Sugar beet History and economic importance: The sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L. Crassa Group 3.

Helm), locally chaqandar, belongs to the Chenopodiaceae family. The genus Beta has been a domesticated companion of man for many centuries. Mediterraneancultures as long ago as 3000 B.C. used descendants of the wild Beta rnaritima for food and medicinal purposes. The present type of beet grew wild in parts of Asia, and at an early time was cultivated in southern Europe and Egypt. Despite its long lineage, sweet types were not reported until the 1500s. Early in the 1600s it was demonstrated in France that the beet root contains juice similar to sugar syrup. However, it was not until 1747 that commercial sugar was produced from beets in Europe in the laboratory of a German chemist, Andreas Marggraf (Fick et al. 1975). Sugar beet has been cultivated commercially in the Peshawar valley since 1958. Following research achievements in sugar beet cultivation, slicing of the beet crop in the region was first initiated by Charsadda Sugar Mills in 1959 It was followed by Premier Sugar Mills, Mardan and Frontier Sugar Mills i n 1966. Khazana Sugar Mills has been equipped with, slicing plant since 1977. These sugar mills have a total daily slicing capacity of 7350 tonnes. In the Peshawar valley, sugar beet is cultivated on l2 15 thousand hectares with an average root yield of 35.0 t/ha

and 8.010.0% sugar recovery Sugar beets contribute 3345 thousand tonnes to the sugar production of the country. In addition, beet tops are used for animal feed as is the pelleted mixture of pulp and molasses remaining after extraction of sugar. Since sugarcane is intercropped in sugar beet, growers get higher income from the same piece of land without much additional cost, Beet slicing starts about a month after the crushing of sugarcane. In this way, the capital and labour of the factories are utilized very efficiently and economically.

Locality and soil: The sugar beet is a tough plant and is adaptable to various soils and climatic conditions. For example, it is cultivated in the northern states of the USA at 2100 m altitude in arid, sedimentary mountain valleys. Compare this with the conditions in the semi tropics, below sea level in Californias Imperial. Valley where soils are alkaline, the crop is irrigated, and temperatures may reach 49C. For the maximum production of good-quality beets, planting on fertile silt loam or clay loam with good drainage and ample moisture well distributed during the growing season is necessary. Very light soils may result in the production of tapering roots which may not be recovered completely at harvest and will reduce yield and quality, For favourable growth and development of the beet plant, a temperature of 25C during the day and 17C at night, and clear sunny days of maximum light intensity for about 16 hours per day are most suitable. In the later part of the season, progressively cooler nights, exhaustion of available nitrogen and decreased moisture supply slow up vegetative growth and accelerate sugar storage. The most suitable climatic conditions are met in the temperate regions of the world where sugar beets are planted in spring and harvested in autumn and winter. Because of the favourable conditions and maximum growth period in those areas, more than 100 tonnes root yield per hectare with 1315% sugar recovery is obtained, Under the conditions prevailing in the Peshawar region, it is not possible to plant the beet crop in spring and harvest in

autumn because of the limit imposed by very high temperatures coupled with high humidity in the months of July and August. However, scientists of the NWFP have been able to select varieties which can be successfully planted in autumn and harvested in summer. During this period the most suitable climatic conditions for maximum growth are in February through April; this has made sugar beet an important commercial crop of the region.

Cultural Practices Field selection: Selection of proper fields is often given too little consideration by growers. An average grower in the Peshawar valley gives more importa nce to the economics of crops, and too little attention to the many other factors of field selection that can adversely affect production. Because of intensive crop production in the Peshawar region, fundamental importance should be given by growers to appropriate crop rotations when selecting fields for sugar beet cultivation. The length of rotation is to be determined by the presence and severity of insect pests and diseases infesting the soils. Crops which are hosts to common diseases and insects should be avoided or carefully separated in the rotation sequence. Herbicides should be used only after considering the planned rotation sequence, because trifluralin and triazine compounds applied to a previous crop axe very toxic to sugar beet. Low-lying fields with poor drainage should not be selected for beet production. Seedbed preparation: Early stages; The primary goals of the preparation of land at the early stages are to manage crop residues effectively, to improve the physical

characteristics of the soil, and to eliminate growing weeds. If the land is vacant in August/September, preliminary land preparation should be done in these months. This will help to work the crop residues into the soil so that they decompose before sowing and improve the condition of the soil. Deep ploughing is necessary, but the specifics of it depend on the type of soil and type of farm equipment used. Ploughing to a depth of 3035 cm creates ideal conditions for beet production under the soil conditions in the Peshawar region. It is important that land not be worked when it is too wet. Using heavy equipments on wet soils can cause soil compaction, which creates a poor environment for the emergence and growth of sugar beet seedlings. It has been observed that in Peshawar region soils a hardpan, or hard semi layer, has been developed due to several successive years of ploughing to a depth of about 15 cm with cultivators. This hard layer greatly resists the penetration of roots and the movement of water and air, resulting in poor yield and quality of sugar .beet in the valley. Chiseling can be done once every three to five years to break up subsoil hardpans. Final stages; The objectives of, the final stages of land preparation are to eliminate germinating weeds, to level the land properly, and to create surface soil conditions conducive to rapid and uniform germination of freshly planted sugar beet seed. The growers should bed the soil by shaping it into ridges 50 cm apart. The ridges should be level and uniform in height. The field is to be divided into blocks 1520 m wide with alternate channels 75 cm wide across the field. Ridges should be pressed with hand tools to create proper beds and avoid damage at the time of the first irrigation. It should be emphasized that in all phases of land preparation the type of operation to be done is determined by the existing soil conditions and the goal to be achieved. Manuring: Manuring of sugar beet is extremely important, since profit from the crop not only depends on the quantity of beet produced, but also on the recoverable sugar. Proper management of fertilization is, therefore, essential in order to produce high root yield with maximum sugar content and juice purity. For sugar beet, the correct amount of nitrogen (N) fertilization is critical, since surplus N not only causes reduction in sugar content in the root cells (Gulzar et l. 1987), but also accumulates in the roots in the form of impurities which impede sugar recovery in the factory. When sugar beet

follows vegetable or legume crops, less N fertilizer is necessary than when it follows other crops (Hughes and Metcalfe 1972). The profitable fertilizer rate will vary depending on soil, previous cropping history, and other factors. According to the results of experiments at the Sugar Crops Research Institute, Mardan, 90 kg N per hectare is sufficient to obtain good yields. Further increase in the amount of N applied substantially decreases sugar content in the roots with no further increase in root yield. On fertile soils, a higher rate of N increases top growth and decreases sugar yield. Nitrogen should be applied in split applications: two-thirds is to be worked into the soil before ridges are made, and the remainder applied early in February. Late application of N in spring decreases sugar content and juice purity without any profit gained in root yield. To promote ripening of the roots, and achieve maximum accumulation of sugar in the root, the crop should become deficient in nitrogen about four weeks before harvest. Application of phosphorus (P) at the rate of 100 kg/ha at planting is recommended. Most of the beet crop is grown on soils with potassium sufficient for normal growth of the crop. Experiments with the application of potassium to beets under Peshawar region conditions have shown no significant improvement in yield and quality. Seed rate and method of sowing: Sugar beet is sown on ridges erected 50 cm apart. If sugarcane is to be interplanted, the distance between the ridges can be reduced to 45 cm. This allows a proper plant density of cane if it is planted in alternate furrows. The seed is sown at 20 cm spacing on the top of the ridges. This requires 56 kg seed the crop at 100110 thousand plants per hectare. The depth of sowing should be comparatively shallow, about 1.52.0 cm deep in firm soil. If the crop is sown late in the season, the seed should not be placed deep, because of low temperatures which further delay germination. A key requirement for maximum yields is rapid and complete occupation of the available space to achieve complete light interception and efficient use of soil resources.

Maintenance of a proper plant population and uniform distribution of plants in the field is very important. This depends upon proper plant density and uniformity of the stand (Suzuku et al. 1977). Most sugar beet fields in the Peshawar valley have been observed to have low stand establishment and a low degree of uniformity in plant distribution. Root yield decreases at higher plant populations because of increase in he top-to-root ratio and decrease in the percentage of water in the root, while sugar content increases with increase in plant population. On the other hand, sowing the crop at low plant density incurs the risk of sparse plant stands. Roots produced at low plant population are high in chemical impurities which further reduce sugar recovery in the factory (Amin 1982). In the Peshawar valley, seed is still usually sown by hand. Therefore only multi-germ seed is used. Each ball of seed has three to five true seeds. The growers plant two seed balls on each hill on the ridges to avoid risk of failure in germination. In most cases three to six seedlings are obtained at each hill. Thereafter, thinning of the crop to a single plant at each hill is important, to allow sufficient room for individual plant development. Thinning of the crop at the four to six leaf stage, retaining healthy, comparatively larger plants, is necessary. The additional plants should be removed gently to save the retained plant from any root injury. Gaps, if any, are to be filled by transplanting seedlings with larger root length. Interculture: Intercultivation; The intercultivation presently done in vegetable crops can be adopted in sugar beet. It is essential to cultivate as closely as possible to reduce hand-labour weeding costs. A close first cultivation not only gives a more weed-free crop but also mulches the soil, helping preserve moisture and improve the physical characteristics of the soil. However, the cultivation tools used should not lift the beets or cut their roots. It is possible to use a desi plough fixed with a wooden blank 13 x 10 cm at the back. For the earlysown crop, intercultivation can be done until mid-January and for the latesown crop until mid-February. Later, when leaf cover of more than 50 percent is achieved, intercultivation damages the leaves, which may greatly reduce the yield and quality of the crop. If the second dose of nitrogen is applied just before intercultivation by the end of January or early February, it will promote plant growth (Amin 1990). Weeding:

Winter annual weeds are very troublesome. Effective weed control can be achieved only in a system that utilizes all available tools and techniques. 1. ERADICATION: When flew type of weed in the field or nearby locality, it must be completely eradicated. 2. CULTURAL TECHNIQUES: a. FIELD SELECTION. When selecting fields for sugar beet, choose those known to be free of most perennial and annual weeds that cannot be effectively controlled even with selective herbicides. b. ROTATION. Sugar beet should not be planted in the same field more than once every three to four years. Weeds in a beet field are troublesome following pasture, sorghum, and any previous crop in which weeds were allowed to mature and set seeds. Weeds may be less troublesome in a beet crop following intertilled row crops like sugarcane. c. LAND PREPARATION. A well-prepared seedbed free of large clods promotes the rapid, uniform emergence of beet seedlings, as well as more effective weed control with pre-emergence use of newly recommended herbicides, especially Goltix. d. PRE-IRRIGATION. Pre-irrigation can be very useful in the control of weeds in the early stages of growth. It allows germination of residual crop and weed seeds. Then, with the final tillage operations of land preparation; these seedlings are killed and later weed infestation can be greatly reduced. e. CROP VIGOUR. A healthy, vigorous .crop provides competition to weeds and acts as a control. Weed control is more difficult in a poor and skimpy stand. Therefore, growers should give due consideration to other production practices to have a vigorous crop. 3. MECHANICAL WEED CONTROL: In the early part of the season, weed control through hand hoeing is most effective and economical since the weeds are small. Interculturing with a desi plough until the end of February can greatly control weeds between and along rows. However, it is advisable to remove weeds on top of the ridges with light hand tools or if possible by hand. Care should be taken that mechanical cultivation in beet fields is shallow (57 cm deep) to minimize pruning the beet roots and bringing up weed seeds from deeper layers. 4. CHEMICAL WEEDS CONTROL: Properly selected and correctly applied, herbicides can greatly reduce or eliminate the need for costly hand

labour. So far, no herbicides are commercially used in the Peshawar valley for weed control in sugar beet fields. Research on chemical weed control in sugar beet has been initiated. The three-year results of these experiments show that Goltix at the rate of 45 kg/ha when applied at the pre-emergence stage, or 2.5 kg/ha Coltix applied at the four-leaf stage can effectively control most annual weeds in beet fields. This herbicide did not show any injurious effects on beet plants.

Intercropping and Rotation: Because of the limited size of land holdings, most growers in the Peshawar valley have now adopted techniques of intercropping. The most common farming practice of intercropping in the area is the interplanting of sugarcane in wheat, sugar beet, potato, and tobacco crops. In sugar beet, sugarcane is interplanted in winter and spring. The maximum growth of sugar beet takes place in March and April. During this period the interplanted cane setts are just in the sprouting stage of growth. Therefore, the growth and development of the beet crop is not influenced. However, it is important that general management and fertilization of the cane crop should only be started after the beets are harvested. Many growers mistakenly fertilize the interplanted cane crop in May. This greatly reduces the quality of the beet crop and also produces no increase in root weight. Sugar beet should be grown in rotation with other field or vegetable crops. Very little attention is given by growers to proper crop rotation. This has resulted in the deterioration of the physical characteristics and requisite biological activities of the soil and an increase in the infestation of weeds, insects and diseases. Most sugar beet is grown in rotations involving maize, sugarcane, and fodder legumes. In general, a crop of sugar beet should not be sown on a field more than once in three or four years. However, the desirable length of rotation mainly depends on the presence and severity of soil-borne diseases like damping off and black root. The use of an inter tilled crop in rotation between legumes (e.g. berseem) and sugar beet gives enough time for the breakdown of the organic matter and aids in disease and weed control. Irrigation Irrigation practices vary with producing area, but are generally dependent on temperature, type of top and subsoil, degree of slope, amount of rainfall, and length of growing season. Generally, sugar beet benefits from frequent, light

irrigations. However, the number and interval of irrigations depends on the transpiration rate and growth rate of the beet crop. Under Peshawar valley conditions, the beet seed is sown in dry soil; therefore, the first irrigation should be done just after sowing. If the tops of some ridges where seed is placed do not receive moisture, a second irrigation may be applied a week later. Great care should be taken that the ridges are not destroyed by excessive water during the first irrigation. For an October-planted crop, a third irrigation may be required in November. In most years, no irrigation is required until April because of continuous winter and spring rains. In the latter part of the season, four to five light irrigations may be needed at fortnightly intervals. It is important that irrigation water not stand for a long time in, the field. Standing water in beet fields makes the roots prone to infestation by a number of diseases and may result in substantial reduction in yield and quality of the crop. Insect pests: Under Peshawar-region conditions, protection of the beet crop in the early stages of growth is highly important. Growers normally plant the crop at low plant density. Therefore greater risk is involved because of the attack of insects on germinating seed and at the cotyledonous stage. The attack of insects results in crops with low and irregular stand establishment, which in turn causes very poor yields. The insects which cause the most economic damage to the beet crop are discussed below, 1. Field crickets. These insects cut away the germinating seedling and young roots. Damage by these insects has been noted particularly in latesown crops. BHC or Sevin dust at the rate 5 kg/ha when applied on the top of the ridges after planting can effectively control these insects. 2. Grasshoppers. These insects attack the beet crop at the cotyledonous and seedling stages. Cutting away of the cotyledons by these insects results in complete failure of plants and in some cases of the whole crop. Dusting of BHC and Sevin at the rate of 45 kg/ha can control these insects. 3. Cutworms. Cutworms normally attack beet roots and leaves in spring. Whenever there is danger of an attack of cutworms, sugar beet should not be planted following small grains, clover, or alfalfa. Use of insecticides like Parathion and Carbaryl can effectively control these insects,

4. Aphids and jassids. These insects attack at all stages of plant growth. They not only suck juice from leaves but also spread viral diseases. Spray of Dimacron or Methylparathion at the rate 1.0 I/ha can effectively control these insects. 5. Armyworms. Sugar beet is damaged by larvae feeding mostly at night. The caterpillar consume and destroy much foliage in a very short time. These caterpillars migrate from adjacent wheat and clover fields by the end of April or the first week of May. My organic ph6sphatic insecticide, particularly Methylparathion at 1 I/ha, can effectively control the insect. Diseases: Pathogens affecting sugar beet are bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, parasitic plants, and arthropods. Many of these affect the beet plant in different stages of development. The major diseases which infest the beet crop in the Peshawar valley are: 1. Seedling disease. Sugar beet is highly susceptible to seedling diseases, expressed as seed decay, pre- and post-emergence damping off, and infection of the root or hypocotyls of the emerged plant. These diseases include Rhizoctonia damping off, and black leg or black root seedling infection. The severity of damping off can be minimized by shallow planting of seed, by managing soil moisture, and where possible, by encouraging rapid emergence. Damping off of beet seedlings is much more likely to occur following a crop of bean or other legumes. The pathogens causing damping off can be controlled by treating the seed with Diathane M 45 at 4 g/kg seed weight. 2. Foliar diseases. Cercospora leaf spot is one of the most important, widespread, and destructive fungal diseases attacking sugar beet from April until the end of the season. Ring spots with pinkish edges appear on the leaves. Varieties of beet resistant to Cercospora have always been selected for commercial cultivation by scientists of the Sugar Crops Research Institute, Mardan. However, in case of danger of infection, two sprays of Breston 60 at the rate of 1 kg/100 litres of water should be done just after the appearance of thrdisease. The same fungus that causes black leg (Phoma betac) also induces round light-brown leaf spots in older sugar beet leaves. A

four-year rotation with other crops and fungicidal seed treatment are the only recommended control. 3. Sclerotium root rot. This is a soil-borne disease which causes unthrifty top growth and wilting, and later permanently infects the roots. It is very difficult to eradicate the pathogen from the soil. Rotation with sugar- cane, wheat, maize, and clovers which are only slightly susceptible can greatly reduce infection. Resistant varieties are available for commercial cultivation in the area. Treatment of seed with Diathane M 45 46 g/kg seed weight is recommended for control of the disease. 4. Bacterial and viral diseases. Some of the diseases caused by bacteria and viruses or virus like entities, like beet yellows, beet yellow stunt, beet western yellows, beet necrotic yellow vein (Rhizomania), beet yellow net, beet leaf curl, and curly top are difficult to control once the crop is infested. Proper length of crop rotation and selection of resistant varieties can greatly reduce the damage caused by these diseases. Harvesting, storage, and processing: Most powers practice defoliation of beet plants before harvest. Sometimes more than half the photosynthetically important leaves are removed from the plants. Experiments at the Sugar Crops Research Institute, Mardan have shown that the earlier the defoliation, the greater is the loss in weight and sugar content. A yield reduction of as much as 10 t/ha and 23% sugar decrease in the root have been recorded. However, removal of three to four older leaves has no bad effect because of the reduction in respiratory load, Harvest of the crop is started in the month of May even at low yields and sugar content because the factories have to be run for several weeds to

slice the beets produced in the area. The harvesting and marketing of the beet crop should be well organized based on technical advice. Crops planted earlier in the season should be supplied to the factory earlier in the slicing period. Late-sown crops or crops produced on fertile soils or fertilized with excessive nitrogen late in spring should be supplied to the factory later in the season. When the N-level in the petiole drops below 1000 ppm, the crop reaches its maximum sugar accumulation and is ready for harvest. Growers should only uproot theft crop when they are sure that delivery to the factory can be made within 72 hours of harvest. The crop should be harvested when the soil is in proper moisture condition. Harvest from too dry soil may cause difficulty in uprooting and damage to the beet roots, while harvesting from too wet soil will result in an unnecessary increase in weight because of mud, and increased cost of the factory operation. No green material should be supplied to the factory with the beet roots as this badly influences the sugar recovery percentage and efficiency of the factory. After harvest, the roots should be dumped in a shady place along the road and covered with leaves, etc. while awaiting transportation to the factory. This will help reduce losses in weight and quality through respiration and conversion of sucrose into reducing sugars. Cultivars: Like other crops, sugar beet cultivars run out after a certain period of commercial cultivation. Experience has shown that with the, continuous cultivation of the same cultivar, the beet crop, becomes highly susceptible to some of the major diseases. The beet industry in the Peshawar valley survives due to continuous change in cultivars, which are selected and recommended by the Sugar Crops Research Institute, Mardan. The cultivars released for commercial cultivation give higher root yield with maximum< sugar content, and are comparatively resistant to bolting, insect pests, and diseases. At present about 70 tonnes of seed of these commercial cultivars is procured from Germany. Efforts are being made to develop breeding techniques and to produce seed of our own cultivars at the higher altitudes of NWFP. Two triploid hybrids, Kawe Terma and Kawe Mira, have been commercially cultivated in the area since 1984. Three new cultivars, KWS Pak691, KWS Pak595, and Kawe Pura, have been recently

recommended for cultivation. These cultivars have a potential root yield of 6072 t/ha with 1416% sugar in the root. Performance of these cultivars in root yield Yield: The yield of sugar from sugar beets is determined by the root yield, sugar content of the roots, and juice purity, which may be influenced by genotype and environmental conditions. On the average, 35 tonnes of roots are harvested in the Peshawar region, with 9.0% sugar recovery in the factory. The present sugar yield of about 3.2 t/ha is very low compared to the potential yield of 8.09.0 t/ha obtained at the Research Institute. The main reason for the low yield is poor management of the crop by the growers and delay in the delivery of the produce to the factory after harvest. If the beet production technology discussed in this section were properly adopted, it would greatly decrease the gap between potential root yield and quality and that actually obtained by the growers.