the ueity
with the most magic was iegaiueu as the supieme gou.
12
Woulu
it be YBWB oi the gous of Egypt incainateu in Phaiaoh who
woulu be soveieign.
The iiony of the stoiy is all the moie potent when one iealizes
that the Bebiew woiu foi swallow useu in Exouus 7:12 is the
same woiu that the Song by the Sea (Exouus 1S:12) uses foi the
sea swallowing up the Egyptian aimy. The piouu eatei who
saiu he woulu fill his appetite with his piey (Ex. 1S:9) gets
eaten. The exouus motif of swallowing is not lost on Paul who
speaks of ueath being swalloweu up in victoiy (I Coi 1S:S4
wheie the same woiu is useu in the uk tianslation of Ex. 7:12,
1S:12). The same iou which uou useu to peisuaue a uubious
Noses of his calling (Ex 4:2) is useu to ueclaie YBWBs sovei-
eignty in the couit of Phaiaoh anu is iaiseu just befoie the inun-

11
}ohn B. Cuiiiu, The Egyptian Setting of the Seipent: Confiontation in Exo-
uus 7, 8-1S' Bibliscbe Zeitscbrift ns S9 no 2 (199S), pp. 2uS-4.
12
Cuiiiu, 6enesis, p. 4S
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uation of Exouus 14. Little wonuei it is calleu the staff of uou
(Ex. 4:2u).

c.Thestrongarm
When Amenhotep II (1447-1421 BC), a possible Phaiaoh at the
time of the Exouus, uesciibeu himself foi time immemoiial he
calleu himself Boius |one of the gous of Egyptj of uolu; Caiiying
off anu gaining powei ovei all lanus; King of 0ppei anu Lowei
Egypt; the Son of Re |the Sun uouj; Loiu of the Stiong Aim;
Amen-hotep-the uou-Rulei of Beliopolis, given life foieveilike
Nontu |the gou of waij auoineu with his equipment
1S
The
epithet stiong aim, as }ames Boffmeiei obseives, figuieu
stiongly into the Phaionic self-uesciiptions. Amenhotep II ue-
sciibes a victoiious battle in which not a single one was with his
majesty, except foi himself with his stiong aim.
14

Examples thioughout Egyptian histoiy coulu be multiplieu.
The upiaiseu aim of a victoiious Phaiaoh subuuing his enemies
is a common pictoiial scene.
1S
Even in the Aimana letteis (wiit-
ten to the Phaiaohs Ameinhotep III anu Akhenaten between

1S
}ames Piitchaiu. Ancient Neor Fostern Texts: ReloteJ to tbe 0lJ Testoment.
Piinceton 0niveisity Piess, 1974, p. 24S. The Asiatic Campaigning of Amen-
hotep II. It is outsiue of the scope of this papei to entei into the uebate of a miu
14uus BC (i.e. 14476) oi latei uate (ca. 127u-126u BC) foi the Exouus. That it
happeneu, anu why it happeneu will be the focus of this papei. A seaich foi
aiticles authoieu by Biyant Woou, Bouglas Petiovich, anu }ames Boffmeiei will
yielu a wealth of aiguments foi anu against each uate. Peihaps the most nu-
anceu tieatment can be founu in }.B. Waltons Exouus, The Bate of pp. 2S8-
27u, in T. Besmonu T. Alexanuei anu Baviu W. Bakei eus. Bictionory of tbe 0lJ
Testoment: Pentoteucb. (Bowneis uiove, IL: Inteivaisity Piess, 2uuS). Also see
Chailes Byei, The Bate of the Exouus Reexamineu, Bibliotbeco Socro 14u
(198S), pp. 22S-4S.
14
}ames K. Boffmeiei, "The Aim of uou veisus the Aim of Phaiaoh in the Exo-
uus Naiiatives," Biblico 67 (1986), pp. S78-S87.
1S
See www.ieshafim.oig.ilauegypthistoiy18-2u.htm#Amenhotepii with
images of Rameses II anu III subuuing theii enemies.
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1S9u-1S4u BC)
16
the king of }eiusalem sees that his powei is ue-
iivative, namely that it came fiom the stiong aim of Phaiaoh.
Aftei the exouus, }ethio, Noses fathei-in-law, makes an ob-
seivation that is fiequently seen in the Pentateuch. Yahwehs
aim is the most poweiful. Be states:

Blesseu be Yahweh who iescueu you fiom the hanu of Egypt anu
fiom the hanu of Phaiaoh. Now I know that Yahweh is gieatei than
all the gous (Ex 18:1u-11).

This image of the stiong aim (cf. Ex S:19-2u; 6:1; 7:4; 1S,16;
etc.) is a figuie foi both juugment anu salvation in the Song by
the Sea. Yahwehs aim uestioys his enemies (vv 6, 12), intimi-
uates his foes (v 16) anu builus up his people (v 17).

d.Thehardenedheart
The Popyrus of Ani gives us insight into the impoitance of
maintaining a heait which was light in weight when appioaching
the final juugment. A ceitain Anis heait was to be weigheu in
the balance against a featheis weight of tiuth anu iighteousness
anu, if it faileu, Ani was to be sent to the gouuess nameu The Be-
vouiess.
17

}ohn Cuiiiu has shown that the Egyptian woius foi haiuening
a heait anu making it heavy have a ielationship not unlike what
we woulu see as a heait of stone being moie heavy than a live
heait.
18
Thus he concluues that the making heavy of Phaiaohs
heait by Yahweh was a uouble-whammy. Fiist, it showeu that
Phaiaoh was meiely a pawn in the hanus of a much gieatei

16
Accoiuing to Boffmeiei
17
Cuiiiu, Snake, pp. 218-219.
18
}ohn Cuiiiu, "Why Biu uou Baiuen Phaiaoh's Beait." Bible Review 9 no 6
(199S) pp. 48-49. Also Boiian Coovei Cox, "The Baiuening of Phaiaoh's Beait
in Its Liteiaiy anu Cultuial Contexts," Bibliotbeco socro, 16S no 6S1 (}l-S 2uu6),
pp. 292-S11. In the Bible sin is seen as heavy (Isa. 1:4; 24:2u) anu the Loiu
weighs heaits (Piov. 21:2; cf. 16:2).
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powei anu seconuly, to the Egyptian ieauei, it foieshauoweu cei-
tain uestiuction foi the Phaiaoh in the aftei-life.
19


Summary
0nly one veiseu in the manneis anu customs of Egypt (Acts 7:22)
as Noses was, wiiting unuei the inspiiation of the Boly Spiiit,
coulu ciaft such a polemic against the ueities of Egypt using theii
own thought constiucts. This uoes not even account foi the po-
lemical natuie of the plagues which showeu beyonu a uoubt that
Phaiaoh, the upholuei of balance in the cieateu oiueicalleu
Naat---hau faileu miseiably; the fact that the uiowning of the
Egyptians took place at the bieak of uay (14:27) when Re was
saiu to be at his stiongest uue to his iesuiiection aftei the night,
anu the fact that the uestioying angel was sent on his commis-
sion at miunight (11:4) just at the time when accoiuing to Egyp-
tian mythology the juugment of souls took place.
2u


Tbe Song at tbe Sea
21

GeneraloverviewofExodus15:1-21

19
Natthew NcAffee uesciibes the vaiious veibs useu to uesciibe the piocess
wheieby Phaiaoh oi Yahweh makescauses the heait to become
stiongstiongei, heavyheaviei, oi haiuhaiuei in his The Beait of Phaiaoh
in Exouus 4-1S, Bulletin for Biblicol Reseorcb 2u S (2u1u), pp. SSS.
2u
E.A. Wallis Buuge, a piolific wiitei on Ancient Egypt, noteu that accoiuing to
the Book of 6otes anu the Book Am Tuot the juugment of souls took place at miu-
night each uay, anu those who hau tieateu the gou |in this case 0siiisj with
contempt uuiing theii lives anu hau been his ueclaieu enemies, then ieceiveu
theii punishment, in his A Sbort Eistory of tbe Fqyption People: Witb Cbopters
on Tbeir Reliqion, Boily life, Ftc. (1914, iepiinteu by Whitefish, NT: Kessingei,
2uu7), p. 176.
21
This uesciiption of the song is suggesteu by Robeit Shieckhise who is con-
vinceu that the song was a spontaneous act of woiship at the sea-siue just aftei
theii miiaculous ueliveiance in his '"I Will Sing unto the Loiu": A Rhetoiical-
Naiiative Analysis of the Poem in Exouus 1S.1-21 (PhB uisseitation, Concoiuia
Seminaiy, St Louis, 2uu6). Be follows the titles of }ewish scholais such as }uuah
uoluin (1971) anu Alan Nintz (1981) anu who use the same phiase in the titles
of theii iespective woiks.
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At what some have calleu the miu-point of the book of Exouus,
we finu a song oi shiiah which ties both halves of the book to-
gethei. The fiist pait of the song seives as a ietiospective of the
events of the ueliveiance of the chiluien of Isiael fiom Egypt (vv.
1-12), then theie is a hinge veise (v. 1S), anu then the iest of the
song anticipates the movement of the chosen people towaius the
Piomiseu Lanu (vv. 14-21).
22
The key figuie is Yahweh, who is
shown in the fiist pait by his powei to save anu in the seconu
pait by his powei to leau his people. Both halves of the song also
seive as a polemic against foieign gous, as we will see. Finally,
the song also seives to encapsulate the beginning of the accom-
plishment of the piomises to the patiiaichs, anu an anticipation
of a yet fullei completion. Robeit Shieckhise uiagiams it in the
way as shown on next page.
2S


Acloserlook
Piioi to examining the song in moie uetail, it shoulu be noteu
that the song has been subjecteu to iigoious analysis fiom many
vantage points. Its genie, whethei poetiy oi psalm oi victoiy
song, has been uiscusseu.
24
Its stiuctuie anu ielationship to

22
The wiitei is well awaie of the scholaily uiscussions as to whethei v. 18
maiks the foimal enu of the song.
2S
Shieckhise, p. 196.
24
As foi genie, the song has been chaiacteiizeu as a hymn (Fohiei), enthione-
ment psalm (Nowinckel), litany (Beei, Nuilenbuig), victoiy psalm (Cioss-
Fieeuman), hymn anu thanksgiving psalm (Noth). Citeu by Richaiu B. Pattei-
son, The Song of Reuemption, Westminster Tbeoloqicol }ournol, S7 no 2 (Fall
199S), p. 4S4. Patteison concuis with Bausei who noteu five common featuies
to Exouus 1S:1-18 anu }uuges S in uemonstiating that both aie victoiy songs:
(a) a focusing on the specific name of Isiael's uou, (b) the application of spe-
cific teims oi phiases to uou anu oi a uesciiption of uou's iole in the victoiy, (c)
a uesciiption of uou's use of the foices of natuie to give Isiael the victoiy, (u)
the mocking of the enemy, anu (e) a uesciiption of the enemy's fall, in his vic-
toiy at sea: piose anu poetiy in Exouus 14-1S, Bibliotbeco socro, 161 no 641
(}a-Ni 2uu4), p. 48. It has been noteu by Petei }ung-chu Wu that themes com-
mon to new song psalms |SS, 4u, 96, 98, 144, anu 149j anu the song of Exouus
1S incluue: "singing," "joy," "wai," "ieuemption," "cieation," "victoiy," "juug-
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othei Neai-Eastein texts has been suggesteu.
2S
Its authoiship,
age, anu ielationship oi supposeu non-ielationship to the sui-
iounuing naiiative mateiial has been examineu. Tianslation is-
sues of veib tenses foi the song have been wiangleu ovei, anu
the meanings of inuiviuual phiases anu key woius have foimeu
significant stuuies.
26

This papei will limit itself in many ways by focusing on the
ihetoiical natuie of the song, anu will follow the suggestion of
Shieckhise whose thesis examines the song as a whole, in the
context of Exouus, anu in the context of the Pentateuch. Auui-
tionally, howevei, we will continue the theme of allusions to
Egypt, anu to a smallei uegiee to Canaan which figuies in the
seconu pait of the song anu show its polemical natuie.


ment," anu "asciiption of uivine attiibutes" in his Woithy is the lamb: The new
song in Revelation S:91u in ielation to its backgiounu, (Phu Biss: Westmin-
stei Seminaiy, 2uuS), p. 1uS.
2S
Stiuctuially it has been ueclaieu to have foui (Kaisei),

thiee (Cassuto,
Fieeuman, Nuilenbuig), oi two (Chilus, Bowell) stanzas. Some have founu allu-
sions to 0gaiitic texts anu the Baal Cycle songs within, but not all aie convinceu.
26
Robeit Shieckhise, The pioblem of finite veib tianslation in Exouus 1S.1-
18, }ournol for tbe StuJy of tbe 0lJ Testoment, S2 no S (Ni 2uu8), pp. 287-S1u
iuentifies the use of the Piophetic Peifect, the Sinai Piovenance anu the Bual
Peispective Nouel. Caspei Labuschagnes stuuy iuentifies the song as the fiist
of 1u examples of embeuueu poetiy outsiue of the Psalms anu notes key
woius such as watei anu YBWB, ieviews the liteiatuie on stiuctuie, anu pio-
viues woiu count analyses in his The Song at the Reeu Sea in Exouus 1S
Logotechnical Analysis (2uu7). www.labuschagne.nl1.exou1S.puf (Accesseu
2u12uSu4); also his Embeuueu Poetiy
www.labuschagne.nlintio.embeu.puf (Accesseu 2u12uSu4)
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Promisesmade,promisesdelivered
With a uiamatic foieshauowing, the authoi of Exouus intiouuces
us to a Phaiaoh who uiu not know }oseph anu who woiiies
about the uemogiaphics of his Isiaelite visitois.
27
Be says, .if
wai bieaks out, |theyj will join oui enemies, fight against us anu
leave the countiy" (Ex 1:1u). What he faileu to iealize is that
Yahweh the mighty waiiioi woulu join the Isiaelites to become
an enemy to Egypt (cf .14:14), as we have seen with the seipent-
iou confiontation that Yahweh woulu fight foi them, anu that
they woulu leave the countiy. It was a latei geneiation of hanu-
pickeu waiiioi Egyptians, whose chaiiot wheels weie getting
boggeu uown in the muu, who knew they weie out-gunneu anu
saiu: "Let's get away fiom the Isiaelites! The L0RB is fighting foi
them against Egypt" (Ex. 14:2S).
The Egyptian obseivation showeu that Yahweh hau been tiue
to his piomises which he hau spoken to Noses anu to the patii-
aichs befoie him:


27
Also calleu the Phaiaoh of the oppiession anu opinions on his iuentity
iange fiom Sesostiis III, Amuntotep I anu so foith.

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"Theiefoie, say to the Isiaelites: I am the L0RB, anu I will biing you
out fiom unuei the yoke of the Egyptians. I will fiee you fiom being
slaves to them, anu I will ieueem you with an outstietcheu aim anu
with mighty acts of juugment. I will take you as my own people, anu
I will be youi uou. Then you will know that I am the L0RB youi
uou, who biought you out fiom unuei the yoke of the Egyptians.
Anu I will biing you to the lanu I swoie with uplifteu hanu to give to
Abiaham, to Isaac anu to }acob. I will give it to you as a possession.
I am the L0RB.'Ex 6:6-8)

Themainidea
Following the naiiative of Exouus 14 which is a climax of a uem-
onstiation of Yahwehs mighty powei to juuge Egypt, anu its con-
fiuence in its ueities, anu to save a iag-tag bunch of slaves foi Bis
own gloiy only, we come to the song of woiship. As with any
song oi poem put to music, we will be caieful to note that it
seives moie to encapsulate a main iuea than it uoesto give us line
by line news iepoiting of the facts as they happen. The main iuea
comes fiom the song itself with the woius: The L0RB will ieign
foi evei anu evei" (Ex 1S:18).
28
That is to say, Be is a King who is
in covenant with Bis people, with the name I AN WB0 I AN, anu
with an eteinal iule. (cf. Beut. SS:S; Pss. 47:6; 99:4; 1uu:S;14S:1;
Isa. 4u:1u; 4S:1S; 44:6; S2:7-1u).
29
As a consequence Be is be-

28
Recall the self uesciiption of many Kings of Egypt who uesciibeu theii iule as
foievei: Amenhotep II--Amen-hotep-the uou-Rulei of Beliopolis, given life
foievei; Thutmose IIIEnuuiing of Kingship, like Re in BeavenNajestic of
Appeaiances, Nighty of Stiength living foievei Rameses:
The goou gou, gieat
king, son of Re, Ramses, living foievei. 0ne of the Pyiamiu texts (Bymn S71)
uesciibes the so-calleu immoitality of the King of Egypt: the King is an
Impeiishable Stai, son of the sky-gouuess who uwells in the Nansion of Selket.
Ra has taken this King to himself to the sky so that this King may live, just as he
who enteis into the west of the sky lives when he goes up in the east of the sky.
29
Philip C. Stine in his aiticle, "Biblical Poetiy anu Tianslation" suggests that
the main theme(s) of this poem is, I will piaise the Loiu gieatly because he
oveithiew the foices of Egypt in the sea with gieat powei, theieby saving his
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yonu compaiison with any iulei incluuing Phaiaoh anu the Ca-
naanite piinces, anu any of theii so-calleu ueities. Patiick Nillei
put it this way: The hymns of Isiael stanu in seivice of the cen-
tial theological claim of the 0lu Testament, that the Loiu of Isiael
alone is uou anu iequiies the full uevotion of all cieation...
Su


A sketcb of tbe song
Richaiu Patteison pioposes a stiuctuie foi the song which seives
to uemonstiate that Yahweh the Invincible is the theme of the
song, anu this is uemonstiateu by iepetition, puns on woius,
iiony, anu themes of upwaiu movement asciibeu to Bim, anu
uownwaiu movement asciibeu to Bis enemies. In two woius, it
is about powei anu victoiy.

I. Pieluue (lb-2)
A. Exoiuium (lb)
B. 0pening confesionpiaise (2)
II. Singing the Song (S-16)
A. Fiist movement: The victoiy at the
Re(e)u Sea (S-S)
**Binging iefiainin piaise of Yahweh's invin-
cibility (6)
B. Seconu movement: The vinuication of uou's sovei-
eignty (7-1u)
1. 0vei his enemy (7)
2. 0vei the enemy's plans (8-1u)
**Binging iefiainin piaise of Yahweh's
incompaiability (11)
C. Thiiu movement: The vigoi of uou's activity (12-
16a) 1. As a poweiful uou of ieuemption (12-
1S)

people whom he then leau to the piomiseu lanu anu establisheu in the sanctu-
aiy he cieateu," in Heto: Tronslotors' }ournol, vol. S2, n 1, (1987), p. 72.
Su
Patiick B. Nillei }i., "Enthioneu on the Piaises of Isiael": The Piaise of uou in
0lu Testament Theology, lnterpretotion vol S-9 no. 1 S-19 (}anuaiy 198S), p.
19.
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2. As a feaisome uou of iebuke (14-16a)
**Binging iefiainin piaise of Yahweh's intei-
vention (16)
III. Postluue (17-18)
A. Piomise: uou will ietuin his people to his lanu anu
theiis (17)
B. Piaise: Nay uou (uou will) ieign foievei (18)
S1


With just a slight mouification as to the centei hinge point,
Robeit Shieckhise pioviues a uiagiam to show the oveiall stiuc-
tuie of the song.
32


Thetextofthesong
Robeit Shieckhises tianslation of the text is in bolu letteis with
explanatoiy woius non-bolueu.
SS
Comments have been kept to a
minimum to let the powei of the text speak foi itself.

v. 1 Tben, that is to say, just aftei the miiaculous ueliveiance
poitiayeu in chaptei 14, anu as a consequence of that, Moses
and tbe Israelites sang tbis song to Yabweb
S4
and tbey
said, 'I am about to ueclaie my intention to the fact that I will
inueeu sing both to anu about the exploits of Yabweb. For
SS
,
oi on account of the fact that be bas certainly prevailed.
S6


S1
Patteison, p. 4SS.
S2
Shieckhise, Tbesis, p. 199.
SS
Ibiu. pp. SS-11S. uives cieuit wheie cieuit is uue with a noteu aumiiation foi
William Piopps close ieauing of the text anu keen sense of obseivation foi
plays on woius, puns, ambiguities, assonance etc. in his FxoJus 1-18 (New
Yoik: Boubleuay, 1998).
S4
This is the fiist of 11 occuiiences of the Bivine name in the song (1a, 1b, Sa,
Sb, 6a, 6c, 11b, 16f, 17u, 18a, 19b).
SS
Also known as a motivation clause, this small woiu foi is a cue foi a hymn
that will follow. Compaie Psalm SS:S-4 (Sing to Bim a new songfoi the
woiu of the Loiu is upiight); Ps 96:1-2, 4-S; Ps 98:1, 9; Psalm 149:4; Isa 44:2S;
49:1S; S2:9 anu S4:1 cf. Revelation S:9
S6
The NET Bible suggests the following possibilities: he is highly exalteu oi
he has uone majestically oi he is gloiiously gloiious. Piopp ienueis this
phiase as foi he acteu exalteuly, exalteuly!(p. 46S). Naiibeth Bowell ienueis
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Horse, that is the wai hoises pulling the chaiiots, and its
rider oi uiivei, be bas cast, or thiown oi huileu with a
uownwaiu movement, into tbe sea.
S7

v. 2 My strengtb and song, oi my stiong song is Yab,
and be bas become, Salvation foi my auvantage oi for me.
S8

Tbis, that is to say TBIS 0NE anu no othei is my Cod
and I will praise, that is to uplift oi auoin with piaises bim,
my fatber's Cod and I will exalt oi extol bim.
v. S Yabweb is a man of war oi a waiiioi,
Yabweb is bis name oi the way he iuentifies himself
v. 4 Pbaraob's cbariots and bis army,
He tbrew into tbe sea.
And bis select oi hanupickeu tioops oi officers
were sunk in tbe Supb Sea
S9

v. S Tbe deeps were covering tbem,
tbey went down into tbe deptbs
4u

like a stone.
41


the same as he is gloiiously tiiumphantin hei Exouus 1S:1b-18: a poetic
analysis, FpbemeriJes tbeoloqicoe lovonienses, 6S no 1 (1989), p. 17.
S7
Piopp (p. S1u) notes the alliteiative effect of the Bebiew text:
'acteu exalteuly, exalteuly . . .
his uiivei he huileu. '
S8
This is similai to usage in an auoption foimula. I will be youi uou, anu you
will be my people |Exou 6:7; Lev 26:12; }ei 7:2S; 11:4; Su:22; anu Ezek S6:28j.
Nichael L. Baii ienueis the veise, Yahweh is my guaiuian ueity, he has be-
come a savioi to me in his Ny stiength anu my song in Exouus 1S:2, Cotbolic
Biblicol uorterly, S4 no 4 (0 1992), p 6S7.
S9
Suph Sea oi Sea of Reeus aie ioughly equivalent. The Egyptian phiaseology
of this veise has been noteu by Petei C. Ciaigie in his Egyptian expiession in
the Song of the Sea (Exouus 1S:4),vetus testomentum, 2u no 1 (}a 197u), pp.
8S-86.
4u
Beeps |Beb. t
e
hmotj anu uepths |Beb. m lotj ihyme anu aie ioughly
synonymous.
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v. 6 Your rigbt band, U Yabweb,
glorious in strengtb.
42

Your rigbt band, U Yabweb,
sbatters
4S
tbe enemy.
v. 7 Even by the instiument of tbe greatness of your pride,
that is to say youi majesty, eminence, highness, exaltation;
you overtbrow tbose wbo rise against you.
You send out your burning anger,
it consumes tbem like cbaff.
v. 8 And, that is auueu to that, by means of
tbe breatb oi angiy snoiting of your nostrils
44

waters piled oi heapeu up
Floods stood like a beap,
deeps congealed in tbe beart of tbe sea.
v. 9 Tbe enemy said,
I will pursue,
I will overtake,
I will divide spoil.

41
Compaie Nehemiah 9:11, You uiviueu the sea befoie them, so that they
passeu thiough it on uiy giounu, but you huileu theii puisueis into the uepths,
like a stone into mighty wateis.
42
Commentatois have noteu that v.6 begins uiiect auuiess to Yahweh as well as
puiposeful ambiguity in this veise that can be ienueieu, Youi iight hanu, 0
Yahweh who aie gloiious in stiength" oi "Youi iight hanu, 0 Yahweh, is gloii-
ous in stiength."
4S
BBL Bebiew: (r ) destroy, foimally, shattei, i.e., to uefeat anothei by
making a uecisive anu iuinous, even ueauly, action as a figuiative extension of a
ciushing oi shatteiing impact (}ug 1u:8, cf Psalm 89:1u). 0thei ienueiings:
smash in pieces, ciush, bioke the enemy to pieces. See page 2u foi the
iuea of obliteiation of competitois to Yahweh.
Compaie the uesciiption of the stiength of Yahweh as a waiiioi to an insciip-
tion on the wai chest of King Tutankhamun which uesciibes his stiength to
subuue his enemies as: "Boius Peifect gou, Image of Re, Possessoi of a stronq
orm, crusbinq the Nine Bows |the enemies of Egyptj; the King of 0ppei anu
Lowei Egypt.
44
Bowell ienueis this phiase, With a blast of youi angei the wateis (p. 26)
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My tbroat oi my appetite foi bloou lust will be filled of
tbem,
I'll draw my sword, my band of hostility will plunder
v. 1u You simply blew witb your breatb,
tbe sea covered tbem.
Tbey sank like lead
4S
in tbe migbty waters.
v. 11 Wbo is like you among tbe gods,
U Yabweb?
Wbo is like you, glorious in boliness.
46

Venerable oi to be ieveieu in oi with iespect to
praises
you the woikei of wonuei aie the one doing won-
ders?

v. 12 You stretcbed out your rigbt band,
tbe grave was swallowing tbem.

Binge Point:

v. 1S You led like a shepheiu by means of your steadfast
cove nantal love
47

tbe people wbom you bave redeemed.

4S
Foi the use of leau in Egyptian metalluigy, see: Beibeit uailanu anu Chailes
0luen Bannistei. Ancient Fqyption Hetollurqy (Lonuon: C. uiiffin, Philauelphia,
}.B. Lippincott, 1927), pp. S1-S2, anu Paul T Nicholson anu Ian Shaw Ancient
Fqyption Hoteriols onJ Tecbnoloqy (Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niv. Piess,
2uuu), pp. 168-169.
46
Shieckhise, Tbesis, p. 6S gives two alteinate ienuitions, Who is like you (who
aie) gloiious in holiness." oi Who is like you (who aie) gloiious among the
Boly (ones). Stine (pp. 7S-74) also offeis two similai ienuitions showing the
incompaiability of Yahweh which ieau: "Loiu, you aie unique among the gous;
you aie majestically holy, awesomely gloiious, anu a woikei of gieat acts," anu
"Yahweh, you aie unique among the gous; of all the holy beings, you alone aie
majestic, you alone have an awesome gloiy, anu you alone can woik wonueis."
Cf. Ps 86:8-1u; 111:2-4 ; 11S:S; }ei 1u:6-7a; Rev 1S:S-4.
47
A key veib in the song is eseJ which, when tianslateu, embouies covenant
love, loyalty, loving-kinuness, faithfulness. All of its occuiiences in Exouus
(2u:6; S4:6-7) uesciibe the chaiactei of Yahweh. Nahum Saina in his commen-
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You guided like a shepheiu by your strengtb
48

to your boly dwelling.
49

v. 14 Peoples bave beard, tbey shuuuei anu tremble.
Anguisb oi convulsions seized tbe inbabitants
Uf Pbilistia.
v. 1S Tben were terrified, tbe bull-like cbieftains
of Edom.
As for tbe iam-like rulers of Moab,
Trembling seizes tbem.
All tbe inbabitants of Canaan melted as they lost theii
neive.
v. 16 Upon tbem falls terror and dread.
By tbe greatness of your arm
tbey become still oi petiifieu like a stone.
Until your people pass by,
U Yabweb.
Until tbe people wbom you acquired pass by.
v. 17 You will bring tbem, and
you will plant tbem
on tbe mountain of your inberitance.
Tbe place for your dwelling,
tbat you made, U Yabweb.
Tbe sanctuary, U Lord,
tbat your bands formed.
v. 18 Yabweb reigns forever and ever.

Closing Fiame oi ieason foi the song:

v. 19 For Pbaraob's borse witb its

taiy on Exouus uesciibes the woiu as one of Yahwehs supieme attiibutes
chaiacteiizeu by expiess conuuct conuitioneu by intimate ielationship, cove-
nant obligation oi even unueseiveu magnanimity(p. 8u).
48
See Psalms 2S:S; 77:21; 78-S2-SS.
49
0i uwelling chaiacteiizeu by youi holiness.
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rider and witb bis borsemen went
into tbe sea, tben Yabweb brougbt upon
tbem tbe waters of tbe sea, but tbe
Israelites walked on dry ground in
tbe midst of tbe sea.

Niiams antiphonal singing:

v. 2u-21 Tben Miriam tbe propbetess, Aaron's sister, took
a tambourine in ber band, and all tbe women fol-
lowed ber, witb tambourines and dancing.
Miriam sang to tbem:
"Sing to tbe LURD,
for be is bigbly exalted oi poweifully ascen-
uant.
Tbe borse and its rider
be bas burled into tbe sea."

Fiist impiessions: Who is like unto thee. Resounuing an-
swei: No one. Labuschagne makes the obseivation that the
most poweiful uevice in the ihetoiical aisenal of the wiiteis of
the Bebiew Testament was the ihetoiical question that uemanus
an answei fiom the heaiei (cf. Ps. SS:1u; 71:19; 89:6-8; Isa.
4u:18,2S; Nic . 7:18). Be obseives that such questions weie
useu by them to expiess the absolute powei, uniqueness, singu-
laiity anu incompaiability of a peison, especially of YBWB. The
compelling powei of this uevice, he suggests, lies in the fact that
the auuience is compelleu to fiame the expecteu answei in his
minu anu as a consequence becomes a co-expiessoi of the
speakeis conviction.
Su
Thus the song ueliveis the concept
of the absolute incompaiability of Yahweh with iesponses as:

UNLY.
Yahweh is woith singing about
Yahweh is poweiful

Su
Labuschagne, p. 7.
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Yahweh is gieatei than all
Yahweh is victoiious
Yahweh is majestic
Yahweh has an awesome gloiy
Yahweh can woik wonueis
Yahweh is a Reueemei
Yahweh is peisonable
Yahweh is kinu to his people
Yahweh teiiifies his enemies
Yahweh is incompaiable

These statements tie back into the fact that Yahweh has saiu
that he will uelivei Isiael with a mighty aim (6:6) anu that he
woulu execute juugments on all of the gous of Egypt (12:12),
anu that he woulu ieueem his people (6:6; 1S:1S) fiom theii
slaveiy anu theii slave mentality to give them a new home, a new
name, anu a new place to live with Bim. Be piomiseu. Be ueliv-
eieu. Thus we ieau: "Isiael saw the gieat woik that the L0RB
uiu against the Egyptians, anu the people feaieu the L0RB anu
believeu in the L0RB anu in his seivant Noses (Ex. 14:S1). Is-
iael coulu not help but woiship.


A few polemical observations
Irony
Wheieas we expect chaiioteeis to uie on lanu when they aie
thiown off theii chaiiots, the song tells us that they along with
theii wai equipment aie thiown into the sea wheie sailois usu-
ally uie.
S1

Wheieas the Egyptians thought they coulu hanu-pick anu
thiow the best of the Isiaelite chiluien into the Nile without
impunity, Yahweh has the last woiu as the bouies of the hanu-

S1
As obseiveu by Piopp.
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pickeu officeis (1S:4) aie seen floating (Ex. 14:Su) on the shoie
of the Sea.
Wheieas the Phaiaohs puffeu themselves up with all of theii
epithets of gieatness as incainations of the gous, engiaveuso
they thought foi time immemoiial--- on stone monuments, the
song talks about the finest wai machines anu peisonnel of this
supei-powei sinking to the bottom of the sea like a stone (v. S).
The veiy metalluigy that was put to use to enhance the Phai-
aohs gieatnessthink of the 22kg golu ueath mask of Tutank-
hamun---is now useu to uesciibe theii plunge to the uepths like a
leau sinkei (v.1u).
Wheieas Phaiaoh flatly anu iepeateuly iefuseu to ielease Is-
iael (Beb. shalakh) Yahweh ieleasessame veibhis wiath
(v.7) on the Egyptians.
Wheieas the enslaveu Isiaelites weie foiceu to builu up the
cities of Pithom anu Rameses with biicks foimeu with stubble
(Ex 1:11; S:12) the song tells us that Yahweh liteially uemolishes
oi pulls uown (v. 7) the Egyptian foices anu buins them up like
stubble (v.7). In contiast to incineiateu stubble, Isiael is saiu to
be planteu (v.17) by Yahweh Bimself (cf. Ps. 1:S-4).
Wheieas the nameless enemy of veise 9 with his egotistical
fiist-peison pionoun, I will, uses his bieath to boast of all he
will uo, the tiue uou simply exhales anu his enemies aie inun-
uateu (vv 8, 1u).
S2
Night this taunt anu saicasm be a uiiect uig
at the likes of Amenhotep II who boasteu aftei ietuining fiom a
battle, "Bis stiength is so much gieatei than (that of) any king
who has evei existeu, iaging like a panthei when he couises
thiough the battlefielu; theie is none fighting befoie him, . . .
tiampling uown those who iebel against him, instantly pievailing

S2
It has been noteu that that foi the five Phaionic I wills theie aie five actions
attiibuteu to Yahweh. "Thou uiust blow with Thy winu" etc. (Exou. 1S:1u);
"Thy iight hanu, 0 Loiu, shatteis the foe" (Exou. 1S:6); "Anu in Thy mighty
exaltation Thou oveithiowest them that iise up against Thee" (Exou. 1S:7);
"Thou senuest foith Thy wiath, it consumeth them as stubble" (ibiu); "Thou
stietchest out Thy iight hanu" etc. (Exou. 1S:12)
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against all the baibaiians with people anu hoises." 0i might it
ieflect the blooulust of Sethi, nameu aftei the gou of violent ue-
stiuction, Seth, who exults at beginning the battlehis heait is
giatifieu at the sight of blooumoie than the uay of iejoicing he
loves the moment of ciushing |the foej..
SS
Bowell obseives the
iiony: the enemy speaks about what he will uo foi himself,
which amounts to nothing but woius, the psalmist sings of what
Yahweh has uone foi Bis people.
S4
.
Wheieas the Egyptians magicians useu execiation iites to
figuiatively smash theii enemies, the tiue Waiiioi (v.S) anu
ownei of the whole eaith (Ex. 9:29) neeus no such magic. Be
simply commanus cieation to uo his biuuing anu his enemies
|liteially: the upiiseis v.7j aie subjugateu with a panoply of
veibs of uownwaiu movementhuileu, cast uown, sank, shat-
teieu (v.6), coveieu, swalloweu.
SS
The wai gous of Seth, Nontu
anu 0nouiis (Anhui) aie nowheie to be seen.
Wheieas Rameses II, the self-ueclaieu champion without
peei hau the subjugateu Bittites ueclaie in effect, Who is like
you among the gous. anu come gioveling to him on theii bellies
as they ueclaieu to him, You aie Seth, Baal in peison," Yahweh
ueclaies his eteinal (v.18), holy (v. 1S), majestic (v.7) anu uni-
veisal (Ex 9:1S) ieign.
S6
ueneiations to this uay anu beyonu can
still say with the Psalmist: "You aie the uou who woiks wonueis;
you have uisplayeu youi might among the peoples" (Ps. 77:14)

SS
In }ohn Ashton anu Baviu Bown 0nwroppinq tbe Pboroobs (uieen Foiest, AR:
Nastei Books, 2uu7), p. 166.
S4
Bowell, p. 29.
SS
Scott B. Noegel, "Noses anu Nagic: Notes on the Book of Exouus," }ournol of
tbe Ancient Neor Fostern Society, 24 (1996), pp. 4S-S9. Piopp comments that
Egypt uescenus liteially fiom shoie to Sea to unueiwoilu, metaphoiically
fiom gloiy to ignominy while Isiael ascenus fiom slaveiy, Egypt anu the
Sea to secuie habitation on Yahweh's mountain (p. S1u).
S6
Rameses own woius weie: Then the vile Chief of Khatti |i.e. the Bittitesj
wiote anu woishipeu my name like that of Re, saying: "You ore Setb, Bool in
person; the uieau of you is a fiie in the lanu of Khatti.
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anu sing the Song of Noses anu of the Lamb in the Apocalypse
(Rev. 1S:Sff).
Wheieas the 'uieat Caiio Bymn of piaise to Amun-Re' extols
the sun gou as the "0nique king, like whom among the gous;" the
"Fathei of the fathei of all the
gous;" enuuiing in all things; uieat of stiength, loiu of ievei-
ence; moie uistinguisheu in natuie than any (othei) gou, In
whose beauty the gous iejoice; The loiu of feai, gieat of uieau,
Rich in might, teiiible of appeaiances; etc., it is Yahweh who
ieigns foievei (v. 18), is incompaiable (v. 11) anu who has the
last woiu.
S7

Wheieas the iuleis of the nations of Philistia, Noab, Euom anu
Canaan uesciibe themselves with lofty teims such as Noabite
iams, in oiuei to flaunt theii powei (v.1S),with theii gous of
wai anu stoim in theii ietinue like Chemosh of the Noabites,
QuasQos of the Euomites anu Baal of the Canaanites; when they heai
of the living Bivine waiiioi (v. S) who has whippeu up the
stoimy sea (v. 8) anu causeu it to ciash uown on the Egyptians
(v. 1u), they succumb to becoming stone-like in paialysis just like
the gous that they seive.
S8
Not only that, they stanu, as it weie,
at fiozen attention as uous libeiateu slaves, now ioyal chiluien,
pass by them.
Wheieas the Phaiaohs tieateu the Isiaelites like theii piop-
eity, to be useu anu abuseu as they saw fit, Yahweh is saiu to

S7
R. K. Ritnei, The uieat Caiio Bymn of Piaise to Amun-Re in W. W. Ballo anu
Youngei, K L (eus). Tbe Context of Scripture. Cononicol Compositions
from tbe Biblicol WorlJ. vol. I. (Leiuen: Biill, 1997, pp. S7-4u. Also The In-
compaiability of Beities in the Egyptian Religion (pp. S8-62) in C. I. La-
buschagne. Tbe lncomporobility of Yobweb in tbe 0lJ Testoment (Leiuen: E. I.
Biill, 1966)
S8
Wayne T. Pitlanu, Euom p. 6S in Nichael B. Coogan anu Biuce N. Netzgei.
Tbe 0xforJ 6uiJe to People & Ploces of tbe Bible (0xfoiu: 0xfoiu 0niveisity
Piess, 2uu1), p. 6S. Piopp (p. SS4) notes Lofinks paiauoxical anu iionically
humoious statement, The othei flocks aie stiuck still when the gieat anu goou
shepheiu passes by with his flocks. They stanu alongsiue the piocessional
ioute like stone sphinxes."
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have a people which he ieueemeu like a kinsman ieueemei (v.
1S, 16) iescues as a fiist-boin son, tieats with loving-kinuness
(v.1S) anu leaus like a shepheiu (v. 1S).
Wheieas the Egyptian anu Canaanite ueities weie useu by
theii iuleis to give themselves status anu thus enslave theii peo-
ples, Yahweh ieueems his people with his powei, libeiates them,
anu biings them to Bimself. The contiast coulu not be stiongei.

Summary
The woius of the }ewish commentatoi 0mbeito Cassuto aie veiy
apiopos of what has just happeneu: In the pagan oues of tii-
umph, the gloiy of the victoiy is asciibeu to the conqueiing king,
but heie theie is not a single woiu of piaise oi gloiy given to
Noses; these aie ienueieu to the Loiu alone.
S9


A retrospective on Israels response to tbeir deliver-
ance
In oiuei to giasp moie fully the Biblical view of othei ieligions,
one must examine the showuown of Yahweh vs. the gous, anu we
have uone so using the Egyptian gous as an example. Seconuly, it
will be necessaiy to analyze the texts which give a commentaiy
on Isiaels ielationship to foieign ueities, anu Yahwehs iesponse
to such. To uo this we will woik in a ieveise chionological fash-
ion using highlights fiom a iange of Biblical texts. No tieatment
will uo justice, howevei, if the intiouuction to the Becalogue is
not examineu fiist.

TheDecalogue
At Sinai, the covenant keepei Yahweh sets out the house-iules
with his new-biiue Isiael foi whom he has paiu a biiue piice of
ieuemption, anu is now taking hei to his own house to be in ex-
clusive ielationship with Bim. Thus Be iecaps wheie she has

S9
0mbeito Cassuto. A commentory on tbe book of FxoJus. (Nagnes Piess, Be-
biew 0niveisity, 1967), p. 174.
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come fiom anu a numbei of expectations foi theii ielationship by
saying:

|2u:1j Anu uou spoke all these woius, saying,
|2j I am the L0RB youi uou, who biought you out |liteially causeu
to go out j of the house of slaveiy.
|Sj You shall have no othei gous befoie me.
|4j You shall not make foi youiself a caiveu image, oi any likeness
of anything that is in heaven above, oi that is in the eaith beneath,
oi that is in the watei unuei the eaith.
Sj You shall not bow uown to them oi seive them, foi I the L0RB
youi uou am a jealous uou... ESv)

Simply put, this jealous husbanu, the incompaiable Yahweh,
woulu not toleiate any competition fiom any so-calleu ueity be-
cause of his exclusive claim on his biiue. Let us examine how she
uiu thiough the voices of a numbei of Biblical iepoiteis.
a. Stepben: In his summaiy of Isiaelite histoiy in Acts 7, Ste-
phen uemonstiates the powei of uou to save by wonueis anu
signs (v.S6), anu the fickleness of Isiael in tiagic teims. A peo-
ple who hau been iescueu by a piomise-keeping uou, who weie
uesciibeu as an assembly |uk ekklsioj in the ueseit anu who hau
ieceiveu living oiacles (v.S8) fiom this uou, who assuieu them
that Bis piesence woulu go with anu befoie them, launch the ul-
timate insult by suggesting to Aaion (v. 4u), Nake foi us gous
who will go befoie us.
6u
Rathei than iejoicing in the woiks of
uous poweiful aim, they iejoiceu at the woiks of theii own
hanus (v. 41). Quoting Amos, Stephen uiives his message home
with the woius, You took up |uk. onolombonj the tent" |litei-
ally the tabeinaclej of Nolech.
61
The veiy people who weie to

6u
Compaie this to Beuteionomy 6:1S-1S, Feai the L0RB youi uou, seive him
only anu take youi oaths in his name. Bo not follow othei gous, the gous of the
peoples aiounu you; foi the L0RB fyoui uou, who is among you, is a jealous
uou
61
The woiu onolombon uenotes the tokinq up anu corryinq olonq of pagan
cultic objects as signs of iuolatiy (EBNT). To take up in oiuei to caiiy
(BBAu).
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caiiy the symbol of uous piesence among them as a husbanu
woulu biing his wife back to his own tent anu be piesent to-
gethei, aie caiiying the tent of anothei uou. If that was not
enough, Stephen speaks of what is likely a Coptic ienuition of the
gou Satuin, namely Rephan, as your gou - echoes of Exouus
2u:2 ,I am the L0RB your uou. So much foi having no othei
gous befoie me |oi liteially befoie my facej (Ex. 2u:S)!

b. Ezekiel: With a gieat sense of paiauox Ezekiel iepoits on the
fact that the Soveieign L0RB says that he will uestioy the Egyp-
tian iuols anu put an enu to the images in Nemphis which was
wheie the temple to the Egyptian gou Ptah was locateu (Su:1S).
Yet Bis own people Isiael have a twisteu love ielationship with
the same.
Some elueis of Isiael came to Ezekiel anu askeu that he in-
quiie of the L0RB foi them. The iesponse likely shockeu them.
Aftei a suivey of Bis own piomise-keeping tiack-iecoiu Yahweh
iepoits on what Be insisteu Isiael uo, appaiently befoie the exo-
uus: "Cast away the uetestable things youi eyes feast on, eveiy
one of you, anu uo not uefile youiselves with the iuols of Egypt; I
am the L0RB youi uou.(2u:7). The iesult. They ie-
belleuwoulu not listenuiu not get iiu of the vile imagesnoi
foisake the iuols of Egypt (v. 8). Then foi the sake of Bis own
name (vv. 9, 14, 22) Yahweh ueliveieu them fiom Egypt anu kept
them alive in the ueseit inspite of the fact that theii heaits weie
uevoteu to theii iuols (v. 16) anu theii eyes lusteu aftei theii
fatheis' iuols (v. 24). These aie woius of a jilteu lovei; Yahweh
ieminu us of similai language in Bosea.

c. Tbe narrator of 2 Kings 17 - The naiiatoi gives us a uivine
peispective on why Isiael was exileu, in the mannei of a ieveise
exouus, to Assyiia. This iepoit is given in the context of the fact
that the L0RB who biought you up out of Egypt with mighty
powei anu outstietcheu aim, is the one you must woiship (vv


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4S6
7,S6). Theii long-teim iesponse. Sauly, it is the iecuiient
theme of iefusal to listen, lack of tiust, obuuiacy, uisobeuience
anu covenant bieaking, summaiizeu by the fact that they fol-
loweu woithless iuols anu themselves became woithless(v. 1S).
Theii uetestable piactices of imitating (v. 1S) the nations aiounu
them aie iecounteu (vv. 16-18); solemn wainings aie uisie-
gaiueu anu the naiiatoi concluues:
They woulu not listen, howevei, but peisisteu in theii foimei
piactices. Even while these people weie woishiping the L0RB,
they weie seiving theii iuols. To this uay theii chiluien anu
gianuchiluien continue to uo as theii fatheis uiu. (vv. 4u-41)

Summary
The injunction to choose this uay whom you will seive to a
people whom Paul uesciibes as having been baptizeu into
Noses---oi went thiough a ueath to the olu inunuation expeii-
ence at the Reu Sea (I Coi. 1u:2)-- ieceiveu a stanuing ovation
anu ciasheu uown with a thuu. All of the injunctions to thiow
away the gous youi foiefatheis woishipeu beyonu the Rivei anu
in Egypt, anu seive the L0RB (}oshua 24:14) weie simply ig-
noieu anu Yahweh the jealous lovei coulu not but iesponu.
62

The thiee examples citeu uemonstiate beyonu the shauow of a
uoubt that Isiael hau a uiviueu heait anu, although physically
hau been ueliveieu fiom Egypt, in ieality its heait was still theie
anu still seiveu the gous |theiij foiefatheis seiveu beyonu the
Rivei (}oshua 24:1S).

A response to Mark Harlans paper
Recall that Naik Bailan set out to offei fiesh peispective fiom
the angle of an 0lu Testament theology of ieligions, so as to uis-
covei theological founuations that might suppoit insiuei move-
ments among least-ieacheu peoples in his Naich 16, 2u12 papei
at the Evangelical Nissions Society. I woulu like to suggest that
the fiesh peispective iegaiuing an 0lu Testament theology of

62
See also Beut. 7:18-26; 29:16, }os 24:14; I Kings 9:6
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ieligions is that Ni. Bailan has fieshly ignoieu the Biblical evi-
uence. Consiuei the following:

A. Stephen, Ezekiel, anu 2 Kings aie all consistent in theii uenun-
ciation of any kinu of alliance between followeis of Yahweh anu
othei gous. They piesent a unifieu voice in linking the incompa-
iability of Yahweh in the exouus ueliveiance anu his uemanus foi
exclusive woiship. Theii sentiments ieflect the exact postuie of
the Song at the Sea as well. The suiiounuing chapteis of Exouus,
look backwaius at Egyptian ieligion (ch. 1-14) anu foiwaiu to
the Becalogue of Exouus 2u. The piohibition in Ex. 2S:1S to even
invoke the names of othei gous, along with the oiuei to uestioy
them utteily (v. 24) oi face the consequence that they will be a
snaie foi you (v. SS), eviuenceu by what actually happeneu
when the chiluien of Isiael piostitute|uj themselves to theii
gous (Ex. S4:16).
In light of this uata, how one can glean that the 0lu Testament
infeis that theie aie some constiuctive things that Isiael coulu
appiopiiate oi leain fiom these ieligions uefies logic.

B. As much as this papei has focuseu on Egyptian ieligion, exam-
ples coulu be multiplieu as uata foi Canaanite ieligion. Leila
Leah Bionnei has uone extensive woik on the polemical iole of
ElijahElisha against Baalism
6S
. Iain Piovan, in an extenueu
quote woith citing at length, uemonstiates the polemical natuie
of the books of Kings. Be states:

as the only uou theie is, the L0RB uemanus exclusive woiship.
uou is not piepaieu to take a place alongsiue the gous oi to be uis-
placeu by them. Nuch of Kings theiefoie auuiesses the pioblem of
illegitimate woiship. The main inteiest is in the content of woiship,
which must not involve iuols oi images noi ieflect any aspect of the
feitility anu othei cults of the nations (1 Kings 11:14u; 12:2S
1S:S4; 14:2224; 16:29SS; 2 Kings 16:14; 17:72S; 21:19).

6S
In hei Tbe Stories of Flijob onJ Flisbo os Polemics Aqoinst Bool Worsbip. (Lei-
uen: Biill, 1968) as citeu by Waltke anu Yu, p. 746.
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Theie is subsiuiaiy concein about the ploce of woiship which is
iueally the }eiusalem temple anu not the local high places (1 Kings
S:2; S:19:9; 1S:14; 22:4S; 2 Kings 18:4; 2S:12u). The book is also
conceineu to uesciibe the moial wiongs that inevitably accompany
false woiship. Foi as the woiship of something otber than uou in-
evitably leaus to some kinu of mistieatment of fellow-moitals in the
eyes of |hisj uou (1 Kings 21; 2 Kings 16:14; 21:16), so tiue woi-
ship of uou is always bounu up with obeuience to the law of uou.
64


Again, to appiovingly quote Stuhlmuellei who suggesteu that
Abiaham iemaineu within the Canaanite ieligious system, as
eviuenceu by the fact that he anu othei patiiaichs woishippeu
at oi neai tiauitional Canaanite shiines, is to completely miss
the point. To the patiiaichs anu Isiael, just as with the example
of Aaions iou swallowing Phaiaohs, this is a ueclaiation of wai,
with the auvance of the kinguom of Yahweh.
Aicheological eviuence, in fact, shows that when the Isiaelites
weie obeuient in following the iules of conquest set uown in
Beut 7:2,S of utteily uestioying theii enemies, they weie to
bieak uown theii altais, anu uash in pieces theii pillais, anu
hew uown theii Asheiim, anu buin theii giaven images with
fiie. Both }eiicho (}os 6:2124) anu Bazoi weie buint accoiuing
to the Biblical anu aicheological iecoius. }oshua 11:1u-12 says
that he took Bazoi, anu smote its king with the swoiu: foi Bazoi
foimeily was the heau of all those kinguoms. Eveiyone in it they
put to the swoiu. They totally uestioyeu them, not spaiing any-
thing that bieatheu, anu he buineu up Bazoi itself .. Isiael uiu not
buin any of the cities built on theii mounus - except Bazoi."
At Bazoi, the }ewish aicheologist Yigael Yauin uiscoveieu evi-
uence foi the violent uestiuction of the Canaanite 0ithostats anu
Stelae Temples along with numeious cultic statues that weie
intentionally uecapitateu, some beaiing chisel maiks showing
how this hau been uone.
6S
This, accoiuing to anothei }ewish

64
Iain W. Piovan. 1 onJ 2 Kinqs. |NIBCj (Peabouy, Nass: Benuiickson Publish-
eis, 199S), p. 12.
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this hau been uone.
6S
This, accoiuing to anothei }ewish
scholai was a systematic annihilation campaign, against the
veiy physical symbols of the ioyal iueology anu its loci of iitual
legitimation.
66
The aicheologist Boffmeiei notes that this in-
tentional ueseciation of shiines anu cults objects is a piactice
unique to Isiael anu he links it to the same at the temple of Ba-
gon in I Samuel S:2-S. Cuiiously, wheieas Bailan woulu have us
believe that Canaanite ieligion was innocuous, the chief gou of
the Philistines anu the so-calleu fathei of Baal is founu uecapi-
tateu anu uismembeieu by the waiiioi Yahweh. Little wonuei
that Exouus 1S: 14, likely with the piophetic peifect, (i.e. iepoit-
ing the futuie as if it has alieauy happeneu), ieaus anguish
seizeu the inhabitants |oi iuleisj of Philistia.

C. Bailan joins otheis in a geneial uefinition of insiuei move-
ments as those people who iemain within the ieligious commu-
nity wheie they aie founu, even though they might be saiu to be-
long to a new ieligion. Be suggests that this is a viable alteina-
tive foi the most unieacheu peoples. Is it. 0ui suivey of Bibli-
cal histoiy woulu suggest that the pioblems Isiael hau weie uue
laigely to the iemnants of foimei ieligious piactices anu uevo-
tion in theii lives, anu theii unwillingness to pait with them
completely.
Auuitionally, in the Apocalypse which libeially uses exouus
imageiy, the wiitei gives uiiectives to the people of uou, newly
constituteu in Chiist, with unmistakable echoes of the sepaia-
tion of the Isiaelites fiom Egypt. Be wiites:


6S
}ames K. Boffmeiei, What is the biblical uate foi the Exouus. A iesponse to
Biyant Woou, }ournol of tbe Fvonqelicol Tbeoloqicol Society, Su no 2 (}e 2uu7),
pp. 24S-246.
66
Bouglas Petiovich, The Bating of Bazois Bestiuction in }oshua 11 via Bibli-
cal, Aichaeological, anu Epigiaphical Eviuence, }ournol of tbe Fvonqelicol Tbeo-
loqicol Society, S1 no S (S 2uu8), p 491, citing Shaion Zuckeiman, Anatomy of a
Bestiuction: Ciisis Aichitectuie, Teimination Rituals anu the Fall of Canaanite
Bazoi, }ournol of HeJiterroneon Arcboeoloqy 2u:1 (}une 2uu7), p. 24.
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46u
"Come out of hei, my people, so that you will not shaie in hei sins,
so that you will not ieceive any of hei plagues (Rev 18:4)

Allegiance with the gous of the Rome oi those of Canaan oi
Egypt woulu guaiantee the same iesult: the juugment of the
plagues.
ulobally, wheieas the Biblical account fiom Exouus to the
Apocalypse positively associates language of Exouus with go
up, go out, up fiom, it always has negative associations with
the language of go uown toi.e. staying in Egypt (cf. uen S7:2S;
S9:1 (2x);42:2-S, S8; 4S:4, S, 7, 11. )

B. Reaching unieacheu peoples was pait of the iaison utie of
the exouus. }oshua iepoiteu that the Loiu "uiieu up the wateis"
of the Reu Sea expiessly so that "all the peoples of the eaith may
know that the hanu of the Loiu is mighty" (}osh 4:2S, 24). This
fame, as we noteu, ieacheu the Niuianites (Exou 18:1), the No-
abites (Numbei s 22-24), the Canaanites (}osh 2:1u; S:1), the
uibeonites (}os 9:9) anu the Philistines (1 Sam 4:8). Is a mouein-
uay contiivance neeueu to help along the fame of Bis Name.

Conclusion
We ietuin to the main iuea of the Song at the Sea: The L0RB will
ieign foi evei anu evei." All of the Canaanite anu Egyptian gous
weie shown to be phantoms. The ihetoiical question askeu of
this evei-ieigning monaich is anu was, Who is like unto thee.
The iesponse then anu now is, Absolutely no one. This answei
necessaiily leaus to the next question: Who will Isiael seive ex-
clusively. Who will piesent uay believeis seive exclusively.
Will it be Yahweh known as the Fathei, Son anu Boly Spiiit
alone. Ni. Bailan woulu appeai to inuicate that this is negotia-
ble. Biblically speaking it is not.
The Biblical account uebunks the biash, almost Phaionic atti-
tuue of Finklestein in his text, Tbe Bible 0neortbeJ, with his
woius, The histoiical saga containeu in the Biblefiom Abia-
hams encountei with uou anu his jouiney to Canaan, to Noses
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ueliveiance of the chiluien of Isiael fiom bonuage|isj a biilliant
piouuct of the human imagination.
67
It uoes the same with the
Insiuei Novements biilliant piouuct of the human imagination
that appiovingly states that Abiaham |as a iepiesentative of 0lu
Testament believeisj iemaineu within the Canaanite |as a iepie-
sentative of EgyptianNoabitePhilistine anu Euomitej ieligion.













67
Isiael Finkelstein anu Neil Ashei Silbeiman. Tbe Bible 0neortbeJ: Arcboe-
oloqy's New vision of Ancient lsroel onJ tbe 0riqin of lts SocreJ Texts. (New Yoik:
Fiee Piess, 2uu1), p. 1.
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ST PAULS THEULUCY UF MISSIUNS
IN CUNTRAST WITH
THE INSIDER MUVEMENT

By Rev. Bossom Hicboel HoJony

Abstract
Following Woilu Wai II, Evangelicals helu congiesses anu con-
sultations to auuiess plans foi Chiistian missions in the new
post-colonial eia. 0nfoitunately, some began with the piesuppo-
sition that Chiistian missions in Nuslim lanus have faileu, foi
lack of contextualizing the uospel. It was a misleauing evaluation
of a woik that hau begun eaily in the 19
th
centuiy, anu hau ac-
complisheu gieat things thioughout the Niuule East.
1

Baving spent thiity-six yeais in bioaucasting the uospel in
Aiabic ovei seveial inteinational iauio stations, anu communi-

1
}ohn R. W. Stott anu Robeit Coote, Eus., Bown to Fortb: StuJies in Cbristionity
onJ Culture, Eeiumans, 198u, p. viii. Again, the Stott influence on the Lausanne
Continuation Committee has been manifest in subsequent Lausanne-sponsoieu
consultations anu confeiences. Be seiveu, foi example, as Chaiiman of the 1978
Willlowbank Consultation on The uospel anu Cultuie which fully enuoiseu
the contextualizeu appioach to the uospel pioclamation. Inueeu, in his Foie-
woiu to the Willowbank papeis he states: The above quotation is taken fiom a
papei, Neo-Evangelicalism anu Its Impact on Nissions: An Bistoiical 0vei-
view that was ieau by the late Bi. Fieuiick W. Evans, }i. at a meeting of some
conceineu Evangelicals who met at Foui Biooks Confeience Centei, Bucks
County, Pennsylvania, between }uly 9 anu 11, 198S. The meeting was calleu to
uiscuss the spieau of a new theoiy of missions known as Contextualization. At
the enu of the meeting, A STATENENT 0F NISSI0NARY C0NCERN was auopteu.
Because of the bievity of the STATENENT, Bi. Evans was askeu by the signeis
of this uocument to wiite a fullei explanation of its puipose anu inteipietation
of its contents. Noie than two uecaues have passeu since the issuing of this
STATENENT, but its ielevance has not uiminisheu. Rathei than pay full atten-
tion to the Biblical givens iegaiuing missions anu the iole of the Boly Spiiit in
conveision, ceitain voices aie still clamoiing foi some type of contextualizing
the Chiistian message in oiuei to facilitate conveisions of non-Chiistians, espe-
cially of Nuslims. www.levant.infoNERu61.html
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46S
cating with tens of thousanus of Nuslim listeneis, I founu it quite
stiange to heai the claims of the Contextualization Novement
assuiing us that if only missionaiies woulu auopt theii methou-
ologies, some if not all the obstacles to missions in the Nuslim
woilu woulu uisappeai!
Bowevei, by stuuying these novel missions theoiies that have
been auvanceu lately, Ive come to the conclusion that missiology
has lost its connection with the oluei theological uisciplines. So
it shoulu not be suipiising that an extieme foim of contextualiza-
tion has moipheu into the Insiuei Novement.

St Pauls Tbeology of Missions:
in Contrast witb tbe Insider Movement
The basic motif oi impulse of the Insiuei Novement is to facili-
tate the conveision of Nuslims to the Chiistian faith. To that enu
some within it suppoit the tianslation of the Bible into Islamic
languages with changes in those teims consiueieu to be offensive
to Nuslims. Such woius as Fathei when associateu with uou,
oi iefeiiing to }esus Chiist as the Son of uou, aie no longei
founu in these Nuslim-fiienuly tianslations |also known as
NIT: Nuslim-iuiom Tianslationsj with substitute teims consiu-
eieu acceptable to Nuslim sensibilities being useu.
As much as one may lauu the puipose of Chiistians engageu in
the uifficult task of missions to Nuslims, theie aie ceitain Biblical
piinciples which must not be ignoieu. It is eviuent that the In-
siuei Novement has locateu the uifficulty in conveiting Nuslims
in the inspiieu nomenclatuie of the Bible, anu not in the Nuslim
minu anu tiauition. This goes against some impoitant Biblical
piinciples which aie pait anu paicel of the Pauline missionaiy
tiauition.
When Paul anu Bainabas weie sent by the Chuich in Antioch
with the blessing of the Boly Spiiit, they weie piopeily piepaieu
foi theii missionaiy task. Paul was boin in Taisus Cilicia, Asia
Ninoi, wheie he ieceiveu his eaily euucation in the Bellenistic
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cultuie. Bis paients, being uevout }ews, sent him to }eiusalem to
complete his foimation at the school of uamaliel, wheie he be-
came an expeit in Rabbinic }uuaism. Bainabas, a native of Cy-
pius, was at home in uieek cultuie, anu was equally equippeu to
ueal with }ewish anu uentile objections to the uospel of the
Cioss.
Paul anu Bainabas pieacheu the uospel without any uilution
oi compiomise. Foi example, in the Fiist Epistle to the Coiinthi-
ans, Paul ieminus the new believeis in Coiinth (who weie of }ew-
ish oi uentile backgiounus) that he hau maue no concessions to
theii piejuuices when he fiist came to theii city to pioclaim the
uoou News.

Foi the woiu of the cioss is folly to those who aie peiishing, but to
us who aie being saveu it is the powei of uou.

Foi it is wiitten, I
will uestioy the wisuom of the wise, anu the uisceinment of the uis-
ceining I will thwait.

Wheie is the one who is wise. Wheie is the
sciibe. Wheie is the uebatei of this age. Bas not uou maue foolish
the wisuom of the woilu. Foi since, in the wisuom of uou, the woilu
uiu not know uou thiough wisuom, it pleaseu uou thiough the folly
of what we pieach to save those who believe. Foi }ews uemanu
signs anu uieeks seek wisuom, but we pieach Chiist ciucifieu, a
stumbling block to }ews anu folly to uentiles,
but
to those who aie
calleu, both }ews anu uieeks, Chiist the powei of uou anu the wis-
uom of uou.

Foi the foolishness of uou is wisei than men, anu the
weakness of uou is stiongei than men. (I Coiinthians 1:18-2S) ESv
Anu I, when I came to you, biotheis I uiu not come pioclaiming to
you the testimony

of uou with lofty speech oi wisuom.

Foi I ueciueu
to know nothing among you except }esus Chiist anu him ciucifieu.

Anu I was with you in weakness anu in feai anu much tiembling,
anu my speech anu my message weie not in plausible woius of wis-
uom, but in uemonstiation of the Spiiit anu of powei,

so that youi
faith might not iest in the wisuom of men, but in the powei of uou. (I
Coiinthians 2: 1-S) ESv

The natuial peison uoes not accept the things of the Spiiit of uou,
foi they aie folly to him, anu he is not able to unueistanu them
because they aie spiiitually uisceineu. The spiiitual peison juuges
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46S
all things, but is himself to be juugeu by no one. Foi who has
unueistoou the minu of the Loiu so as to instiuct him. But we have
the minu of Chiist. (I Coiinthians 2:14-16) ESv

It is eviuent fiom the above quotations that Paul, with full
awaieness of the }ewish anu uieek objections to his message, uiu
not hesitate foi one moment to ueclaie the saving message of a
ciucifieu anu iisen Nessiah. As a foimei Phaiisee, he hau
believeu in the ability of being iight with uou, by fulfilling the
uemanus of the Law. Anu being familiai with the Bellenic minu,
he knew that the keryqmo sounueu like nonsense to the uieeks.
Still, he biought to Coiinth exactly what they neeueu, anu not
what they wanteu. The ieal pioblem existeu in the Rabbinical
anu Bellenistic minus, anu not in the coie of his message!
In 2 Coiinthians S, Paul ietuineu to uiscuss the subject of the
ieceptivity of the uospel, by explaining why the }ews misseu the
meaning of the Nessianic passages of the 0lu Testament:


Since we have such a hope, we aie veiy bolu,

not like Noses, who
woulu put a veil ovei his face so that the Isiaelites might not gaze at
the outcome of what was being biought to an enu. But theii minus
weie haiueneu. Foi to this uay, when they ieau the olu covenant,
that same veil iemains unlifteu, because only thiough Chiist is it
taken away. Yes, to this uay whenevei Noses is ieau a veil lies ovei
theii heaits.

But when one tuins to the Loiu, the veil is iemoveu.

Now the Loiu is the Spiiit, anu wheie the Spiiit of the Loiu is, theie
is fieeuom.

Anu we all, with unveileu face, beholuing the gloiy of
the Loiu, aie being tiansfoimeu into the same image fiom one ue-
giee of gloiy to anothei. Foi this comes fiom the Loiu who is the
Spiiit. (2 Coiinthians S: 12-18) ESv

The 0lu Testament Sciiptuies main emphasis was on the sav-
ing message that was fiist pioclaimeu by uou in the uaiuen of
Euen to oui fiist paients, Auam anu Eve (uenesis S:1S). This
piomise was maue specific to Abiaham, Isaac anu }acob, anu ie-
iteiateu to Baviu. 0nfoitunately, even though the Piophets like
Isaiah anu the Psalms spoke of the coming Nessiah as a ie-
ueemei fiom sin, Rabbinical }uuaism, as it uevelopeu uuiing the
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Inteitestamental eia, foimulateu the uoctiine of salvation by ob-
seiving the ueeus of the Law. This uoctiine became a veil ovei
the minus of the ieligious leaueis in Isiael that pieventeu them
fiom welcoming the Reueemei Nessiah. Equally, it became the
fiim belief of the }ews in the Biaspoia, which explains why many
of them uiu not welcome Pauls message. They expecteu a politi-
cal Nessiah who woulu libeiate theii nation fiom Roman impeii-
alism.
Thus fai, I have uealt with the objections to the message of the
uospel, by both }ews anu uieeks, uuiing the time of Paul. Ny
point has been to show that the impeuiment to the ieception of
the uospel iesiueu in the minus of the }ewish anu uieek iecep-
tois, anu not in the vocabulaiy useu by Paul. Bowevei, I was not
implying that theie was no hope oi way to conveit }ews anu uen-
tiles, seeing that theii minus hau insuimountable obstacles to the
message of the uoou News. Ny puipose was to show that uou
hau, in fact, pioviueu a way to oveicome theii iesistance to the
uospel offei. Paul put it this way in I Coi. 1:21: Ior since, in tbe
wisJom of 6oJ, tbe worlJ JiJ not know 6oJ tbrouqb wisJom, it
pleoseJ 6oJ tbrouqb tbe folly of wbot we preocb to sove tbose wbo
believe. ESv
The expiession tbe folly of wbot we preocb iefeis to an im-
poitant foimula that summaiizeu the essence of the apostolic
pioclamation known in uieek as the . In uous plan,
the instiumental cause of salvation is the pioclamation of the
uospel, while the efficient cause of salvation is the ueath of }esus
Chiist on the cioss anu his iesuiiection, as actualizeu by the
woik of the Boly Spiiit.
This Pauline teaching about faith in Chiist occuiiing within
the context of heaiing the pioclamation of the uospel is taught in
Romans 1u. Pauls heait yeaineu foi the salvation of his people.
Be acknowleugeu theii tiemenuous zeal foi uou, but not accoiu-
ing to knowleuge. Foi, being ignoiant of the iighteousness of
uou, anu seeking to establish theii own, they uiu not submit to
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uou's iighteousness. Foi Chiist is the enu of the law foi iight-
eousness to eveiyone who believes. (2-4) ESv
This attempt to establish ones own iighteousness has ie-
maineu the majoi obstacle to the ieception of the uospel, to }ews
anu Nuslims alike. Both systems of belief aie thoioughly legalis-
tic. Nan, in Rabbinical }uuaism anu in Islam, possesses the ability
to please uou by uoing the ueeus piesciibeu by the Law!
Fuitheimoie, notwithstanuing the stiong ciiticisms that have
been leveleu by Nuslims against the Bibles authenticity, the
Tiinity, the ueity of }esus Chiist, anu Bis ciucifixion, theii gieat-
est objection is to Biblical anthiopology. Wheieas the Chiistian
view of mans pieuicament is maikeu by iecognition of the uias-
tic iesults of the Fall, the Nuslim view of mans piesent conuition
is veiy optimistic. It may be uesciibeu as a thoioughly Pelagian
point of view.
This was aiticulateu well in a 19S9 aiticle appeaiing in the quai-
teily Tbe Huslim WorlJ in which the Islamic uoctiine of man was
uiscusseu. It containeu a quotation fiom a papei ieau by a Nus-
lim piofessoi in 19S7, at a gatheiing of some Chiistian anu Nus-
lim scholais that was helu in Noiocco. The Nuslim piofessoi
saiu:
The possibility of mans ueliveiance anu the way to follow
have been inuicateu by the Quian in its auuiess to sinneis, fa-
theis of the human iace: uo foith all of you fiom hence anu if
theie comes to you guiuance fiom Ne then he who follows my
guiuance shall have nothing to feai, noi shall they know uis-
tiess. (Suiah 2:S8) By this solemn affiimation uou Bimself takes
action foi the salvation of man in the path of iight. Islamic tiaui-
tion then has the means to leau man to final peifection, the effect
of which is libeiation fiom the feai anu fiom the sauness which
pievent man fiom attaining the eteinal blesseuness which is life
in uou anu foi uou.
In commenting on the papei, Euwin Calveiley, the then euitoi
of Tbe Huslim WorlJ wiote:

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|Thisj exposition of Nuslim theology anu its concepts of man anu his
salvation iaises seveial ueep questions. The Chiistian must always
be peiplexeu about its ieauy confiuence that to know is to do,
tbat mans salvation bappens under purely revelatory auspices
and tbat tbrougb tbe law given in tbe Divine communication is
tbe patb tbat man will follow once be knows and sees it. The
whole mysteiy of human iecalcitiance anu haiuness of heait
seems to be oveilookeu. |Emphasis minej

The tiue way of salvation is by faith in }esus Chiist. Paul con-
tinueu to expounu the way people aie saveu, iegaiuless of theii
ieligious backgiounu, in veises S-17:

Foi Noses wiites about the iighteousness that is baseu on the law,
that the peison who uoes the commanuments shall live by them.
But the iighteousness baseu on faith says, Bo not say in youi heait,
Who will ascenu into heaven. (that is, to biing Chiist uown)

oi
Who will uescenu into the abyss. (that is, to biing Chiist up fiom
the ueau).

But what uoes it say. The woiu is neai you, in youi
mouth anu in youi heait (that is, the woiu of faith that we pio-
claim);

because, if you confess with youi mouth that }esus is Loiu
anu believe in youi heait that uou iaiseu him fiom the ueau, you
will be saveu. Foi with the heait one believes anu is justifieu, anu
with the mouth one confesses anu is saveu. Foi the Sciiptuie says,
Eveiyone who believes in him will not be put to shame.

Foi theie
is no uistinction between }ew anu uieek; foi the same Loiu is Loiu
of all, bestowing his iiches on all who call on him.

Foi eveiyone
who calls on the name of the Loiu will be saveu.

Bow then will
they call on him in whom they have not believeu. Anu how aie they
to believe in him of whom they have nevei heaiu. Anu how aie they
to heai without someone pieaching.

Anu how aie they to pieach
unless they aie sent. As it is wiitten, Bow beautiful aie the feet of
those who pieach the goou news!

But they have not all obeyeu the
gospel. Foi Isaiah says, Loiu, who has believeu what he has heaiu
fiom us.

So faith comes fiom heaiing, anu heaiing thiough the
woiu of Chiist. ESv

In this passage, Paul iepeats what he has taught in I Coiinthi-
ans about how saving faith is boin: So faith comes fiom heaiing,
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anu heaiing thiough the woiu of Chiist. In the uieek oiiginal it
ieaus:
The Woiu of Chiist may be tianslateu as the Pieaching of
Chiist, which is equivalent to the teim useu in I
Coiinthians 1: 21:

You foolish ualatians! Who has bewitcheu you. Befoie youi veiy
eyes }esus Chiist was cleaily poitiayeu as ciucifieu. I woulu like to
leain just one thing fiom you: Biu you ieceive the Spiiit by the
woiks of the law, oi by believing what you heaiu.
Bave you expeiienceu so much in vainif it ieally was in vain. So
again I ask, uoes uou give you his Spiiit anu woik miiacles among
you by the woiks of the law, oi by youi believing what you heaiu.
So also Abiaham believeu uou, anu it was cieuiteu to him as
iighteousness. ualatians S:1-6 NIv


0 foolish ualatians! Who has bewitcheu you that you shoulu not
obey the tiuth, befoie whose eyes }esus Chiist was cleaily poitiayeu
among you as ciucifieu.

This only I want to leain fiom you: Biu you
ieceive the Spiiit by the woiks of the law, oi by the heaiing of faith.

Aie you so foolish. Baving begun in the Spiiit, aie you now being
maue peifect by the flesh. Bave you suffeieu so many things in
vainif inueeu it was in vain.
Theiefoie Be who supplies the Spiiit to you anu woiks miiacles
among you, uoes Be uo it by the woiks of the law, oi by the heaiing
of faith.

just as Abiaham believeu uou, anu it was accounteu to
him foi iighteousness. S:1-6 NK}

0 foolish ualatians! Who has bewitcheu you. It was befoie youi
eyes that }esus Chiist was publicly poitiayeu as ciucifieu. Let me
ask you only this: Biu you ieceive the Spiiit by woiks of the law oi
by heaiing with faith. Aie you so foolish. Baving begun by the
Spiiit, aie you now being peifecteu by the flesh. Biu you suffei so
many things in vainif inueeu it was in vain.

Boes he who supplies
the Spiiit to you anu woiks miiacles among you uo so by woiks of
the law, oi by heaiing with faith

just as Abiaham believeu uou,
anu it was counteu to him as iighteousness. S:1-6 ESv

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This emphasis on the iole of pieaching the Keiygma as a
means of salvation is founu in Pauls polemical Lettei to the
Chuiches of ualatia. In iemonstiating with the new believeis in
ualatia, he contiasteu salvation by woiks, with the heaiing of
faith oi heaiing with faith oi believing what you heaiu. In
the uieek oiiginal, it ieaus:
.

.
The uieek teim (liteially, the heaiing of
faith) oiiginates fiom Isaiah SS, wheie the piophet began the
section of his piophecy uealing with the suffeiing anu ueath of
the Nessiah with two questions:

Who has believeu what he has heaiu fiom us. (0i who has believeu
what we have heaiu.) Anu to whom has the aim of the L0RB been
ievealeu. ESv

The message of wbot we bove beorJ is none othei than the
message of the uospel; it is not meie news, it is uoou News that
oiiginates fiom uous eteinal plan of salvation; theiefoie it is ac-
companieu by uous uynamic powei in the thiiu peison of the
Tiinity that eventuates with the salvation of the heaieis.
The Insiuei Novement that substitutes uou-bieatheu woius
of the Bible with inoffensive teims to Nuslims fails to listen to
the teachings of the Bible iegaiuing the conveision of unbeliev-
eis to Chiist. The offence, oi obstacle, is not in Biblical vocabu-
laiy, but in the heaits of unbelieveis. To oveicome this obstacle,
uou has oiuaineu the pioclamation of the uospel as the way of
salvation.
By minimizing the impoitance of this pioclama-
tionteachingpieaching piocess, those in the IN movement
piomoting Nuslim-iuiom Tianslations, place too much empha-
sis on theii pioponents well-intentioneu uesiie to simplify hu-
man communication; yet this ciosses the line by iemoving an
essential pillai of oui faith. The Fatheihoou of uou anu the Son-
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471
ship of Chiist may be a skonJelon foi oui Nuslim neighbois, but
a iobust faith in the powei of the Boly Spiiit to biing metonoio, is
the iemeuy.
We must nevei foiget that the Loiu }esus Chiist gave the mis-
sionaiy manuate to Bis Chuich. As we have noticeu eailiei, it
was the chuich in Antioch that commissioneu Paul anu Bainabas,
to pieach the uospel thioughout the Roman Empiie. Aftei they
hau finisheu theii Fiist Nissionaiy jouiney (Acts 1S & 14), they
ietuineu to Antioch anu gave a iepoit to the assembleu chuich,
about the Loius blessing on theii labois. When uisputes aiose
about uentile conveits anu theii submission to the Nosaic Law,
the pioblem was iesolveu at an official chuich assembly as ie-
coiueu in Acts 1S. The Bible anu the Chuich belong togethei in
missions, as well as in the life of establisheu chuiches. Bible
tianslation agencies neeu the coopeiation anu the blessing of the
chuich, anu must not ignoie the long tiauition of Bible tiansla-
tions uown thiough the ages: fiom the Peshitta, the vulgate, Wy-
cliffe, Tynuale, the King }ames, all the way to the piesent uay.
It is my feivent hope that Chiistians uesiiing the conveision of
Nuslims heeu the Woius of the Sciiptuies, iathei than listening
to the wisuom of cultuial anthiopologists, oi linguistic specialists
who have not submitteu theii minus to the Ninu of Chiist!

THE LETTERTOTHEDIOGNETUS
AND THE CHURCHS MISSIUN
TU MUSLIMS TUDAY

By }ocques Eebert

Tbe letter to Bioqnetus (TLB) is one of the eailiest apologetic
wiitings.
2
Wiitten by an anonymous authoi, he is populaily

2
ueislei anu Nix place the uate aiounu 1Su |ueislei, N. L., & Nix, W. E. A 6enerol
lntroJuction to tbe Bible, (Chicago: Noouy Piess. 1996) 1uu.j. Robeits, Bonalu-
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472
calleu Nathetes. The puipose of the lettei was to uemonstiate
that Chiistians weie not a uangei to the city anu Roman Empiie.
The anonymous wiitei is by no means the last to make such an
aigument. Almost exclusively, this lettei has been useu in schol-
aily uiscussions only foi its lexical contiibutions to unueistanu-
ing the uieek New Testament.
S
Although Nathetes was wiiting
in a uiffeient place anu time, many of his insights aie missiologi-
caly ielevant anu instiuctive foi missionaiies touay. Consiuei
the authois uesciiption of eaily Chiistian cultuial integiation
anu engagement:

Foi Chiistians cannot be uistinguisheu fiom the iest of the human
iace by countiy oi language oi customs. They uo not live in cities of
theii own; they uo not use a peculiai foim of speech; they uo not fol-
low an eccentiic mannei of life. This uoctiine of theiis has not been
uiscoveieu by the ingenuity oi ueep thought of inquisitive men, noi
uo they put foiwaiu a meiely human teaching, as some people uo.
Yet, although they live in uieek anu baibaiian cities alike, as each
man's lot has been cast, anu follow the customs of the countiy in
clothing anu foou anu othei matteis of uaily living, at the same time
they give pioof of the iemaikable anu aumitteuly extiaoiuinaiy
constitution of theii own commonwealth. They live in theii own
countiies, but only as aliens. They have a shaie in eveiything as citi-
zens, anu enuuie eveiything as foieigneis. Eveiy foieign lanu is
theii fatheilanu, anu yet foi them eveiy fatheilanu is a foieign lanu.
They maiiy, like eveiyone else, anu they beget chiluien, but they uo

son anu Coxe uate the lettei at 1Su |A. Robeits, }. Bonaluson & A. C. Coxe (Eus.),
Tbe Ante-Nicene Iotbers, volume l: Tbe Apostolic Iotbers witb }ustin Hortyr onJ
lrenoeus. (Buffalo, NY: Chiistian Liteiatuie Company, 188S), 2Sj.
S
Tbeoloqicol Bictionory of tbe New Testoment, Tbe FncyclopeJio of Forly Cbristi-
onity, A 6enerol lntroJuction to tbe Bible, anu Tbe Fxeqeticol Bictionory of tbe
New Testoment aie just a few examples of woiks which use TLB pieuominantly
foi lexical analysis. Schaffs Eistory of tbe Cbristion Cburcb anu Paul Enns Tbe
HooJy EonJbook of Tbeoloqy aie among the minoiity in theii analysis of TLB on
the basis of theology. Peihaps Ray Bakke in his A Tbeoloqy os Biq os tbe City, is
among the fiist to auuiess, albeit biiefly, the missiological implications of TLB.
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not cast out theii offspiing. They shaie theii boaiu with each othei,
but not theii maiiiage beu. It is tiue that they aie "in the flesh," but
they uo not live "accoiuing to the flesh." They busy themselves on
eaith, but theii citizenship is in heaven. They obey the establisheu
laws, but in theii own lives they go fai beyonu what the laws ie-
quiie. They love all men, anu by all men aie peisecuteu. They aie
unknown, anu still they aie conuemneu; they aie put to ueath, anu
yet they aie biought to life. They aie pooi, anu yet they make many
iich; they aie completely uestitute, anu yet they enjoy complete
abunuance. They aie uishonoieu, anu in theii veiy uishonoi aie
gloiifieu; they aie uefameu, anu aie vinuicateu. They aie ievileu,
anu yet they bless; when they aie affionteu, they still pay uue ie-
spect. When they uo goou, they aie punisheu as eviluoeis; unueigo-
ing punishment, they iejoice because they aie biought to life. They
aie tieateu by the }ews as foieigneis anu enemies, anu aie hunteu
uown by the uieeks; anu all the time those who hate them finu it
impossible to justify theii enmity.
4


The aigument in this lettei ieflects the tone of those seeking to
gain legitimacy as a minoiity within a laigei gioup. Evangelistic
appioaches uevelopeu in majoiity settings focus on geogiaphical
sepaiation, political uominance, anu stiict obseivance of the new
overcultuies paiticulai ieligio-cultuial taboos contia-aiguments
uevelopeu in minoiity settings which ieflect a moie conciliatoiy
anu contextual tone. Najoiity setting apologists aie moie fo-
cuseu on uemonstiating the theological uiffeiences anu unique-
ness of Chiistian belief, values, anu stiuctuies as a subcultuie
oi overcultuieanu calling the non-Chiistian woilu to leave the
lowei woilu to become pait of the sepaiatist movement. The
majoiity community seeks to uemonstiate its faith baseu on au-
heiing to sepaiatist uistinctives which often maiginalizes minoi-
ity communities.

4
This tianslation is taken fiom }ohn Baillie, }ohn T. NcNeill, anu Beniy P. van
Beusen, The Libiaiy of Chiistian Classics, vol I. Forly Cbristion Iotbers eu. Ciyil
C. Richaiuson (Philauelphia: Westminstei Piess). This woik can be accesseu in
its entiiety at www.ccel.oigcceliichaiusonfatheis.x.i.ii.html.
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In contiast to majoiity appioaches, apologetic appioaches
fiom the times anu places wheie Chiistians aie in the minoiity
take on a uiamatically uiffeient tone fiomthe appioaches uevel-
opeu when Chiistians aie in the majoiity. Evangelistic ap-
pioaches fiom TLB focus on living exemplaiy lives in haimony
with the laigei cultuie, hospitality, mateiialistic uetachment, anu
community iegeneiation. Aiguments uevelopeu in minoiity set-
tings uemonstiate that Chiistianity seeks to ieueem the commu-
nity thiough iuentifying common goals, lives, anu values. The
emeiging community was not seeking to builu anything new, but
to tiansfoim what was alieauy theie. Emeiging communities
seek to uemonstiate theii faith by inteinal tiansfoimation while
still auheiing to bioauei cultuial noims when possible.
Applying TLB to the Islamic context may leau the ieauei to ciy
foul as the common peiception is that the Islamic woilu is ueciu-
euly ieligious while the uieco-Roman woilu was somehow neu-
tial. 0ne might believe that the fieeuom with which Nathetes
integiates Chiistian thought anu piactices is not applicable to
piactising Chiistian faith in Islamic contexts. This view, how-
evei, elevates Islamic theology tothe extent to which it infoims
the bioauei Islamic cultuie while at the same time ieuuces the
extent to which uieek philosophy anu ieligion infoimeu bioauei
uieco-Roman cultuie. A woiu of caution is uue, howevei, as the
lettei was wiitten uesciiptively anu this aiticle uses the lettei
piesciiptively. This aiticle is the ieasonable application of TLB
to ministiy in the Nuslim woilu without taking into consiueia-
tion social piopiiety oi secuiity issues. It also uoes not question
the accuiacy of Nathetes claims conceining Chiistian life anu
piactice in his context. Theie aie foui points of application to
consiuei in TLB.
Fiist, missionaiies anu native Chiistians shoulu paiticipate in
the host cultuie. Chiistians in the west aie notoiious foi setting
up theii own spaces anu copycat stiuctuies, aits, anu foims.
Nathetes aigues to Biognetus that the eaily believeis weie ex-
teinally inuistinguishable fiom theii fellow citizens. They spoke
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47S
the same language anu followeu the same customs. They woie
the same clothes anu ate the same foou. National believeis anu
foieign missionaiies alike aie often pione to view the cultuial
exteinals of the Nuslim woilu with suspicion anu aveision. This
has iesulteu in uual vocabulaiies iegaiuing not only ieligious
topics but even uown to the way that people gieet oi offei com-
foit to one anothei aftei a sneeze. This has also iesulteu in the
use of paiticulai names foi chiluien anu styles of uiessing (not
coveiing the haii, cioss tattoos, golu jeweliy, etc) so as to uem-
onstiate theii sepaiation. If those in the bioauei cultuie can as-
ceitain a peisons ieligion by watching them walk uown the
stieet oi heaiing them intiouuce themselves then, accoiuing to
TLB, we have eiieu on minutia iathei than on essential Chiisti-
anity. Chiistians shoulu be fiee to use common vocabulaiy anu
similai clothing as a way of cultuial auaptation anu paiticipation.
The uefining maik of believeis is not in how they talk anu uiess,
but in how they love.
Paiticipation uoes not only have to uo with peisonal exteinals,
it also auuiesses wheie anu how one chooses to live. Chiistians
in Nathetes community weie maikeu by cultuial noimalcy; they
weie not eccentiic. The eaily emeiging community in the let-
tei chose to live among the baibaiian cities. They uiu not sepa-
iate themselves fiom those who weie of questionable ieputation
anu lifestyle. They weie not inteiesteu in caiving out theii own
space in the city that belongeu to theii sub-community. When
Paul visiteu the oveilv-ieligious city of Athens, he noteu that uou
uoes not live in builuings built by human hanus. This pioclama-
tion was unuoubteuly a ielief to the Athens County Commis-
sionei. Close location to the heathen was of vital impoitance
since they stiesseu shaiing theii houses, lives, anu wealth with
those aiounu them. It is haiu to have a ministiy built on hospi-
tality anu iespectable living when one lives in a Chiistian ghetto.
0n the negative siue, Chiistians have been pione to gathei to-
gethei as opposeu to spieauing beyonu theii geogiaphic anu cul-
tuial comfoit zone. 0n the positive siue, those who piactice life
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476
togethei among the non-Chiistians as those in Nathetes uay uiu
will have new oppoitunities to mouel the kinguom lifestyle in a
language, cultuie anu social space that makes sense to non-
Chiistians anu makes it accessible to them.
Seconu, missionaiies anu native Chiistians shoulu fully stake
theii lives in theii host community. Nathetes emeiging commu-
nity maiiieu anu hau chiluien anu planteu theii lives theie
among non-Chiistians. Theie was no claim to fatheilanu anu
no uespaii in living in the foieign woilu. 0ne attituue that has
continually plagueu the chuich is the Platonic notion that uou is
not conceineu with the heie anu now, but is simply conceineu
with the eteinal business of saving souls. While theie is always
the weight of eteinity, uou loves the heie-anu-now nonetheless.
Be is seeking to iestoie all things to himself. }ust like the exiles
in }eiemiahs uay weie instiucteu to plant theii lives, so liveu the
eaily Chiistians.
Thiiu, missionaiies anu native Chiistians shoulu not claim
theii iights in the cultuie. Although this may appeai to be con-
tiauictoiy to point two it is not. While eaily believeis weie fully
vesteu in theii cities,
they weie at the same
time aliens. Content
with theii status as ex-
iles anu foieigneis, they
uiu not seek the pio-
veibial place at the ta-
ble. Stiategically
speaking, this minuset
is fieeing. Chiistians aie always fiee to uo as they please in any
context; howevei, they must be willing to pay the piice foi fieely
following the will of uou. The emeigent community woikeu as if
they weie the coineistone of the community, liveu lives in excess
of the laws uemanus, loveu all men, anu shaieu theii homes with
anyone in neeu. The human natuies instinct of entitlement
ciinges at what they ieceiveu in ietuin: they weie blameu as foi-
Tbey are In return tbey
Put to ueath Biing life
Pooi anu
uestitute
Nake people iich anu
enjoy abunuance
Bishonoieu Biing gloiy fiom uis-
honoi
Revileu Pay uue iespect
uoou Punisheu foi evil
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477
eigneis, theii iiches weie passeu on to otheis anu they weie pei-
secuteu as eviluoeis. They uiu all of this without ueveloping a
maityis complex. Nany of the clashes between local Chiistians
anu Nuslims in the countiy wheie I seiveu focuseu moie on po-
litical anu social iights anu actions iathei than the offensive na-
tuie of the uospel. Chiistians often weie peisecuteu foi conveit-
ing theii community centeis into chuiches. While they weie al-
loweu to peifoim all of the functions of chuich in theii commu-
nity, they chose to conveit them into chuiches (this iequiies the
constiuction of a uome anu the piopei usage of ciosses on the
exteiioi of the builuing) in spite of not having official peimission.
Noie often than not, these events enueu in bloousheu anu embit-
teieu Nuslims anu Chiistians towaius each othei.
Fouith, missionaiies anu national Chiistians shoulu take up
theii ciosses anu uie. Nathetes aigues that his community of
Chiistians liveu giving eveiything they hau to the community anu
people wheie they liveu. Not only uiu they iefiain fiom uevelop-
ing a political stiategy to tiy to piospei fiom all of the goou will
they hau eaineu, they ieceiveu just the opposite. While unjustly
ieceiving the opposite foi all of theii saciificial effoits, they
maintaineu a Chiist-like humility. They weie not theie to take
ovei; they weie not theie to win. They weie theie to follow
Chiist thiough the way of the cioss: ueath. While many believeis
aie pushing foi legal status anu piotectionanu who can blame
themthe woik of Chiist is not halteu by the laws of man so long
as the bouy of Chiist has the minu of Chiist.
Nany people woulu aigue that to make such social conces-
sions is somehow compiomising in any cultuie, much less in Is-
lamic cultuies. This sentiment is paitly uue to the fact that in
westein Chiistianity, paiticulaily evangelicalism anu funuamen-
talism, Chiistianity is uefineu piimaiily by what its followeis uo
not uo anu what they aie against.
S
The believeis fiom TLB weie

S
A common auage is that Chiistians uont smoke, uiink oi chew |tobaccoj anu
they uont go out with folks that uo. In ieligious-political ciicles, evangelicals
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478
piimaiily uefineu by what they chose to uo anu saciifice. This is
a Chiistian ethic in anu of itself which follows the pattein of
Chiist. }esus was continually getting into tiouble with the ielig-
ious leaueis simply because he uiu not obseive the same cultuial
minutia as they uiu. The beauty of Chiists woik is not what he
chose not to uo, oi with whom he chose not to associate, but
what he chose to saciifice. In auuition to what they uiu piactice,
anu what they saciificeu, they uiu in fact stanu up to the cultuie
on two points. They iefuseu to commit infanticiue anu although
they shaieu theii homes anu belongings in eveiy way, they uiu
not commit auulteiy.
TLB pioviues a lot of license cultuially that woulu make the
gatekeepeis of mouein evangelicalism anu funuamentalism
neivous. They aie neivous simply because at some point the
chuich accepteu Platonic uualism in piactice ovei biblical ho-
lism; they iejecteu people, places anu piactices until they weie
willing to come out anu be pait of the majoiity community.
6
This

aie known piimaiily by what they aie against: aboition, alcohol, gambling, gay
maiiiage, etc.
6
Platonic uualism was at the ioot of many eaily chuich heiesies ielating to the
peison of }esus. They saw a pioblem with }esus being both fully uou anu fully
man if he hau to take on evil mattei. To fix this uilemma they aigueu that he
eithei was not fully uou oi was not fully man. While these theological battles
ovei evil mattei anu its implications on the hypostatic union aie mostly a thing
of the past, mouein evangelicalism anu funuamentalism have ieviveu Platonic
uualism as it ielates to ethics. These movements uiew on theii puiitanical
ioots anu liveu as if the mateiial woilu was spiiitually uamaging. vignettes of
this can be seen in }ohn Bunyans uesciiption of the city of vanity Faii in Pil-
qrims Proqress. Cail F. B. Beniy opposes these views in his woik Tbe 0neosy
Conscience of HoJern IunJomentolism wheie he questions the legitimacy of
Chiistians who will aigue ovei social piactices such as iook anu caius but com-
pletely omit tiue social atiocities fiom theii theologizing. In seculai thought,
Fieuuian psychology asseiteu that sin anu guilt weie a iesult of cultuie anu
upbiinging. Contia Platonic uualism anu Fieuuian explanations foi sin, biblical
holism asseits that the whole woilu was cieateu goou anu though it is now
fallen is not completely coiiupteu (eg. intiinsically evil). Thus, sin is not a ie-
sult of exteinalmateiialcoiiuption but of a fallen human natuie. Fiancis
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479
has been somewhat common in the West. Chuiches in the south-
ein states in Ameiica staiteu the Coloi uuaiu who was iesponsi-
ble foi uenying entiance to Afiican Ameiicans. Similaily theie
weie many chuiches who latei uenieu entiy to hippies because
of theii unkempt haii, slovenly appeaiances anu ueviant cultuial
piactices. In the Niuule East the issues aie complicateu by local
laws which piohibit conveision anu iequiie ieligious iuentifica-
tion on uiiveis licenses. These laws often suppoit social atti-
tuues which iequiie Chiistian conveits fiom Islam to change
theii name anu nevei ieceive full stanuing in the chuich. If the
mouein chuich goes back to an oluei appioach to Chiistian liv-
ing, it foices Chiistians out of theii Chiistian comfoit zones anu
into the woilu in saciificial anu uangeious ways. All of this is
how TLB uefines being in the flesh anu not accoiuing to the
flesh
Nost westein countiies aie expeiiencing cultuial tiansfoima-
tions wheiein long-vesteu Chiistian establishments aie finuing
themselves on the fiinges of influence, powei, anu iespectability.
Nany Chiistians in the Nuslim woilu, who aie alieauy in a mi-
noiity status, uesiie Westein-style fieeuoms, paiticulaily aftei
the Aiab Spiing. Political powei will foievei be the seuuction of
the Chuich. Nouein Chiistians must always iemembei that they
aie not the fiist to tieau these giounus. Theie is much to be
gaineu by iefusing to fight foi contiol anu influence thiough hu-
man means. Chiistians shoulu make theii faith pioactive anu
positive iathei than simply ieactive anu negative. By setting
asiue the stiuggle foi majoiity status anu iecognition Chiistians
aie able to focus on the calling to be incainational. Nathetes

Schaeffei is a champion of this view thioughout his woiks in geneial, but most
specifically in True Spirituolity, Tbe Hork of tbe Cbristion, anu Tbe New Super
Spirituolity. In this view, Chiistians shoulu boluly speak to anu live in all paits
of cultuie. Chiistians shoulu invaue aits, politics, euucation anu all othei sec-
tois to biing them unuei the loiuship of Chiist iathei than uiawing a line in the
sanu uiviuing the sacieu fiom the seculai.
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48u
paints a tiuly beautiful poitiait of what a Chiistian minoiity
looks like when they incainate into the majoiity cultuie.

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481
Bibliograpby and Related Reading:
Baillie, }ohn, NcNeill, }ohn T. anu van Beusen, Beniy P. The Li-
biaiy of Chiistian Classics, vol I. Forly Cbristion Iotbers
eu. Cyiil C. Richaiuson (Philauelphia: Westminstei Piess).

Bakke, Ray. A Tbeoloqy As Biq As Tbe City, (IvP: uianu Rapius,
1997).

ueislei, N. L., & Nix, W. E. A 6enerol lntroJuction to tbe Bible, (Chi-
cago: Noouy Piess, 1996).

Beniy, Cail F. B., Tbe 0neosy Conscience of HoJern IunJomentol-
ism, (Eeiumans: uianu Rapius, 2uuS).

Robeits, A., Bonaluson, }., Coxe, A. C. (Eus.), Tbe Ante-Nicene Io-
tbers, volume l: Tbe Apostolic Iotbers witb }ustin Hortyr
onJ lrenoeus. (Buffalo, NY: Chiistian Liteiatuie Company,
188S).

Schaeffei, Fiancis A. The Complete Woiks of Fiancis Schaeffei,
vol S, Tbe New Super Spirituolity, (Ciossway Books: West-
chestei, 1982).



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482
ST. CUNSTANTINE THE CREAT:
AN URTHUDUX PERSPECTIVE

By Horino Sbelly Eovocb
1


Abstract: The policies anu peison of Roman empeioi Constantine I aie
often seen as having playeu a negative iole in the uevelopment of
chuich-state ielations. 0n the othei hanu, 0ithouox Chiistians venei-
ate him as St. Constantine the uieat, Equal to the Apostles. This essay
eluciuates the 0ithouox view of Constantine by engaging with the his-
toiical liteiatuie to answei some of the most common chaiges maue
against him.

Key terms: Constantine I, Constantinianism, anti-Constantinianism,
Constantinian shift, Eastein 0ithouox Chuich, sanctity

1 Introduction
Nuch has been wiitten of late on Roman empeioi Constantine Is
iole in the histoiy of chuich-state ielations. Some, incluuing
piominent theologians }ohn Bowaiu Youei anu Stanley Bauei-
was, believe that his policies hau a veiy negative effect on the
uevelopment of Chiistianity, a change they call the Constantin-
ian shift. In extenuing his impeiial enuoisement to a once pei-
secuteu gioup, Constantine is saiu to have solu out the Chuich,
with fai-ieaching implications.
But was Constantine ieally as bau as his uetiactois claim.
Even moie, was Constantine himself a Constantinian. As I will
show, the chaiges commonly leveleu against Constantine uo not
holu up unuei histoiical sciutiny.
Constantine was neithei a cynical ciypto-pagan, noi uiu his
policies coiiupt a once-gloiious Chuich of maityis. Be was just

1
Naiina Shelly Bavach is cuiiently piepaiing foi uoctoial stuuy in Russian
liteiatuie. She also seives as a choiistei at Boly Piotection 0ithouox Chuich, a
mission of the Russian 0ithouox Chuich 0utsiue of Russia in the Kansas City
aiea.
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48S
anothei sinnei tiying to answei the age-olu question: what uoes
it mean to follow Chiist riqbt now. In Constantines case, that
meant combining the uuties of a Roman empeioi with the ue-
manus of a new faith.
Ny aim in wiiting this aiticle is to piesent the viewpoint of a
young 0ithouox Chiistian laywoman. I am neithei a theologian
noi a Chuich histoiian, having insteau ieceiveu tiaining in phi-
losophy anu compaiative liteiatuie. That saiu, along with othei
0ithouox Chiistians, I consiuei Constantine to be a saint, anu I
piay foi his inteicession to uou.
This assessment of Constantine emphasizes above all the fact
of his holiness, anu only seconuaiily his apostolic seivice to the
Chuich as the fiist Chiistian empeioi. Neithei uenying noi ui-
minishing his many questionable actions, I shall piesent them as
pait of a gieatei stoiy that enueu with Constantines justification.

2 Tbe Cbarges against Constantine
I shall now auuiess the most common chaiges maue against
Constantine, iesponuing to each with histoiical aiguments anu
examples.

2.1ThatConstantinewasnotreallyaChristian
A view of Constantine as a cynical manipulatoi of populai ielig-
ious sentiment pieuominates in seculai Westein opinion, not in
the least uue to Tbe Bo vinci CoJe. In the meuieval peiiou,
Constantine hau been piomoteu in both East anu West as the
stanuaiu against which meuieval iuleis weie measuieu, but the
1S76 ieuiscoveiy anu tianslation of pagan wiitei Zosimus nega-
tive chaiacteiization gave Renaissance humanists ammunition
against the tiauitional hagiogiaphic pictuie.
2

Latei scholais continueu in a similai vein: in his classic 18SS
stuuy (still in piint), ueiman histoiian }acob Buickhaiut scoffs at
the possibility that Constantine coulu have believeu in anything
at all. In a genius uiiven without suicease by ambition anu lust

2
Baines, Constontine onJ Fusebius, 27S4.
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484
foi powei, wiites Buickhaiut, theie can be no question of
Chiistianity anu paganism, of conscious ieligiosity oi iiieligios-
ity|;j such a man is essentially unieligious.
S
Not only was
Constantine not a Chiistian, Buickhaiut anu otheis aigueu, he
uiu not caie foi anything but powei.
4

All of this changeu in 1929 with Noiman Baynes seminal lec-


tuie Constontine tbe 6reot onJ tbe Cbristion Cburcb. As Petei }.
Leithait notes,

At least since Noiman Baynestheie has been a giowing consensus
among English-speaking scholais on some cential questions about
the fiist Chiistian empeioiTouay, few specialists in the peiiou
question the fact that Constantine was a ieal Chiistian, anu those
who want to uispute the accounts of his conveision uo so because
they think he giew up a Chiistian.
S


Leithaits asseition is well founueu. Najoi woiks on
Constantine uesciibing him as a committeu Chiistian incluue An-
uieas Alfoluis Tbe Conversion of Constontine onJ Poqon Rome
(1948), Timothy Baines Constontine onJ Fusebius (1982), Chai-
les Natson 0uahls Constontine onJ tbe Cbristion Fmpire (2uu4),
anu most iecently Paul Stephensons biogiaphy Constontine: Ro-
mon Fmperor, Cbristion victor (2uu9). Foi bettei oi woise, these
scholais concluue, Constantine believeu in Chiist.
Theie iemains much speculation conceining Constantines
conveision. Some think it occuiieu aftei his victoiy ovei Naxen-
tius at the Nilvian Biiuge in S12; otheis believe it happeneu
giauually ovei the couise of many yeais. The tiauitional hagi-
ogiaphical liteiatuie
6
(along with some mouein scholais)
7
as-

S
Tbe Aqe of Constontine tbe 6reot, 292.
4
Euwaiu uibbon, authoi of the influential Becline onJ Ioll of tbe Romon Fmpire,
also consiueieu Constantine to be an oppoitunist, if peihaps an eainestly
Chiistian one.
S
BefenJinq Constontine, 91u.
6
Eusebius, life of Constontine, 82; Bimitiy of Rostov, Zhitiie, 9uS.
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seits the foimei, but many mouein wiiteis holu the lattei posi-
tion.
8
Regaiuless of the ciicumstances, the impoitant thing is
that Constantine conveiteu anu was eventually baptizeu into the
Chuich.
The populai claim that Constantine was simply iiuing the
wave of gieatei ieligious tienus foi peisonal gain uoes not finu
suppoit in the facts, eithei. Constantines ambition anu political
acumen weie not tainisheu by the cynicism we associate with
these qualities touay.
Like othei Roman leaueis befoie him, Constantine sought ui-
vine aiu anu piotection foi himself anu his subjects.
9
A commit-
teu monotheist, he hau been taught fiom chiluhoou to honoi the
summus Jeus, oi supieme gou.
1u

Constantine continueu to seaich foi this uou thioughout his
life.
11
When one uay he envisioneu a cioss with the woius: en
touto niko (in this, win), Constantine was stunneu. Some Chiis-
tian soluieis inteipieteu this vision as being of theii uou. Con-
vinceu of the signs powei, Constantine oiueieu that it
12
be in-
sciibeu on all shielus befoie maiching against Naxentius. Anu he
won.
Following this victoiy, Constantine iealizeu that the Chiistian
uou was inueeu his long-sought summus Jeus. |Constantinesj

7
In S12 |Constantinej expeiienceu a ieligious conveision which piofounuly
affecteu his conception of himself. Baines, Constontine onJ Fusebius, 27S; also
see Leithait, BefenJinq Constontine, 7982.
8
Conveision is nevei a momentaiy phenomenon, asseits Stephenson; it is
only helu to have been upon ieflection anu with hinusight. Constontine, 168.
9
As a Roman empeioi, he helu the tiauitional title of pontifex moximus, oi high-
est piiest: the health of the empiie was linkeu with ieligious uevotion. Foi
moie on this, see Baines, Constontine onJ Fusebius, 24S; Leithait, BefenJinq
Constontine, S27.
1u
Stephenson, Constontine, 167.
11
Eusebius, life of Constontine, 8u.
12
Theie is some uebate as to whethei the sign was initially a cioss, a Chi-Rho,
oi a similai symbol, but the uetails aie not paiticulaily impoitant. All weie
explicitly Chiistian symbols; all containeu a cioss.
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486
conveision |in S12j was not the final uecision in a long inteinal
seaich foi moial iegeneiation anu peisonal salvation; but it was
not a momentaiy act of puie political expeuiency eithei, ex-
plains 0uahl. Bis ievelatoiy expeiiences convinceu him that the
uou of the Chiistians hau answeieu his sinceie piayeis.
1S
Thus
uiu Constantine begin his jouiney in Chiist.
Constantine iefuseu to make the tiauitional pagan saciifice
upon his victoiious entiy into Rome,
14
insteau offeiing piayeis of
thanksgiving to the uou who hau given him victoiy.
1S
In S1S, he
issueu the Euict of Nilan, enuing neaily thiee centuiies of
peisecution.
Coming yeais biought Chiistianizing legislation, such as the
eventual outlawing of glauiatoiial games anu all othei foims of
bloou saciifice. Constantine wanteu to ieplace them with the
unbloouy saciifice of the Euchaiist.
16
Be built a new city in Byz-
antium entiiely fiee of pagan temples, anu he gave explicitly
Chiistian seimons to people in his couit.
Timothy Baines summaiizes his ieign thus: Aftei S12
Constantine consiueieu that his main uuty as empeioi was to
inculcate viitue in his subjects anu to peisuaue them to woiship
uouBe believeu sinceiely that uou hau given him a special mis-
sion to conveit the Roman Empiie to Chiistianity.
17
As it tuins
out, not only was Constantine a Chiistian he was a missionaiy.

2.2 That Constantine wanted to make Christianity com-


pulsory
Some, howevei, misinteipiet the means by which Constantine
tiieu to spieau faith in Chiist. Constantine uiu not establish
Chiistianity as the state ieligion of the Empiie: this was uone
long aftei his ueath by the empeioi Theouosius in S8u. Whethei

1S
Constontine onJ tbe Cbristion Fmpire, 912.
14
Leithait, BefenJinq Constontine, S28.
1S
Bimitiy of Rostov, Zhitiie, 9uS.
16
Leithait, BefenJinq Constontine, S289.
17
Constontine onJ Fusebius, 27S.
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oi not establishment was a goou move on Theouosius pait I
leave to fuithei consiueiation.
The point I wish to make heie is that Constantine was, by
fouith-centuiy stanuaius, suipiisingly toleiant of othei ieligions.
In his toleiation of paganism, Constantine took aftei Lac-
tantius, a Chiistian apologist anu teachei of Latin ihetoiic who
became one of his closest auvisois.
18
An euict issueu to the East-
ein piovinces following Constantines victoiy ovei Licinius in
S24 (iepiouuceu in Eusebius life) states his views on toleiation
most explicitly:

Foi the geneial goou of the woilu anu of all mankinu I uesiie that
youi people be at peace anu stay fiee fiom stiife. Let those in eiioi,
as well as the believeis, glauly ieceive the benefit of peace anu
quietNay none molest anothei; may each ietain what his soul ue-
siies, anu piactise it let no one use what he has ieceiveu by innei
conviction as a means to haim his neighboui. What each has seen
anu unueistoou, he must use, if possible, to help the othei; but if that
is impossible, the mattei shoulu be uioppeu.
19


Constantine accepteu the tiuth of Chiistianity, but he uiu not
believe that the easy yoke of Chiist (Natt 11:Su) coulu oi
shoulu be imposeu by foice: It is one thing to take on willingly
the contest foi immoitality, quite anothei to enfoice it with sanc-
tions.
2u
Pagans continueu to occupy impoitant goveinment po-
sitions, anu Constantine extenueu the same tax exemption to
synagogue heaus anu othei }ewish leaueis that he offeieu to
Chiistian piiests.
21

Constantine maue no seciet, howevei, of his allegiance to
Chiist as the only-begotten Son of uou (Nicene Cieeu), noi uiu
he hiue his uisuain foi those who uiu not agiee, especially pa-
gans. Be passeu laws piohibit|ingj }ews fiom attacking conveits

18
Leithait, BefenJinq Constontine, 11u.
19
Qtu. in life of Constontine, 11S4.
2u
Ibiu., 114.
21
Leithait, BefenJinq Constontine, 1S2.
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to Chiistianity unuei pain of buining,
22
anu gieatly limiteu the
pagan piactice of uivination.
2S
This open (anu sometimes biutal)
piomotion of Chiistianity on Constantines pait iuns contiaiy to
touays sensibilities, infoimeu as they aie by the Lockean concep-
tion of ieligion as a stiictly piivate mattei.
Leithait makes a goou case foi the coheience of Constantines
position ovei Lockes which, he concluues, pietenus to offei a
level playing fielu but ieally favois ieligions that make no claims
othei than ovei ones own Sunuay moining.
24
0ne may well take
issue with Constantines methous, but one wonueis whethei it is
even possible, let alone uesiiable, foi goveinment officials to uis-
iegaiu theii closest-helu beliefs when making uecisions of state.
Nany Westeineis, incluuing a goou numbei of Chiistians, aie
uncomfoitable with the iuea of a society piomoting Chiistianity
as the one tiue Faith. Witch buining, the Inquisition, anu the
Ciusaues immeuiately come to minu. 0ithouox Chiistians, how-
evei, have not tiauitionally been so waiy of explicit piomotion of
Chiistianity on the pait of state leaueis. As Timothy Waie (now
Netiopolitan Kallistos of Biokleia) wiites in Tbe 0rtboJox
Cburcb,

Theie aie many touaywho shaiply ciiticize the Byzantine Empiie
anu the iuea of a Chiistian society foi which it stanus. Yet weie the
Byzantines entiiely wiong. They believeu that Chiist, who liveu on
eaith as a man, hau ieueemeu eveiy aspect of human existence, anu
helu theiefoie that it was possible to baptize not human inuiviuuals
only but the whole spiiit anu oiganization of society.
2S


The 0ithouox iueal is one of sympbonio, of a haimony between
Chuich anu State, iathei than an aitificial uivision between the
two. Successive Byzantine empeiois often oveisteppeu theii
bounus, meuuling in affaiis best left to conscience. But

22
Ibiu.
2S
Baines, Constontine onJ Fusebius, S2.
24
BefenJinq Constontine, 144.
2S
Tbe 0rtboJox Cburcb, Su.
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Constantine uiu not see himself as aibitei of all things sacieu:
insteau, he uefeiieu to bishops, anu ultimately to uou. In Lei-
thaits woius, he knew|thatj neithei society noi social space,
neithei public life noi the space in which it takes place, can be
ieligiously neutial.
26

2.3 That Constantine thought of himself as head of the


Churchaswellasheadofstate
Constantines policies aie often seen as leauing to the oveit cae-
saiopapism of latei iegimes, East anu West. Bishops of the time
saw the fiist Chiistian empeioi as a natuial aujuuicatoi, anu
Constantine ieluctantly accepteu this iole but only to a point.
Be inteifeieu in the Bonatist contioveisy of the Afiican Chuich,
anu he summoneu the fiist Chuich council at Nicaea.
In both cases, it shoulu be noteu, he hau been calleu upon by
bishops anu otheis to become involveu. If anyone is to blame
foi staiting a piocess that suboiuinateu the Chuich to the em-
peioi, wiites Leithait, it is not Constantine but the Bonatists.
Be was inviteJ to sitRathei than accepting the appeal |of a Bo-
natist bishopj uiiectly, Constantine ueflecteu iesponsibility to
the bishops who weie to be assembleu at Rome.
27

0ne must keep in minu that the Chuich was an entiiely new
soit of institution, anu thus it iepiesenteu a stumbling block to
geneiations of Roman empeiois. This new Isiael, an inuepenu-
ent nation witbin the empiie without ethnic oi social oi geo-
giaphic bounuaiies was unpieceuenteu.
28
0nuei Constantine,
a piecaiious balance was establisheu between the empeioi anu
the episcopacy that was latei to be tilteu. Thiough the centuiies,
howevei, it has helpeu to have the Cieeu as a guiue a uiiect
iesult of impeiial inteifeience.

2.4ThatConstantinedidalotofun-Christianthings

26
Leithait, BefenJinq Constontine, 14S.
27
Ibiu., 1S7.
28
Ibiu., 18S.
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The final chaige I will consiuei is one often maue of Chiistians:
namely, that they uo not live up to theii piinciples. Constantine
was a militaiy leauei as well as a Roman empeioi, anu it can be
assumeu that he peisonally killeu a numbei of people, as well as
giving oiueis to kill. Toituie was still wiuely useu uuiing his
ieign, anu haish punishments peisisteu.
29

Amongst all the evil things of which Constantine is accuseu,
the ueaths of his son Ciispus anu wife Fausta stanu out. What-
evei the ieasons foi these allegeu executions, they aie ceitainly a
soiuiu affaii.
Su
We must iemembei, howevei, that oui Loiu uiu
not come to call the iighteous, but sinneis to iepentance (Natt
9:1S). Theie is a long histoiy in the Chuich of sinneis, even
muiueieis, answeiing this call: St. Noses the Black, a fouith-
centuiy Ethiopian ueseit fathei, staiteu life as the leauei of a vio-
lent gang of banuits, anu the twentieth-centuiy Russian saint
Silouan of Nt. Athos once neaily killeu a man with a blow to the
chest befoie beginning his own path of iepentance. Wonuious
is uou in Bis saints, ueclaies the Psalmist (Ps 67:SS).
S1
In them,
we see the ciookeumaue stiaight (Luke S:S) anu fallen hu-
man natuie ieueemeu. Constantine was not peifect, but in the
enu, claim the 0ithouox, he pleaseu uou.

3 Epilogue: St. Constantine tbe Creat
The most seiious pioblem with attacks on Constantine is the
confusion of Constantine with Constantinianism. The fiist is a
man who liveu in time anu space, a human being calleu to be the
fiist Chiistian empeioi. The seconu is a set of abstiactions, a col-

29
Ibiu., S28.
Su
Foi moie on the ueaths of Fausta anu Ciispus, see 0uahl, Constontine onJ tbe
Cbristion Fmpire, 18uS; Stephenson, Constontine, 2192S; Leithait, BefenJinq
Constontine, 228Su. Eusebius anu othei hagiogiapheis eithei gloss ovei these
events oi (like Bimitiy of Rostov) uo not mention them at all.
S1
Beie I follow the Septuagint numbeiing, accoiuing to the 0ithouox tiauition.
The tianslation is fiom the Psolter AccorJinq to tbe Seventy publisheu by the
Boly Tiansfiguiation Nonasteiy in Boston.
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491
lection of ciitiques laigely baseu in mouein anxieties about living
an authentic life in Chiist.
0ne is a unique peison loveu by uou; the othei is meiely a use-
ful constiuct foi the testing of conscience. We must be caieful of
the Chuich, but we must always iemembei that the gates of hell
shall not pievail against it (Natt 16:18). uous ways aie not oui
ways. Be pioviues in a mannei we cannot fathom. In the 0itho-
uox view, it pleaseu Bim that Bis Chuich be peimitteu to spieau
anu piospei on giounu piepaieu by the bloou of the maityis.
Anti-Constantinians aie conceineu about tiying to seive both
uou anu Caesai, anu they challenge Chiistians to live by theii
conscience. These aie seiious conceins Constantine himself
shaieu them. In his final uays on Eaith, he is saiu to have uoffeu
the impeiial puiple foi the simple white of baptism: like all the
saints, he finally iejecteu sin anu put on Chiist (ual S:27). Be
uiu not iesume his impeiial uuties anu spent his last uays in
iepentance.
S2

Constantine, wiites Leithait, seemeu to believe that theie
was a basic incompatibility between being an empeioi anu being
a Chiistian, between couit anu chuich, waifaie anu piayei, the
puiple anu the white.
SS
Bis conscience clean, Constantine ie-
poseu in the Loiu. Along the way, he biought a gieat many peo-
ple to Chiist, biavely attempting to live his faith as the leauei of a
vast empiie. Foi this ieason, 0ithouox Chiistians veneiate him
as equal to the apostles.
S4


S2
Accoiuing to Eusebius, life of Constontine, 178. Bimitiy of Rostov iepeats an
account fiom the meuieval Acts of tbe BlesseJ Silvester (Zhitiie, 9u46), ac-
coiuing to which Constantine was baptizeu much eailiei unuei uiamatic cii-
cumstances. Leithait believes this account to be spuiious (BefenJinq
Constontine, 299).
SS
BefenJinq Constontine, Suu.
S4
In 0ithouoxy, the title equal-to-the-apostles (uieek: isopostolos; Slavonic:
rovnoopostolnyi) is tiauitionally given to those saints who have gieatly con-
tiibuteu to the spieau of Chiistianity, such as St. Nina, enlightenei of ueoigia,
anu SS. Cyiil anu Nethouius, missionaiies to the Slavs.
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Bibliograpby

Baines, Timothy Baviu. Constontine onJ Fusebius. Cambiiuge,
NA: Baivaiu 0P, 1981.
Buickhaiut, }acob. Tbe Aqe of Constontine tbe 6reot. Tianslateu
by Noses Bauas. Lonuon: Routleuge anu Kegan Paul, Ltu.,
1949.
Bimitiy of Rostov. Zhitiie sviatago iavnoapostolnago velikago
tsaiia Konstantina i sviatyia khiistoliubivyia mateie ego
Eleny. In Zbitiio sviotykb, Nait-mai:9u18. Sibiiskaia
blagozvonnitsa, 2uu7.
Eusebius. life of Constontine. Euiteu by Aveiil Cameion anu
Stuait ueoige Ball. Tianslateu by Aveiil Cameion anu
Stuait ueoige Ball. 0xfoiu: Claienuon Piess, 1999.
Leithait, Petei }. BefenJinq Constontine: Tbe Twiliqbt of on Fmpire
onJ tbe Bown of CbristenJom. Bowneis uiove, IL: IvP
Acauemic, 2u1u.
0uahl, Chailes N. Constontine onJ tbe Cbristion Fmpire. New
Yoik: Routleuge, 2uu4.
Stephenson, Paul. Constontine: Romon Fmperor, Cbristion victor.
New Yoik: 0veilook Piess, 2uu9.
Waie, Kallistos. Tbe 0rtboJox Cburcb. Siu eu. Baimonuswoith,
Niuulesex: Penguin Books, 198S.

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49S
AUCUSTINE: LESSUNS IN CUNTEXTUALISATIUN FRUM
HIS LIFE AND MINISTRY
By Corlyle BonforJ
1

0f all visible things, the woilu is the gieatest; of all invisible, the gieat-
est is uou. But, that the woilu is, we see; that uou is, we believe.
2

(Augustine of Bippo)

We iaiely ieau olu books. We tenu to limit ouiselves by eia, tiibe,
anu categoiy. We ieau books wiitten in oui uay, by people just like
us, anu that can be placeu in one oi two limiteu genies. But this soit
of epistolaiy ieuuctionism is to oui uetiiment - the oluei books aie
piecisely the ones that will help us to escape the limitations of oui
cuiient eia, leain fiom those who aie not a pait of oui local tiibe,
anu tianscenu the categoiies to which we have become accus-
tomeu.
S


Ashfoius comments aie veiy tiue of mouein society anu pai-
ticulaily of Chiistianity. Chiistian books have become big busi-

1
Cailyle Banfoiu completeu his unueigiauuate uegiees in humanities, fine aits
anu euucation befoie completing a Nasteis in Euucational Theology. Be has
taught ieligious euucation anu othei subjects in chuich schools foi seveial
yeais while in ioles which also incluueu oveisight of pastoial caie, cuiiiculum
uevelopment anu woiship. Bis ieseaich on the place of woiship in chuich
schools anu its ielationship to mission has been publisheu in peei ievieweu
jouinals anu highlights his keen inteiest in the iole of woiship anu the Woiu of
uou as means foi the Boly Spiiit to biing faith. Be also piesents iegulaily on the
impoitance of iecoveiing oui contemplative tiauition in oiuei empowei Chiis-
tians to seive faithfully acioss the woilu in uifficult ciicumstances. Be is cui-
iently seiving cioss cultuially by lectuiing in theology anu euucation at a teiti-
aiy level while consulting with local schools on issues of pastoial caie, ieligious
euucation, teachei euucation anu cuiiiculum constiuction.
2
Augustine of Bippo, City of 6oJ, Euiteu by Philip Schaff, uianu Rapius, NI:
Chiistian Classics Etheieal Libiaiy, n.u., p 48u.
S
Biuce Ashfoiu. Augustine foi the 21st Centuiy: why we shoulu ieau olu
books, Apiil 14, 2u12. betweenthetimes.com2uu9u819augustine-foi-the-
21st-centuiy-1-why-shoulu-we-ieau-olu-books.
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494
ness anu theie aie millions of titles of vaiying uegiees of quality
anu usefulness. The woik of the eaily chuich fatheis is incieas-
ingly seluom ieau by those outsiue of seminaiy couises.
As the Aiab spiing has eiupteu acioss the Niuule East anu
noithein Afiica, it is time to pause anu peihaps look back to a
time when Chiistianity uominateu this aiea. We ieminu oui-
selves of a time when the fatheis Clement, 0iigen, Athanasius
anu Cyiil wiote fiom Alexanuiia in Egypt, Teitullian anu Cypiian
woikeu in Caithage, now a subuib of mouein Tunis (in Tunisia)
anu Augustine was bishop of Bippo (now mouein uay Algeiia).
These men ministeieu in countiies which aie now in the ievolu-
tionaiy piocess. These iegions piouuceu founuational theologi-
cal concepts that continue to foim the base of chuich belief many
centuiies latei.
These men conceineu themselves with ensuiing the gospel
was taught coiiectly anu was integiateu into the lives of the fol-
loweis of }esus. We know fiom seveial souices, not the least of
which aie Pauls letteis to the vaiious chuiches, that the Chiis-
tian message was liveu out slightly uiffeiently acioss the Neui-
teiianean. Paul himself piesenteu the gospel uiffeiently to uif-
feient communities uepenuing on theii cultuial backgiounus anu
neeus.
This piocess of making a message unueistoou in a new context
is calleu the piocess of contextualisation. Contextualisation in the
chuich is the vaiious piocesses by which a local chuich inte-
giates the uospel message (the text) with its local cultuie (the
context).
4
The text anu context must be blenueu into that one,
uou-intenueu ieality calleu the Chiistian life.
S

What uiu contextualisation look like in the eaily chuich. Bow
was it piacticeu by the eaily believeis. In this papei we focus on

4
Louis }. Luzbetak. Tbe cburcb onJ cultures: new Perspectives in missioloqicol
ontbropoloqy. Naiyknoll, NY: 0ibis Books, 1988, p 69.
S
Baiiowei, }ohn. What is contextualisation. Auuiess given to Nission Austia-
lia, 2uu1.
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49S
the life of Augustine of Bippo, a fathei of the eaily chuich boin to
a Chiistian mothei anu a Pagan fathei, who auopteu
Nanichaeism befoie a piofounu conveision to Chiistianity took
place. Bis life anu ministiy pioviue a iich tieasuie of insight that
iemains ielevant foi contextualising the message touay. By look-
ing back anu outsiue of oui own cultuie anu time we can equip
ouiselves bettei foi unueistanuing oui own cultuie anu equip-
ping ouiselves foi cioss-cultuial woik.

1 Tbe life of Augustine
Ny uiscoveiy of Augustine, I will aumit, was by my tiaining as a
theologian anu teachei in the Lutheian tiauition. The iefoima-
tion causeu many of the iefoimeis, not just Luthei but otheis
such as Calvin, to iecall the woik of Augustine in iefoiming
chuich piactice anu teaching. Luthei calls Augustine the most
tiustwoithy inteipietei of Pauls wiitings.
6
Anu the similaiities
between Paul anu Augustine aie many as we will uiscovei.
Both Paul anu Augustine weie conceineu with the tiansmis-
sion of thoughts acioss cultuial anu societal bounuaiies. Paul
pieacheu to the uieeks anu }ews as a Roman while Augustine, a
Chiistian with a Pagan anu Nanichaeist past, ministeieu to a uis-
integiating Roman Empiie enchaineu by Platonism anu Pagan-
ism.
Boin in Thagaste (in mouein uay Algeiia) to miuule class pai-
ents in SS4 AB, Augustine was schooleu in Chiistianity as a
young boy by his uevout mothei Nonica. Augustines fathei was
a low ianking Roman official who caiiieu on the pagan ieligion of
the empiie.
Bis homelanu was on the outskiits of the Roman Empiie anu
the iegion was of little impoitance Rome itself. It was a backwa-
tei. This seemeu to have playeu on Augustines minu. As aca-
uemically gifteu young Augustine was suppoiteu to puisue fui-

6
Naitin Luthei. lutbers works vol.S1: coreer of tbe reformer 1. Euiteu by Bai-
olu }. uiimm, ueneial Euitoi Belmut T. Lehmann. Philauelphia: Foitiess Piess,
19S7, p S9.
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thei stuuy in Caithage, |hej set out to make himself moie Roman
than the Romans anu to penetiate to the centie of the cultuie
fiom which he founu himself alienateu by his piovincial biith.
7

Theie he took up house with a young woman who woulu beai
him a son anu he seemingly enjoyeu the heuonistic lifestyle.
Theie he encounteieu anu began following Nanichaeism, a quasi
Chiistian sect which pieacheu the uuality of light anu uaikness.
The light was knowleuge, soul anu spiiit, while uaikness was ig-
noiance, mattei anu the bouy. This system of thought taught sal-
vation thiough the attainment of special knowleuge anu absti-
nence fiom some eaithly pleasuies.
Aftei ietuining home biiefly to teach, he moveu back to take
stuuents in Caithage anu then finally onto Rome. Showing obvi-
ous potential he was appointeu piofessoi of ihetoiic foi the im-
peiial couit in Nilan the most piestigious acauemic position in
the Latin woilu at that time.
Bespite his success, Augustine iemaineu tioubleu. Be hau to
uismiss the mothei of his chilu to take a society maiiiage in Ni-
lan aiiangeu by his mothei. While waiting foi his fiance to
come of age he took up with yet anothei concubine. Be also be-
gan to question Nanichaeism thiough acquaintances encouiag-
ing him to see it as illogical anu uiscoveiing that even the gieat-
est teacheis of the sect weie unable to answei his ueepest ques-
tions.
8

Augustine hau uismisseu the Chiistian faith of his mothei foi
two main ieasons. Fiistly, If uou was supieme anu puie goou-
ness, evil coulu not be a uivine cieation. Anu if, on the othei
hanu, all things weie cieateu by the uivine, uou coulu not be as

7
}ames 0Bonnell. Augustine the Afiican, Apiil 1S, 2u12.
web.aichive.oigweb2uuSu4u2u7Su2u
ccat.sas.upenn.euujoutwayneaug1.html.
8
}ohn Bowen. Evangelism in Augustines confessions: ancient light on a con-
tempoiaiy subject14u42u12. insti-
tute.wycliffecollege.ca2uu7uSevangelism-in-the-augustine%E2%8u%99s-
confessions-ancient-light-on-a-contempoiaiy-subject
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goou anu wise as Nonica anu the chuich claimeu. Seconuly,
fiom the point of view of ihetoiic, the Bible was a seiies of inele-
gant wiitings which containeu inconstant style. Bow can a book,
so full of violence anu humanity, be the woiu of uou.
9

0ne of the tuining points of Augustines jouiney to tiuth was
heaiing the ienowneu Bishop Ambiose of Nilan speak.
Augustine fiist came to simply heai Ambiose as a gieat oiatoi.
As uonzalez wiites, his initial puipose was not to heai what Am-
biose hau to say, but to see how he saiu it.
1u
Ambiose taught
many passages that conceineu Augustine as allegoiy, thus elimi-
nating Augustines conceins about the legitimacy of the Woiu of
uou uue to its biutal, ill-wiitten anu eaithy elements. Ambiose
spoke of Chiistianity in such an acauemically iigoious mannei
that Augustines objections on acauemic giounus fell away also.
Augustine also saw that mans fiee will anu oiiginal sin weie the
cause of evil, anu not uou himself. Be began to see his mistaken
iueas of Chiistianity anu giasp the mysteiy of uou.
But still, Augustine was a spiiitual mongiel whose conveision
was not yet complete.

Raiseu a Catholic by his mothei, he became a catechumen in Am-
bioses chuichbut initially at least, this was piobably no moie
than a move of expeuiency maue by many up-anu-comeis. At the
same time, he was well-acquainteu with the Punic paganism of his
late fathei, anu technically was still a Nanichaean, though he seems
to have piesseu the boiueis of that faith anu moveu beyonu it.
AlsoRoman paganism |wasj paying his bills.
11


The oft heaiu stoiy, of Augustines epiphany in his gaiuen,
heaiing the woius take up anu ieau float ovei his gaiuen wall,
highlights the key moment in his jouiney. Be hau put uown a

9
}usto L. uonzlez. Tbe story of Cbristionity: tbe eorly cburcb to tbe reformotion.
New Yoik: Baipei 0ne, 2u1u, pp 244-4S.
1u
uonzlez p 24S.
11
Ranuy Peteison. Augustines life anu times. Cbristion Eistory, 2u1u.
www.chinstitute.oiginuex.phpchmfifth-centuiyaugustines-life.
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manusciipt of the apostle Pauls wiitings anu when he ietuineu
to it aftei heaiing these etheieal woius on the winu he ieau Ro-
mans 11, let us live honoiably as in the uay, not in ieveling anu
uiunkenness, not in uebaucheiy anu licentiousness, not in quai-
ieling anu jealousy.

Insteau, put on the Loiu }esus Chiist, anu
make no piovision foi the flesh, to giatify its uesiies.
12

It was meuicine to Augustines eais anu assuiance that he
shoulu inueeu tuin fiom his pievious life of seeking eaithly
pleasuie anu assuiance thiough attaining salvation thiough
ones own powei. Augustine wiites of his jouiney extensively in
his Confessions, Anu thus by uegiees I was leu upwaiu fiom bou-
ies to the soul |whichj ciieu out that the unchangeable was bettei
than the changeable.
1S
Augustines attiaction to the puie ethics
of Chiistianity was one he shaieu with many conveits to eaily
Chiistianity.
14

Be iealiseu that his objections to Chiistianity weie misunuei-
stanuings of the message.

Foi, as to those passages in the Sciiptuie which hau heietofoie ap-
peaieu incongiuous anu offensive to me, now that I hau heaiu sev-
eial of them expounueu ieasonably, I coulu see that they weie to be
iesolveu by the mysteiies of spiiitual inteipietation. The authoiity
of Sciiptuie seemeu to me all the moie ieveieu anu woithy of ue-
vout belief because, although it was visible foi all to ieau, it ie-
seiveu the full majesty of its seciet wisuom within its spiiitual pio-
funuity.
1S


Augustines tuining point was thiough being immeiseu in
soliu sciiptuial stuuy baseu on the pieaching of Ambiose anu his
own ieflection. 0f this he wiites:

12
Tbe Eoly Bible: New ReviseJ StonJorJ version. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Pub-
lisheis, 1989.
1S
Augustine of Bippo. Confessions. Tianslateu by Albeit C. 0utlei. uianu Rapius,
NI: Chiistian Classics Etheieal Libiaiy, n. u., p 111.
14
William C. Weiniich. Evangelism in the eaily chuich. ConcorJio Tbeoloqicol
uorterly 4S, }anuaiy-Apiil, 1981, p 7u.
1S
Confessions p 8S.
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I was also glau that the olu Sciiptuies of the Law anu the Piophets
weie laiu befoie me to be ieau, not now with an eye to what hau
seemeu absuiu in them when foimeily I censuieu thy holy ones foi
thinking thus, when they actually uiu not think in that way. Anu I
listeneu with uelight
16


While many took baptism uuiing this time foi caieei oi socie-
tal auvancement, this was not case foi Augustine. At this iealisa-
tion of the tiuth of Chiistianity, Augustine abanuoneu his life anu
high position in society. Be was baptiseu, solu much of his pos-
sessions anu ietuineu to Thagaste to set up what one coulu con-
siuei the foieiunnei of a mouein monastic community.
The stoiy of Augustine becoming a ministei is famous.
Augustine was visiting the chuich in Bippo when the Bishop va-
leiius, aftei spotting the now notable Augustine in the congiega-
tion, pieacheu that uou woulu senu shepheius foi the flock anu
askeu the gatheieu assembly to piay if theie was one piesent in
the congiegation at that veiy moment to pastoi them. Augustine
was iuentifieu, piomptly oiuaineu anu as custom went, was
chaineu to the same chuich until his ueath in 4Su.
Augustine spent the iemainuei of his life focussing on the
neeus of the believeis in fiont of him. Foi him woiship was the
heait of the Chiistians life anu his ministiy. Be was paiticulaily
awaie of the society Chiistians who woulu pack his chuich each
week to heai his seimon to ensuie theii social status anu he saw
his chief uuty to awaken them to the tiuth anu mysteiy of the
gospel.
Augustine stiesseu the uttei fallenness of humanity anu the
inability of humans to uo any goou without uous help.
Augustine ieau Romans 9-11 anu applieu Pauls woius about the
calling of Isiael to the salvation of inuiviuual men anu women.

16
Confessions p 8S.
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0ui salvation, he ieasoneu on this basis, is entiiely uous
woik
17

While he was seemingly tuckeu away in the fiinge of the em-
piie anu of Chiistianity, his influence woulu live on foi centuiies
to come thiough his extensive wiiting. While paits of Bippo
weie uestioyeu following his ueath in 4Su, some 1uu books, 24u
letteis anu in excess of Suu seimons suiviveu anu continue to
pioviue woithy stuuy foi Chiistians touay.

2 Augustines response to popular religious tbougbt of
bis day
0ne who ieaus Augustines seimons notes easily that he was a
man ueaily conceineu with the lives of his congiegants. Be was
not a man simply inteiesteu in acauemic Chiistianity. Augustine
was piimaiily a pastoial theologian anu was conceineu fiist with
the public pieaching of the woiu. Be only conceineu himself in
wiuei uebate when outsiue influences inteifeieu with this con-
giegation. As a shepheiu, theie weie many movements that
thieateneu his flock.
The fiist of the iueas that thieateneu his congiegation was the
Nanichaeism with which he himself aligneu yeais eailiei. It helu
that eteinal salvation was founu by sepaiatingt the light anu uaik
fiom the human life in oiuei to piepaie the soul foi salvation
thiough ones own powei. As Augustine hau leu many to Nani-
chaeism, he felt a paiticulai call to ministei to these people. Bis
piime iesponse was to aigue that the will that was cieateu by
uou is inheiently goou in itself but humanity chooses evil. 0nes
natuie is a continual battle that is only iesolveu by Chiist. While
Augustine uiu not give a gieat ueal of attention to Chiistology, his
thoughts on salvation thiough giace alone aie cleaily seen ech-
oeu in the woik of the piotestant iefoimeis. The ielease of peo-

17
Campbell, Teu. Cbristion confessions: o bistoricol introJuction. Louisville, KY:
Westminstei }ohn Knox Piess, 1996, p 68.
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ple fiom the bonuage of paying uues to pagan gous anu the feai
of tiying to save oneself was a piime uiivei in his woik.
Augustine latei encounteieu the Bonatists who questioneu the
valiuity of saciaments (baptism anu communion) auministeieu
by bishops of pooi chaiactei. Augustine aigueu that the valiuity
of the iights peifoimeu by these bishops uiu not uepenu on theii
peisonal powei but on the Chuich univeisal. The impact on the
congiegation heie is obvious anu coulu leau to ciises of faith. Is
the communion valiu. The baptism. The foigiveness of sins.
18

Augustine extenus his pievious teaching against Nanichaeism
anu aigues stiongly that if the woik of uou is uepenuent on oui
woik then we aie uoomeu foi failuie. It again ieaffiims the
teaching of giace. Augustine cleaily aigueu that the chuich was
a place foi sinneis anu saints. The valiuity of the chuichs minis-
tiy anu pieaching uiu not uepenu upon the holiness of its minis-
teis, but upon the peison of }esus Chiist
19

Pelagianism taught that as the will is fiee, humanity can
choose to oveicome sin anu theiefoie achieve salvation without
the woik of Chiist. It was a movement that uiew on the teaching
of a Biitish ascetic monk nameu Pelagius who helu that human
beings weie able to take the leau in theii own salvation.
Augustine aigueu that the human will is not that simplistic anu
sin can take holu of it. Also, by affiiming the uoctiine of oiiginal
sin, he maintaineu that humanity cannot take the initiative in
salvation. As Ncuiath summaiises the thoughts of Augustine,
Nothing that a man oi woman coulu uo was sufficient to bieak
the stiangleholu of sin.
2u
Again, Augustine comfoits the heaieis
by affiiming the woik of Chiist as key to salvation.
Nuch of Augustines latei yeais weie spent on wiiting the City of
6oJ which was wiitten against the backuiop of the sacking of

18
uunton, Colin E. Tbe Cbristion foitb: on introJuction to Cbristion Joctrine.
0xfoiu, 0K: Blackwell Publisheis, 2uu4, p 1Su.
19
Alistei E. Ncuiath. The Patiistic peiiou, In Cbristion tbeoloqy: on introJuc-
tion. Chichestei, West Sussex, 0.K: Wiley-Blackwell, 2u11, p Su.
2u
Ncuiath p SS.
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Rome in 41u AB by the visigoths. This event leu to a iesuigence
of Pagan beliefs anu some saw it as punishment foi the empiie
tuining to woiship this new }esus insteau of the gous of Rome.
Nany Roman iefugees moveu into Noith Afiica anu into
Augustines congiegation. Be took this oppoitunity to show his
flock, as uou hau showeu him thiough Ambiose, that eaithly his-
toiy anu woik aie simply a pooi ieflection of uous ultimate his-
toiy anu woik.
Bis coie aigument was that society can be uiviueu into two
cities - the City of Nan (baseu on the love of iuols) anu the City of
uou (baseu on the love of uou). We aie faceu with a choice be-
tween the cities but we aie uiawn to what we tiuly love. 0lti-
mately we love uou oi ouiselves. Salvation is founu thiough a
uou who seeks us out in both cities. Theie aie eteinal conse-
quences foi taking up iesiuence in eithei city life foi those in
the City of uou anu ueath foi those in the City of Nan.
21

Augustine cleaily piesents uous giace in seeking out humankinu
wheie we iesiue anu offeiing salvation thiough the peison anu
woik of Chiist only.

The Beavenly City |(of uou)j outshines Rome |(The City of Nan)j
beyonu compaiison. Theie, insteau of victoiy, is tiuth; insteau of
high iank, holiness; insteau of peace, felicity; insteau of life, etei-
nity.
22


We can see fiom facing challenges that Augustines piime ai-
gument was always foi the piime impoitance of uous plan foi
salvation thiough Chiist. Bis Chiistianity is aigueu stiongly anu
has a fiim focus on giace. The concept of giace was a countei cul-
tuial concept foi a Roman society in a myiiau of woiks theology
systems of thought.


21
Biuce Ashfoiu Augustines aigument in the City of uou. 14u42u12. be-
tweenthetimes.com2uu9u821augustine-foi-the-21st-centuiy-2-what-is-
augustines-aigument-in-the-city-of-gou
22
Bowen np.
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3 Tbe implications of Augustines ministry and tbeol-
ogy for today
3.1 The best bearers of the message are those of the cul-
tureitself
Augustines ministiy is so veiy similai to Pauls woius in 1
st
Coi-
inthians 9:2u-2S
To the }ews I became as a }ew, in oiuei to win }ews. To those unuei
the law I became as one unuei the law (though I myself am not un-
uei the law) so that I might win those unuei the law. To those out-
siue the law I became as one outsiue the law (though I am not fiee
fiom uous law but am unuei Chiists law) so that I might win those
outsiue the law. To the weak I became weak, so that I might win the
weak. I have become all things to all people, that I might by all
means save some. I uo it all foi the sake of the gospel, so that I may
shaie in its blessings.

In Tbe City of 6oJ, Augustine is a teachei of Tiuth who is a
Roman anu was schooleu fiom a young age in the uominant ielig-
ious philosophies of the iegion. Be was both Chiistian anu Pagan
anu this meant he coulu speak the uiscouise of both. Be hau
keenly felt the stiain of the piessuie of being pait of ieligious
systems which ielieu on peisonal achievement foi giace to be
attaineu. Like Luthei woulu ieuiscovei many centuiies latei,
Augustine unueistoou fully the welcoming comfoit of Ephesians
2:8-9, Foi by giace you have been saveu thiough faith, anu this is
not youi own uoing; it is the gift of uou - not the iesult of woiks,
so that no one may boast. Be hau suffeieu what Chiistians, Ro-
mans anu outcasts hau suffeieu. This is why themes of giace aie
so piominent in his woiks anu why his ministiy hau such an im-
pact. Be was of the cultuies he seiveu. Augustine wiites:

Foi if two men, each ignoiant of the otheis language meet, anu aie
not compelleu to pass, but, on the contiaiy, to iemain in company,
uumb animals, though of uiffeient species, woulu moie easily holu
inteicouise than they, human beings though they be. Foi theii
common natuie is no help to fiienuliness when they aie pieventeu
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by uiveisity of language fiom conveying theii sentiments to one an-
othei; so that a man woulu moie ieauily holu inteicouise with his
uog than with a foieignei.
2S


Those that aie not alieauy embeuueu in the cultuie must
woik, as Paul uiu, to become pait of the cultuie at the ueepest of
levels anu be able to speak the entiiety of the cultuial uiscouises
of language, custom anu so foith.

3.2Themessageneedstobesentinamannerconsistent
withwaysoftheculture
Augustine suffeieu foi a time fiom a misconception of Chiistian-
ity that uiu not make cultuial sense. Biown wiites:

The gieat Platonists of this agecoulu pioviue them with a pio-
founuly ieligious view of the woilu, that giew natuially out of an
immemoiial tiauition. The claim of the Chiistian, by contiast, lackeu
intellectual founuation. Foi |Romansjto accept the Incaination
woulu have been like a mouein Euiopean uenying the evolution of
the species; he woulu have hau to abanuon not only the most au-
vanceu, iationally baseu knowleuge available to him, but, by impli-
cation, the whole cultuie peimeateu by such achievements. Quite
bluntly, the pagans weie the wise menanu the Chiistians weie
stupiu.
24


Augustine encounteieu a set of ieligious teachings in Chiisti-
anity which weie not acauemic in natuie noi obseiveu the iules
of classicism. It was against his natuie to put his faith in some-
thing so seemingly vulgai anu his piocess of coming to faith was
unfoitunately a piocess of unleaining the Chiistianity that hau
been given to him. This is not an expeiience foieign to us in the

2S
City of 6oJ p 924.
24
Petei Biown. Auqustine of Eippo: o bioqropby. Beikeley: 0niveisity of Cali-
foinia Piess, 1969, p Su2.
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chuich anu Bowen likens Augustines expeiience to people who
attenu the famous Alpha type
2S
couises.
26

Augustines iejection of Chiist was uue to a misunueistanuing
of the gospel gaineu thiough his inteiaction with Chiistians of his
uay. Bis conclusions weie ieacheu by acting against what they
taught about uou, not what uou Bimself taught.

I blusheu that foi so many yeais I hau bayeu, not against the Catho-
lic faith, but against the fables of fleshly imagination. Foi I hau been
both impious anu iash in this, that I hau conuemneu by pio-
nouncement what I ought to have leaineu by inquiiy.
27


When Ambiose taught the message in a mannei in which Au-
gustine coulu unueistanu it in the context of his cultuie, he was
changeu anu he useu this technique to ieach otheis.
In City of 6oJ, Augustine attempts to ieach the last followeis of
paganism thiough using Roman methous of aigumentation, util-
ising Roman liteiatuie anu histoiy.
28
Be challenges the peifec-
tion of the pagan gous anu of Rome itself, anu in uoing so tians-
foims the Roman view of theii own histoiy.
29
Augustine invites
them into the mysteiy of uous city he uoesnt tell them they
aie wiong. Be puts foiwaiu a soliuly constiucteu thesis foi a so-
ciety that valueu sounu logic anu aigumentation. In piepaiation
foi this woik he ieieau the gieat woiks of the classical tiauition
anu ietuineu to his ioots as a classical oiatoi of the highest level.
Anu thou saiust unto the Athenians by the mouth of thy apos-
tle that in thee we live anu move anu have oui being, as one of
theii own poets hau saiu.
Su
Augustine noteu that Paul useu the

2S
Alpha couises have been iun acioss the woilu in vaiious guises in the last Su
yeais. 0iiginally fiom Englanu, the couise focuses on exploiing the claims of
Chiistianity in a ielaxeu atmospheie which encouiages attenuees to ask ques-
tions anu exploie misconceptions about Chiistianity.
26
Bowen np.
27
Confessions p 8S.
28
Biown p SuS.
29
Biown p S1u.
Su
Confessions p 1u7.
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local cultuies specific seaich foi tiuth as iecoiueu in Acts 17:16-
S4 as an avenue to contextualize the message of the iisen Chiist.
}ust as Augustine ieinteipiets the histoiy of Rome, Paul ieintei-
piets the ieligiosity of the Athenians.
Augustine unueistoou all philosophy to be a seaich foi the ul-
timate ieality.
S1
In City of 6oJ he begins with the naiiative of the
host cultuie, in this case, Roman cultuie anu Paganism. 0sing the
knowleuge gaineu thiough his euucation, he caiefully anu iigoi-
ously points out how the seeming aigument between Paganism
anu Chiistianity isnt actually about ieligion; it is about powei.
Augustine uoes not attack the opposing ieligion itself; he exposes
how that ieligion was being useu to uistoit the naiiative, uistoit
the tiuth. Be encouiages the Romans to questions theii own be-
liefs themselves iathei than conuemn theii belief. This ap-
pioach has much to commenu it to us in oui woik touay.

3.3 Preach a message containing the mystery of Christ
andnottheculturalChrist
Augustines piime goal was to uiaw people fuithei into the mys-
teiy of Chiist anu what the Fathei was uoing thiough the Boly
Spiiit in this life. This iuea culminateu in his concept in Tbe City
of 6oJ when he speaks at length of a city that we cannot see but
is so veiy ieal anu impoitant. Bis Chiistianity is an invitation
into wisuom anu mysteiy, of ceitainty in unceitainty, anu into
seeing the ieality of uous stoiy. It isnt a message that uemanus
people follow ceitain cultuial piactices suiiounuing Chiistianity.
A wonueiful teachei of contemplative Spiiituality anu social
action, Richaiu Rohi wiites

In |the uospelsj }esus is constantly piesenteu as inclusive. Beie he
is a }ew, but hes always incluuing the uentiles, the outsiueis, foi-
eigneis, piostitutes, uiunkaius, the tax collectois, the Roman centu-
iion, the Syiophoenician woman. So its veiy haiu to think that this

S1
Augustine of Bippo. 0n Cbristion Joctrine. uianu Rapius, NI: Chiistian Clas-
sics Etheieal Libiaiy, n.u., p 6S.
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}esus, who in his human life, is so consistently inclusive, woulu then
cieate a ieligion in his name that was exclusive, oi exclusionaiy.
That was nevei his pattein. Anu so it foices us to inteipiet that line,
I am the way, the tiuth, anu the life, in a uiffeient way than Ny ie-
ligion is bettei than youi ieligion, oi I have the only tiue ieligion.
Now, one way I think it coulu well mean that is, again, if we unuei-
stanu the Chiist as this eteinal mysteiy of the co-existence of mattei
anu spiiit which we call the mysteiy of the incaination thats
Chiistianitys tiump caiu.
S2

It is not that we begin to pieach univeisalism. To affiim the
unique uecisiveness of uous action in }esus Chiist is not aiio-
gance; it is the enuuiing bulwaik against aiiogance of eveiy cul-
tuie to be itself the ciiteiion by which otheis aie juugeu.
SS
This
is the mysteiy that Augustine speaks of with gieat ieveience.
Augustine was veiy cleai that Chiist iuleu the city of uou but he
maue it cleai humbly anu thiough inviting otheis to question
about theii own woilu view.
To pieach the cultuial Chiist is to pieach the Chiist we think
we know, the one that makes people go to chuich eveiy Sunuay
moining anu paiticipate in stiange iituals like the passing of the
peace anu fellowship aftei seivice. Let us not binu Chiist up to be
only what oui own cultuie believes him to be. Pieach the mys-
teiy acioss cultuies. Non-westein cultuies often ueal bettei with
the concept of mysteiy than the so calleu uevelopeu chuich of
the West uoes.

3.4 Understand that we are workers in Gods fields and


bearamessagebelongingtoHim
In a peisonal conveisation with Richaiu Rohi, Rohi iemaikeu
that his gieatest piayei is foi uou to help him stay out of the way
of what uou was uoing in this woilu; to keep the me, the self,

S2
Rohi, Richaiu. The heavens anu the eaith ueclaie uous gloiy, 14u42u12.
maes-seekgoufiist.blogspot.com2u11u2iichaiu-iohi-on-mysteiy-of-
chiist.html.
SS
Lesslie Newbigin. Tbe 6ospel in o Plurolist Society. uianu Rapius, NI: W.B.
Eeiumans, 1989, p 166.
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the ego anu my cultuie fiom stopping the magnificent gloiy of
uous love being pioclaimeu to the nations.
S4
Bow often oui own
attempts to shaie this gloiy have not been a piocess of allowing
but one of foicing, making, impioving, quantifying anu pushing.
The evangelization of Augustine is ceitainly not a single activity: it
is spieau ovei many yeais, anu involves a wiue vaiiety of fiienu-
ships, uifficulties, conveisations, piayeis, encounteis, ieauings, uis-
agieements, self-examinations, mentois, false staits, sciiptuie, anu
(in the enu) a uiamatic conveision. Faiming anu euucation might
inueeu be suitable metaphois foi this piocess.
SS


Augustine was veiy awaie of how uou woiks thiough vaiious
people anu events to biing about faith. Be talks at length about
the influence of Ambiose of Nilans pieaching, the faith of his
mothei anu those that questioneu his commitment to
Nanichaeism.
Augustine wiites of Ambiose to Nilan I came, to Ambiose
the bishop, fameu thiough the whole woilu as one of the best of
men, thy uevoteu seivantThat man of uou ieceiveu me as a fa-
thei woulu, anu welcomeu my coming as a goou bishop shoulu.
Anu I began to love him, of couise, not at the fiist as a teachei of
the tiuth, foi I hau entiiely uespaiieu of finuing that in thy
Chuichbut as a fiienuly man.
S6
Ambiose was a man who was
piepaieu to uisciple this young man anu help him answei the
questions he helu ueep insiue.

Augustine's Confessions |anu his stoiy of coming to faithj pio-
viues a salutaiy coiiective foi a contempoiaiy theology anu
piaxis of evangelism. In paiticulai, the Confessions point us
away fiom any sense that evangelism is a mattei between the
inuiviuual anu uou alone, that the key is in an existential anu
instantaneous "uecision", oi that the chuich's activism will
biing it about. In fact, what the Confessions offeis is a pie-

S4
Peisonal conveisation with Richaiu Rohi, New Nexico, 0SA, Apiil 2u11.
SS
Bowen np.
S6
Confessions p 77.
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mouem coiiective to a moueinist uistoition of evangelism -
an unueistanuing that will, iionically enough, equip the
chuich foi evangelism in a postmouein woilu.
S7


Augustines unueistanuing of humanity paiticipating in uous
woik built on an eaily unueistanuing of chuich missiology.
Weiniich points out: The eaily Chuich uiu not unueistanu mis-
sion as a meiely human action uone in iesponse to the goou
things uou hau uone. Nission was peiceiveu chiistologically ---
as uou acting foi the salvation of fallen mankinu, but uou acting
only in union with mankinu. The eaily Chuich unueistoou mis-
sion to be the veiy expiession of the Loiuship of Chiist in the
Boly Spiiit.
S8
Theie is a stiong sense of the shaiing of uous love
being a community enueavoi. We aie only woikeis in uous
fielus anu uou uoes the woik. Augustine iecoius:
0 Loiu, little by little, with a gentle anu most meiciful hanu, uiaw-
ing anu calming my heait, thou uiust peisuaue me that, if I took
into account the multituue of things I hau nevei seen, noi been pie-
sent when they weie enacteu--such as many of the events of seculai
histoiy; anu the numeious iepoits of places anu cities which I hau
not seen; oi such as my ielations with many fiienus, oi physicians,
oi with these men anu those--that unless we shoulu believe, we
shoulu uo nothing at all in this life.
S9


3.5 Understand that there are very real implications of
theuptakeoftheChristianmessage
0pon his conveision, Augustine quit his position as a teachei of
high stanuing in Nilan anu ietuineu home intenuing to live a
communal quiet life of contemplation. Be completely changeu his
way of life anu uesiies to follow the mysteiy of the iisen Chiist.
Be gave up a position of piestige anu powei to seive uou.
As the vanuals invaueu Noith Afiica towaius the enu of his
life, Augustine woulu have heaiu of the peisecutions anu toituie

S7
Bowen np.
S8
Weiniich p 62.
S9
Confessions p 84.
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of Chiistians in theii wake. Biown makes a point of Augustines
piayeis anu piepaiation of his congiegation to ueal with an at-
tacking foice that woulu quite likely oppose the chuich vio-
lently.
4u

The histoiy of the Chiistian peoples of the Niuule East is well
uocumenteu anu neeu not be exploieu heie in uetail but we must
always iemembei that theie is often a cost foi following the mys-
teiy. All those engageu in this woik must be piepaieu to suppoit
those who upon heaiing the message, like Augustine, feel calleu
to completely change theii life anu begin to countei the uomi-
nant cultuie.

3.6 Do not be afraid to teach a rigorous Christianity
basedonscripture
uou intenus to conveit the minu as well as the heait anu bouy,
anu theiefoie apologetic, aigumentation, anu uialogue weie im-
poitant instiuments in the eaily Chuichs missionaiy enueav-
ouis.
41
It was veiy cential to Augustines thinking that Chiisti-
anity be consiueieu a logically anu acauemically uefensible faith.
Ncuiath claims that the gieatest of the contiibutions of
Augustine to the chuich, is his uevelopment of theology as an
acauemic uiscipline which alloweu him to uefenu Chiistianity
fiom its ciitics anu claiify cential aspects of its thinking as ue-
fence against heiesy.
42

The epistemology of tiuth was not something a young Augus-
tine was conceineu about but it was thiough the woiks of the
gieat oiatoi Ciceio that he became convinceu that one must also
seek tiuth.
4S
This seaich biought about his iigoious theological
engagement. This acauemic engagement was the fiist time that
Chiistianity woulu be iegaiueu as acauemic by the wiuei empiie.
Augustine hau ieacheu out fiom his piovincial city of Bippo

4u
Biown p 42S.
41
Weiniich p 7S.
42
Ncuiath p 18.
4S
uonzlez p 242.
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Bippo Regius to piesent a plausible sounuing challenge to the
stiff-neckeu empiie of Pagan Rome.
44

Augustine useu the entiie gambit of basic Chiistian teachings
to ciitique the opposing naiiative. Not just using one uoctiine,
he spoke of cieation, ieuemption, sin anu most impoitantly,
giace. Be uiu this so that the Romans coulu see cleaily the uepth
of the uiffeience between the two woilu naiiatives one of uou
as iulei anu the othei as human iuleu.

Augustine's exegesis, seen now in the completeness of his theoiy, is
wholly self-effacing. Exegesis has no ultimate woith, noi is a caieei
as exegete something to be aspiieu to in itself. 0nly if inteipietation
enus by iemoving itself fiom between the ieauei of the sacieu text
anu his uou is it successful. If it iemains, it is as a baiiiei iathei than
an instiument anu contiibutes nothing to the happiness of eithei in-
teipietei oi auuience.
4S


A iight unueistanuing of sciiptuie was the lynch pin foi
Augustines jouiney anu we must always iemembei the powei of
the Woiu of uou taught iesponsibly. 0ne of the key stiategies foi
shaiing the mysteiy is to ensuie the Woiu is pieacheu cultuially
appiopiiately by suitable people, while also ensuiing sciiptuie is
available foi all to take up anu ieau, in oiuei foi all to see the
tiuth of the message we senu.

4 Closing remarks
Augustine anu the eaily chuich fatheis uiu not talk at length of
missiology oi contextualisation. They simply liveu in theii con-
text, woishippeu uou anu loveu uous people insiue anu outsiue
of the chuich community.
In iecounting the final uays of his motheis life, Augustine
wiites so beautifully: We openeu wiue the mouth of oui heait,
thiisting foi those supeinal stieams of thy fountain, the fountain

44
Neil B. NcLynn, Augustines Roman Empiie, Auqustinion StuJies, Su:2,
1999, p 44.
4S
0Bonnell, }ames. Augustine: elements of Chiistianity, Apiil 1S,2u12.
www9.geoigetown.euufacultyjoutwayneaug2.htm.
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of life which is with thee, that we might be spiinkleu with its
wateis accoiuing to oui capacity anu might in some measuie
weigh the tiuth of so piofounu a mysteiy.
46

Nany, such as Augustine, weie uiawn to the moial coue of
Chiistianity anu its focus on the othei. This was seen thiough
almsgiving, suppoit of wiuows anu oiphans, anu caie foi the sick
anu infiim, to helping the unemployeu, caiing foi slaves, anu
pioviuing buiial seivices to the pooi. Weiniich comments that
active chaiity is the veiy stuff of the Chiistian life, anu with gieat
piobability woiks of chaiity pioviueu the eaily Chuich its best
oppoitunities foi mission.
47
This is still tiue foi us touay as oui
best contextualisation of the gospel is to live it.
Augustine constiucts his own jouiney to faith as a play that
has many acts anu playeis. It was not without pain anu uespeia-
tion, but thiough it all uou was woiking anu calling him home. In
the opening book of his Confessions, Augustine wiites foi thou
hast maue us foi thyself anu iestless is oui heait until it comes to
iest in thee.
48
Anu he constiucts the Chiistian expeiience as a
iestless jouiney as we walk thiough the city of man into the city
of uou guiueu by the shepheiu. Yes, theie is a iole foi us to play
in uiscipling, but it is ultimately uous woik.

uou saiu, Let theie be light, anu theie was light. Anu uou saw the
light that it was goou. If, then, we ask who maue it, it was uou. If,
by what means, Be saiu Let it be, anu it was. If we ask, why Be
maue it, it was goou. Neithei is theie any authoi moie excellent
than uou, noi any skill moie efficacious than the woiu of uou, noi
any cause bettei than that goou might be cieateu by the goou uou.
49



46
Confessions p 14S.
47
Weiniich p 72.
48
Confessions p 1S.
49
City of 6oJ p Su2.
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