A.

Pendahuluan Salah satu ciri kemampuan yang dihasilkan dari sebuah lembaga pendidikan formal adalah kemampuan penulisan sebuah makalah atau sering juga disebut dengan paper. Pada lembaga pendidikan formal seperti pada jenjang sekolah menengah atas (SMA) dan pendidikan tinggi (universitas ataupun sekolah tinggi) telah menjadikan penulisan makalah atau paper tersebut sebagai salah satu syarat kelulusan dari peserta didiknya. Tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan antara dua term makalah dan paper, atau bahkan banyak kalangan memberikan definisi yang sama tentang keduanya. Dalam gambaran umum, Concise oxford dictionary the tenth edition, makalah atau paper (selanjutnya kita gunakan istilah makalah) didefinisikan sebagai rangkaian pengujian terhadap beberapa pertanyaan yang dijawab dalam sebuah sesi. Atau dengan kata lain, makalah merupakan jawaban tertulis dari pengujian atas beberapa pertanyaan. Untuk mempersingkat pembahasan, term makalah dari definisi diatas inilah yang akan dijadikan landasan uraian isi dalam artikel ini. Dari definisi term makalah diatas, maka diambil sebuah benang merah tentang definisi atas term makalah akademis sebagai penulisan makalah yang mengikuti aturan-aturan yang telah ditetapkan dalam dunia akademis. Aturan-aturan tersebut adalah antara lain; menggunakan level penulisan formal dengan format baku penulisan disesuaikan dengan lembaga yang terkait, bersifat ilmiah, didukung oleh fakta atau terdapat teori-teori (pendapat ahli) yang berkaitan dengan materi yang sedang ditulis serta sumber pustaka atau lebih dikenal dengan istilah bibliography (daftar pustaka), Nasution (1987) menambahkan bahwa syarat ilmiah dari sebuah makalah adalah jika mengikuti langkahlangkah yang umum dipakai dalam metode pemecahan masalah atau problem solving; yaitu: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Adanya masalah Pengajuan hipotesis atau praduga jawaban atas masalah yang ada Pengumpulan data Menguji hipotesis, kemudian Mengambil kesimpulan yang merupakan generalisasi jawaban dari pertanyaan yang telah diuji

Langkah dalam proses penulisan makalah yang diuraikan dalam artikel ini lebih menekankan pada dasar pencarian sumber pustaka atau literature search yang dapat ditelusuri melalui jalur perpustakaan atau dapat juga melalui internet. Selain itu, uraian dalam artikel ini merupakan pedoman dasar dalam proses penulisan sebuah skripsi nantinya. Contoh-contoh yang diberikan berkaitan dengan pembahasan dalam uraian artikel ini diambil dari sumber skripsi sebagai berikut: The Correlation Between Students Vocabulary Mastery and Reading Comprehension (Hubungan Antara Pencapaian Kosa Kata Siswa dengan Kemampuan Membaca) oleh Wiji Hastuti, Jurusan Bahasa Inggris IKIP Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. Hamka (2001). Pendekatan Keterampilan Proses dan Pendekatan Pencapaian Konsep dalam Pembelajaran Fisika oleh Dwi Hariyadi, Jurusan Fisika Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam Universitas Negeri Jakarta (2003). Students Response towards the Use of Supermemory Music in Reading Lessons (Respon siswa terhadap penggunaan musik supermemory dalam pelajaran membaca), Studi Kasus di Intensive English Course (IEC) Tanjung Priuk Jakarta Utara oleh Herri Mulyono, Jurusan pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni Universitas Negeri Jakarta (2003). B. Isi Artikel Artikel ini berisi tentang langkah-langkah yang perlu dilakukan dalam proses penulisan sebuah makalah akademis. Uraian pembahasan langkah-langkah tersebut ditulis dalam kerangka sebagai berikut: a. Pendahuluan b. Isi Artikel c. Kerangka Umum Sebuah Makalah Akademis d. Syarat Makalah Akademis Yang Baik e. Mendapatkan Sebuah Topik f. Topik atau Judul? g. Menilai Sebuah Topik Makalah

Dalam artikel ini, pembahasan difokuskan kepada langkahlangkah dasar yang disusun dalam proses penulisan sebuah makalah akademis mulai dari perencanaan hingga pengambilan keputusan dan pemberian saran. Yang perlu diingat adalah, bahwasanya langkah-langkah tersebut bukan bersifat baku melainkan sebuah penawaran belaka bagi pemula dalam memulai penulisan makalah akademis mereka. Serta, format penulisan makalah yang ditampilkan dalam artikel ini merupakan format penulisan yang lazim digunakan.

h. Mengembangkan Sebuah Topik i. Membentuk Kerangka Dasar j. Sistematika dan Teknis Penulisan k. Plagiarisme l. Mana Yang Terlebih Dahulu Ditulis, Bab I atau Bab II? m. Penulisan Uraian Pengembangan Topik dalam Bab II

n. Penulisan Bab I dan III o. Penulisan Kesimpulan dan Saran p. Pemilihan Judul q. Penulisan Abstrak r. Penutup Daftar Pustaka C. Kerangka Umum Sebuah Makalah Akademis Dalam sebuah makalah umum, uraian jawaban atas pengujian terhadap beberapa masalah ditulis dalam kerangka sebagai berikut: Abstrak Kata Pengantar (halaman ) Daftar Isi (halaman ) Bab I Pendahuluan (halaman ) 1.1. Latar Belakang Masalah (halaman ) 1.2. Perumusan Masalah (halaman ) 1.3. Ruang Lingkup Pembahasan dan Batasan (halaman ) 1.4. Tujuan Penulisan (halaman ) 1.5. Manfaat Penulisan (halaman ) Bab II Pembahasan (halaman ) 2.1. Definisi Term (halaman ) 2.2. Pembahasan Masalah (halaman ) Bab III Penutup (halaman ) 3.1. Kesimpulan (halaman ) 3.2. Saran (halaman )

Dari sudut pandang inilah sebuah makalah dapat dibedakan dari sebuah skripsi yang sering merupakan hasil laporan sebuah penelitian. Pada sebuah skripsi, bab III dituliskan sebagai uraian metodologi penelitian yang digunakan dan bab IV merupakan uraian hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan. Anda juga bisa melihat serta menganalisa dan mempelajari contoh - contoh makalah Bahasa Inggris di bawah yang banyak sekali. Selai contoh Makalah anda juga bisa mempelajari Contoh Kerangka Makalah dan Segala hal yang menyangkut Makalah, Paper,Karya Tulis, Skripsi maupun tesis. Dengan panduan dan Contoh Makalah yang diberikan di atas, diharapkan orang yang perlu Contoh - contoh Makalah dapat memanfaatkan panduan tersebut.

Daftar Pustaka Lampiran Sedikitnya, sebuah makalah terdiri dari tiga bab seperti pada kerangka diatas. Tetapi, jika sebuah pembahasan dirasakan memerlukan penjelasan lebih maka uraian pembahasan tersebut dapat ditambahkan pada bab lainnya, misalnya bab III untuk penambahan uraian pembahasan dan bab IV dijadikan penutup

Explicit VS. Implicit Information A Global Interlingual Notion PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This study aims to analyze explicit and implicit information, mainly in terms of semantic and in some way syntactic features. The pivotal objective of this paper is to portray an overview of explicit and implicit theory, especially in Translation Studies. This paper reviews the most dominant insights of the issue under discussion and helps the translators ,and in a wider scope any reader, to better cope with the enigmas of any text, utterance, and communication in general. INTRODUCTION Translation is the process of abstracting the meaning of a text from its forms in the source language and reproducing the same meaning into variously different forms of the TL. In other words, the original meaning must stay constant, no matter what form it takes in the TL. Also the TL should be in its natural form and appropriately communicative, in the sense that it can convey all the flavors and aspects of meaning which are readily understandable to the readers (Larson1998,Bell1991,Newmark1995).But to do so adequately, translators should know that there are various kinds of meanings and information. Not all the meanings communicated is cited overtly in the original text. Discovering the underlying meaning of the SL text is contingent upon the translator`s careful consideration of both explicit and implicit information. The translator should be aware of the point that in every single language there is meaning which is expressed explicitly and there is some meaning which is left implicit and it is to him to be aware of these kinds of information and it is the very basic to translation as Larson puts it forward in her MeaningBased Translation (1984). EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT INFORMATION

usually leave some information because the addressee already knows this facts and might be even insulted if they were all included. That`s why in all languages some information which is being communicated is left implicit. For example, the anchorman in the US may voice a statement like The Obama`s tax bill passed in the Senate today.But if he said The tax bill proposed by the president of the United States, Barak Obama, was passed in the Senate of the United States today, (example from M.Larson with slight changes) people will soon be bored. The anchorman is wasting his time telling them things they know. All communication is based on Shared Information, something that both the speaker (writer) and the addressee know about it. It may include shared language structure, religion, culture, previous conversations, background knowledge, a common experience, etc.(Cf. Larson 1984 P43) Mollanazar (2007) believes that using Explicit or Implicit meaning information is contingent upon two factors:1- The author`s style of writing 2- The nature of language. He asserts that the pattern of a language, the vocabulary, grammar, and the text allow certain information be communicated clearly while some others left implicit. TYPES OF IMPLICIT INFORMATION There are two main types of implicit information: 1Implicit information found within the text.

2- Implicit information found outside the text.(Cf. Beekman and Callow1974,P49) Most of the times, there is some information in the text by which the translator can discover the implicit one. These information might be stated in the same paragraph, in an adjacent paragraph, or even somewhere in the text. These kinds of information need to be meticulously detected by the translator in order to decode the implicit concepts. Let`s work it out through this simple example:

Explicit Information is the information which is overtly stated by lexical items and grammatical forms. In fact, it is part of the surface structure form and we don`t need to home in on very especial attention to it in this study because it`s easy enough for a good translator to come up with the proper meaning and as a result, a proper translation.Implicit Information ,on the other hand, refers to shared information, for which there is no one-to-one equivalent form, which is in effect part of the total communication intended or assumed by the writer. THE BRILLIANT ROLE OF SHARED INFORMATION Larson (1984) asserts that when people speak or write, the amount of information included will depend on the amount of SHARED INFORMATION that already exists between the two. As a matter of fact, when we speak (write) we

New York City, as far as I know has the population of approximately 1,000,000.It is the largest city in New York state; located in southern eastern of the state and at the mouth of the Hudson river. Big Apple is also a major financial city in the US. The translator may not be familiar with Big Apple out of the context, but after referring to the adjacent sentences in the same paragraph, he will soon find out the meaning. Sometimes, the implicit information targeted in the text contains some cultural, traditional, religious background, so in this stage the translator needs to do further investigation to come up with the correct implicit information. However, most of the underlying information of any text is usually

drawn from the immediate context as Mollanazar (2007,P27) maintains. Now take heed to this example: The story manifests an exceptional overview of an English life in the 20th century and scrutinizes the history of John Bull as well. In this example the translator may get into trouble with the word John Bull and ask the following questions : Who is John Bull? , What is his role in this text? , Is it a proper noun? In this stage, the translator`s duty is to probe the intended meaning in a variety of aspects like, historical, traditional, cultural, religious, etc. From the cultural point of view, John Bull refers to England or English people. By shading light on this cultural concept, it will become easy for the translator to translate John Bull in the text. WHEN MAY IMPLICIT INFORMATION BECOME EXPLICIT? Technically, whenever the target language necessitates the explication of the implicit information, it is translator`s duty to do so. This is crucial to know that explication is only activated to convey the same meaning in TL as it conveyed to SL. On the other hand, Mollanazar (2007) believes that if the translation is clear i.e. obvious and simple in an annoying way, then implication needs to be done too. IMPLICIT REFERENTIAL MEANING In any text, the reference to certain things, events, etc. might be left implicit but the point is that, meaning is there but not expressed explicitly. For instance, if someone asks, How many guests are in here? the person asked may answer Ten. At this moment it is clear that Ten means Ten guests are in here. The reference to guests and are in here is left implicit in the answer. IMPLICIT SITUATIONAL MEANING There is a very significant point that the information which is expressed explicitly when talking to one person might be left implicit when talking to another. For example, a woman might say to her husband, Peter is sick but she would probably say My son, Peter, is sick to a doctor. As shown in this example, the information my son wasn`t necessary while talking to her husband because he new pretty well who Peter is. (Cf. Larson 1984 - P46) The translator should be aware that there is difference between implicit information and the information which is

absent and never intended to be a part of the communication. In the above-mentioned example, Peter is sick, the mother didn`t say, Peter is sick because of eating too much chocolate. This piece of information is not implied. It is ABSENT. It is not part of the conversation and the translator should be alert so as not to add extra information on his own since it more or less breaches the codes of faithfulness to the source text. According to Larson,1984: Implicit information needs to be added only when it is necessary to communicate correct meaning or to insure naturalness of form in receptor language translation. Yes, based on the situational settings the translator should recognize whether the information needs to be made explicit or not or is it a shared information for the target language audience or it is only decipherable to source language audience. In order to determine the meaning of a text, the translator must know the situational background setting of the communication. IMPLICIT MEANING VS. OBLIGATORY CONSTITUENTS OF LANGUAGE All languages have some obligatory grammatical forms but languages usually differ in what is obligatory. For example, in English, it is obligatory to make explicit whether a noun is singular or plural. You cannot say I saw man walking down the street. You must say I saw a man walking down the street. NUMBER is the other element which must be made explicit in English but might not be obligatory in many other languages. The fact that some information is left covert ,i.e., stated implicitly in grammatical constructions may lead to AMBIGUITY. For example, I hit the man with an umbrella is ambiguous in English. It has two different meanings. If the implicit information is made explicit, it may mean a) someone hit a man using an umbrella as a kind of weapon or b) someone hit a man who had an umbrella with him. However, for translation it is important to know that the implicit information and the ambiguity are sometimes related.(Larson.1984) HOW IMPLICIT INFORMATION ARISES ? In order to understand the nature of implicit information, we need to have a brief look at the issue of relevance which is, as a matter of fact, the central notion of the theory. For a statement to be relevant at all, two conditions must be met: firstly, it should provide some new information. Secondly, relevant information must in some sense link up with other information one already has. Information that does not relate to any such given information seems irrelevant. To elucidate this issue, let us work out through an example: Jane : How do you like your new roommate? Anna : Well I can`t stand slovenliness.

In this brief conversation, Anna does not answer Jane`s question explicitly; yet her reply suggests rather clearly 1) that she does not like her new roommate, and 2) that she considers her slovenly. None of these information is expressed, i.e., formulated in language. So how is it conveyed? A common suggestion is that, information is left implicit because it is already known and hence redundant. The avoidance of unnecessary parts of communication can certainly be a motivating factor for leaving information implicit. This should be the main concern of a translator, a successful communication, rather than coming up with some fixed and standard equivalents. The feeling that implicit information is part of the intended meaning of the original writer usually gives rise to the demand that the translator explicate the information if it cannot be conveyed implicitly. Thus Newmark advises: If one is translating important information which is likely to puzzle the proposed reader ,it is better to write the background into the text to make it meaningful rather than as a note.(1988:148) CONCLUSION The crux of the study is that translators need to constantly make adjustments of the implicit to explicit information and even vice versa. Making adjustment aims to communicate the same meaning regardless of the form employed in the language. The cultures, religious and traditional backgrounds, social patterns and other sociolinguistic variables are always included in the consideration of how to convey the accurate meaning to readers of TL. Not all the implicitness should be made explicit; however, explication should be put into service in order to avoid ambiguity, confusion, and to facilitate clear understanding in the natural form of the TL. This study confirms the theory of meaning-based translation rather than the form-based one and can provide a short-cut for translators who otherwise may prefer to stick to literal translation and keep their readers in the dark. This study mainly focused on implicitness to explicitness; however, explicitness to implicitness can also be done, if necessary. Similar patterns of making information implicit or explicit occur in almost all languages in somehow similar patterns, indicating that we are dealing with a Global Interlingual Notion which is to some extends the essence of comprehending any text, utterance, and communication. Detecting the implicit information and bringing it into light is the gigantic task of translators and as it is the pass key to decoding the enigmas in the original communication in any field of study, it can be regarded as the basis of any

established knowledge. Discovering the hidden meaning of ideas and making sense of them has a long history in the world turning up in a new title of implicit to explicit approach in Translation Studies. This paper is a guideline for translators to come up with the most accurate and natural equivalent in order to avoid murdering the original communication, as Adams believes every translator does, but rather to achieve a successful communication. REFERENCES

Adams, Robert M.(1973) Proteus, His Lies, His Truth: Discussions of Literary Translation. New York: Norton. Beekman,J and J.Callow (1974)Translating the Word of God .USA:Zondervan Corporation for Summer Institute of Linguistics. Larson,M.L.(1998) Meaning-Based Translation :A guide to Cross-Language Equivalence.New York:University Press of America,Inc. Gutt, Ernest-August (1991)Translation and Relevance : Cognition and Context.Oxford:Blackwell. Mollanazar,Hossein(2007)Principles and Methodology of Translation.Tehran,Iran:SAMT Press. Newmark, Peter (1988) Approaches to Translation. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall. Newmark, Peter (1988)A Textbook of Translation. Oxford:Pergamon Press. Nida, Eugene A. (1964)Toward a Science of Translating : with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: Brill. Sperber, Dan, and Deirdre Wilson (1986) Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Oxford: Blackwell. Gutt,EA . (1996) On the Nature and Treatment of Implicit Information in Literary Translation: A Relevance-Theoretic Perspective1