Load capacity of a thick-walled cylinder with a radial hole

S. qaczek, J. Ry

s, A.P. Zieli

nski
*
Institute of Machine Design, Cracow University of Technology, Al. Jana Pawa II 37, 31 864 Krakw, Poland
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 22 October 2009
Received in revised form
28 June 2010
Accepted 19 July 2010
Keywords:
Pressure vessel
Thick walled cylinder
Elasticeplastic analysis
Shakedown
a b s t r a c t
The paper deals with elasticeplastic analysis of the stressestrain state in the vicinity of a hole in a thick-
walled cylindrical pressure vessel. The investigations have been inspired by the phenomenon of ductile
fracture observed in a high-pressure reactor. Using nite element calculations, different failure criteria
are proposed to aid design and control of high-pressure vessels with piping attachments. They are
compared with suggestions of American (ASME) and European (EN) standards. A simple shakedown
analysis of the structure is also presented.
The local stress distribution near the hole results in a specic failure of the vessel. A plastic zone
appears in the vicinity of the internal cylinder surface and propagates along the hole side. The vessel
unloading can cause local reverse plasticity, which leads to plastic shakedown in the small zone and then
to progressive ductile fracture in this zone. This is dangerous for the whole structure.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The present study investigates the elasticeplastic behaviour of
a thick-walled cylinder with a small inlet hole. The research has
been inspired by an industry problem of ductile fracture near the
internal edge of a pipe attachment hole in a chemical, high-pres-
sure vessel [1,2]. The whole systemof the attachment is tted to the
vessel by different forms of screwjoints, sometimes with additional
clamping rings. These systems are especially designed for high-
pressure thick-walled reactors and are very different fromstandard
pressure vessel nozzles. The attachment holes considerably weaken
the vessel structure and can force designers to increase the reactor
thickness.
Analytical approaches to deal with the problem are very limited
[3,4]. The codes ASME [5,6] and EN[7] suggest two ways of strength
design of thick-walled pressure vessels: design by formulae and
design by analysis. In the latter approach the nite element
modeling is indicated. The elasticeplastic analysis of pressure
vessels is in the codes only generally described and the shakedown
effect is only mentioned. Our study was conducted with the help of
the nite element method (FEM) system ANSYS 11.0 [8]. The
investigations were complex because of the strongly concentrated
stressestrain effects in the vicinity of the hole.
The main purpose of this work is to propose clear criteria for
load capacity of the investigated pressure vessel subject to low-
cycle history of loading. The structure is analysed with increased
load, up to strong elasticeplastic effects. Then, the reactor is
unloaded and certain residual stresses are observed. Simple
shakedown analysis is also presented. The idea follows algorithm
proposed in [9,10] and continued in [11] rather than the superpo-
sition method [12].
Current investigations of one of the authors and his PhD student
are also directed to study of shakedown effects in case of both,
pressure and transient thermal loads [13e15]. In this case, the start-
up and shut-down processes play signicant role in the shakedown
analysis of the reactor, which was also recently noticed for thin-
walled spherical structures [16].
2. Inuence of local hole on the stress eld in a thick-walled
cylinder
Stress distributions in a thick-walled cylinder without holes
loaded by internal pressure are well known both for elastic and
elasticeplastic states, e.g. [4]. Hence, the load to initiate plasticity at
the internal cylinder radius, called the elastic load capacity g
0
has
an easy analytical form:
g
0

p
0
R
e

1 b
2

3
p (1)
For example, for b 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 the load capacity g
0
is equal to
g
0
0.3695, 0.2944 and 0.2078, respectively. In the present paper
the linear hardening has been applied (Fig. 1). In this case the
relative pressure load g
pl
that generates a total plastic state in
a cylinder without holes can be written as [3]:
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 48 12 628 3387; fax: 48 12 628 3360.
E-mail address: apz@mech.pk.edu.pl (A.P. Zieli nski).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping
j ournal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ i j pvp
0308-0161/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijpvp.2010.07.009
International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 433e439
g
pl

l

3
p
_
ln
_
b
2
_

_
1
l
1
_
_
b
2
1
_
_
(2)
where l is a relative material hardening parameter. This formula
has been derived with assumption of incompressibility and lack of
axial forces, using the HenckyeIlyushin theory of elasticeplastic
deformations [17].
Local stress concentrators considerably decrease the elastic limit
(1). In particular, in the vicinity of radial holes the initiation of
plastic effects occurs for g several times smaller than g
o
. This is
especially dangerous in case of fatigue loads. However, even in the
case of a low-cycle pressure load only a certain local level of plastic
strain is admissible. This is discussed further in detail.
Initiation of plasticity in a pressure loaded cylinder with a hole
takes place at the internal edge of the hole. The rst plastic point
appears at the intersection of this edge with a cylinder generator
led by the hole axis. In contrast, the point, at which the generator is
tangent to the hole edge becomes partly unloaded and stresses in
its vicinity are far from the yield point. Therefore, it is sufcient to
analyse only one cylinder section going both through the cylinder
and hole axes. In this paper, the pressure load resulting in the rst
plastic point is named the elastic load capacity of the cylinder with
hole and denoted by g
e
.
The plastic zone rapidly propagates along the hole and soon
reaches the external edge (at the load g
p
). Although hardening
strain can attenuate the situation, g
p
is an important point in the
cylinder loading history and exceeding it can be unacceptable,
especially for larger number of load cycles.
A range of plastic effects occurs in the elasticeplastic analysis. In
Fig. 2 the plastic range measures s
y
and s
z
are depicted, which are
presented in non-dimensional form as:
r
z

s
z
t
; r
y

s
y
t
(3)
Thus, when the load parameter g/g
p
then r
z
/1:0 .
Fig. 1. Pictorial scheme of stressestrain curve for linear hardening. Fig. 2. Plastic zone near a radial hole.
Nomenclature
p internal pressure,
p
o
internal pressure for elastic limit capacity of a plain
cylinder,
q pressure simulating reaction of cylinder heads,
r
i
radius of hole in cylinder wall,
t R
o
R
i
cylinder thickness,
u
max
maximum displacement of cylinder segment,
E Youngs modulus,
E
t
R
m
R
e
=A
r
strain hardening modulus,
R
e
yield strength,
R
i
internal cylinder radius,
R
m
tensile strength,
R
o
external cylinder radius,
s
max
maximum equivalent von Mises stress,
a
ij
backstress state tensor,
b R
i
=R
o
cylinder radius ratio,
g p=R
e
relative pressure load,
g
e
elastic load capacity of a cylinder with hole
3
max
3
Re
,
g
lim
admissible load capacity of a cylinder with hole
3
max
3
lim
,
g
o
elastic load capacity of plain cylinder,
g
pl
plastic load capacity of plain cylinder,
g
p
load for which plastic zone reaches outside edge of
hole,
g
sh
shakedown load capacity of a cylinder with hole,
3 equivalent von Mises strain,
3
Re
R
e
=E yield equivalent strain,
3
lim
admissible plastic strain,
3
el
elastic part of strain,
3
pl
pure plastic strain,
3
t
total (elastic plastic) strain,
3
sh
shakedown equivalent strain,
4
3
3
t
=3
Re
relative total strain,
4
lim
3
relative load capacity strain,
4
sh
3
3
sh
=3
Re
shakedown relative strain,
4
sh2
3
technical shakedown relative strain,
r
ij
self stress tensor,
l E E
t
=E relative material hardening,
n Poissons ratio,
j r
i
=R
i
relative hole radius,
s
o
equivalent von Mises stress,
S. aczek et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 433e439 434
Loading pressure g
lim
resulting in a limit strain 3
lim
can be
dened as a load carrying capacity for a thick-walled cylinder with
a small hole. From engineering observations it can roughly be
assumed as [2]:
3
lim
4
lim
3
3
Re
4
lim
3

R
e
E
(4a)
where
4
lim
3
3:0e4:0 (4b)
The above engineering measure of load capacity is investigated in
the following sections. It should be noted, that the value of 4
lim
3
is
not discussed in the codes.
3. Finite element model
The analysis is carried out with the nite element code ANSYS
[8]. The analysed object is a cylinder segment loaded by internal
pressure p on the internal surface of the vessel and along the radial
hole (Fig. 3). On surfaces (A) and (C) the symmetry conditions
essential : u
Q
0; natural : s
QR
s
QZ
0 (5)
are fullled. On plane (B) the boundary conditions
essential : u
Z
0; natural : s
ZQ
s
ZR
0 (6)
are introduced and plane (D) is loaded by homogeneous positive
pressure q:
q p
b
2
1 b
2
(7)
simulating reactions of the cylinder heads. The quantities used in
conditions (5) and (6) are components of a displacement vector
fu
R
; u
Q
; u
Z
g
T
and a stress tensor
_
_
_
s
R
s
RQ
s
RZ
s
Q
s
QZ
s
Z
_
_
_
respectively.
Dimensions of the segment are chosen so as not to disturb the
local stress eld near the hole. For given cylinder thickness t and
hole radius r
i
the dimensions DQ and DZ are large enough to full
the condition that plasticity occurs at the point P
3
(Fig. 3) for the
same pressure in the cylinder with and without a hole.
Two types of ANSYS nite elements have been chosen in
a preliminary investigations of the solution convergence e 8-node
SOLID45 (n
n
8) and 20-node SOLID95 (n
n
20). In the simplest
SOLID45 element the solutions are approximated by third degree
polynomials, while SOLID95 has shape functions of fourth degree.
The nite element mesh was dened for the thinnest cylinder
(b 0.8) and then extended to thicker vessels (b 0.6, 0.7). Two
different grids are presented in Fig. 4.
Displacement results were in all the examples very accurate in
the elastic range and showed good convergence in the elastice
plastic state. However, it was not so easy to obtain accurate stresses
and the ZZ estimator [18] appeared to be misleading. The most
difcult task was to full the pressure boundary condition (it means
s
r
p) along the cylinder hole. In Fig. 4 it is observed, that the
radial stresses along the hole can be very different from p. This is
caused by a very large gradient of the radial stresses in the vicinity
of the hole, which is difcult to model by a standard nite element
grid. The nal, ne mesh (Fig. 4b1) has been chosen so that the
radial stresses along the interior of the hole have modelled the
internal pressure p with an accuracy of 3
p
3%.
Similar problems can appear in papers [11] and [19]. Fig. 4
presents stresses s
r
(in local coordinate system r; w; z) for the
meshes proposed in Fig. 4a1 and 4b1. As we can observe, for smaller
cross-bores fullment of the boundary conditions in the case of
mesh (a) is controversial (the internal pressure was equal
p 100 MPa).
4. Load carrying capacity of a cylinder with a radial hole
4.1. Loading process
Different proportions of b; j and l give a large variety of inves-
tigated cylinders. In the calculations, internal radius R
i
150 mm
was assumed as constant (see Fig. 3), outer radius R
o
{250, 214.3,
187.5} mm, according to b {0.6, 0.7, 0.8} and radius of the radial
hole r
i
{3, 7.5} mm for j f1=50; 1=20g. For material in this and
further examples alloy steel with the Young modulus
E 2.0 10
5
MPa and yield strength R
e
684 MPa was assumed.
A numerical load step Dg used in the investigations was
uniformly chosen as
Dg
g
o
n
k
(8)
where g
o
was calculated from Eq. (1). The number n
k
was variable.
In the beginning of plastic effects it was taken as n
k
20 and, while
approaching g
p
or g
lim
, it was increased to n
k
200. Table 1 pres-
ents load capacity measures for different cylinder dimensions. The
last column of the table contains the errors in g resulting from the
load step (8). The values of characteristic loads satisfy
g
e
< g
p
< g
lim
(for 4
lim
3
3:0), which means that the plastic zone
reaches point P
2
(Fig. 3) always before P
3
and that 3 approaches 3
lim
at the very end of the load history.
The equivalent strain in ANSYS is dened as
3h3
eq

1

2
p
1 n
_
_
3
x
3
y
_
2

_
3
y
3
z
_
2
3
z
3
x

3
2
g
2
xy
g
2
yz
g
2
xz

_
1=2
9
Fig. 3. Cylinder segment for FE model (P
m
e point of maximal effort, moving along
segment P
1
eP
2
during plastic process); global (X, Y, Z),(R, Q, Z) and local (x, y, z), r; w; z
coordinates.
S. aczek et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 433e439 435
For the elastic zone, n for steel can be taken as n n
el
0:3. For
elasticeplastic solutions n n
elepl
is, in general, variable. To avoid
this problemn can be assumed as n n
pl
0:5 in the whole region
(approximate use of incompressibility [17]). Then the relation
_
3
ij
_
t

_
3
ij
_
el

_
3
ij
_
pl
(10)
can be directly introduced into (9). In ANSYS the direct addition (10)
of the strain components is replaced by the additive form of the
total equivalent strain 3
t
[8]
3
t
3
el
n 0:3 3
pl
n 0:5 (11)
which is true when the strain components change in a proportional
way. Then, the following equivalent Poisson ratio can be dened
(see also [17]):
n n
0
0:5 0:5 n
e

3
el
3
t
(12)
In the current investigations the only load applied was pressure and
therefore the form of the relation (11) was justied.
In Table 1 we note that the hardening coefcient l has only
a slight inuence on the load capacity g
lim
of thick-walled pressure
vessels with small radial holes. The load g
p
for l 0:97 and
l 0:99 was equal with a accuracy of 3 digits. In Table 2 we
observe development of a plastic zone r
y
; r
z
in a cylinder with
Fig. 4. Fullment of boundary condition along the hole for different nite element meshes; internal pressure p 100 MPa.
Table 1
Load capacity measures for different cylinder dimensions.
j b g
o
g
e
g
p
g
lim
(l 0.99)
g
lim
(l 0.97)
Dg
1/50 0.6 0.3695 0.1352 0.2349 0.2750 0.2785 0.0017
0.7 0.2944 0.1067 0.1670 0.2188 0.2216 0.0013
0.8 0.2078 0.0751 0.1020 0.1541 0.1560 0.0010
1/20 0.6 0.3695 0.1383 0.2362 0.2842 0.2878 0.0018
0.7 0.2944 0.1096 0.1656 0.2252 0.2281 0.0014
0.8 0.2078 0.0761 0.1021 0.1556 0.1576 0.0010
g
lim
for 4
lim
3
3:0; b R
i
/R
o
e cylinder radius ratio; jr
i
/R
i
e relative hole radius;
g p/R
e
e relative pressure load.
S. aczek et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 433e439 436
thickness b 0:8. Increase of the zone in the y direction is much
slower than along the z axis, which results in a candle-ame
effect. The table also presents the values of equivalent strains at
point P
1
, in the vicinity of which the highest cylinder effort always
occur.
With increase of plastic strain for ls1:0 the value of 3
el
increases because of strain hardening. Hence, the strain effect with
respect to g and l can also be measured by (see the last column of
Table 2 and Fig. 1).
d
3

j3
A
el
3
Re
j
3
Re
100% (13)
The elastic strain 3
A
el
is here directly taken from the ANSYS output,
which is denoted by the upper index A. The initial value 3
Re
is
known from 3
Re
R
e
=E and for the investigated steel is equal
3
Re
3:420 10
3
.
Fig. 5a,b shows the relative total strain 4
3
versus increasing
internal pressure for various cylinder dimensions. The hole diam-
eter has a relatively small inuence on the results. The limit
4
3
1:0 represents the pressure at which rst plastic point occurs.
The upper limits 4
3
4
lim
3
3:0e4:0 signal crossing the
admissible load space according to the rough engineering formula
(4). These limits are carefully investigated and corrected in the next
section.
4.2. Unloading process
Reactors are subjected to various load regimes resulting from
different engineering processes. In particular, periodically the
reactor is completely unloaded. Due to the stress concentration
near the holes of a loaded vessel, the unloading process introduces
considerable residual stresses. Up to a certain level of the loading
the residual stresses (on the internal edge of the hole) led to purely
elastic subsequent response. This range of load repetition results in
elastic shakedown of the structure according to Melans criterion
[9e12]. For the shakedown problem, E. Melan formulated
a theorem, which may be regarded as an extension of the lower
bound theorem for static loadings. This theorem states that the
structure made of elasticeplastic material with kinematic hard-
ening will shakedown if there is any time independent distribution
of self stresses r
ij
(x), such that
f
_
s
e
ij
x; t r
ij
x a
ij
x
_
< R
e
(14)
where s
e
ij
x; t denote stresses representing a perfectly elastic
response to the given loading, f denotes the reduced stress
according to the assumed failure hypothesis and a
ij
x is a back-
stress state.
Beyond the corresponding load limit g
sh
, during unloading,
a residual plastic zone appears. This leads to plastic shakedown and
then to ductile fracture. Although the phenomenon is very local, it
can result in development of cracks. It has already been observed in
codes ASME [5,6] and EN [7], which for plain cylinders suggest
g
sh
2g
e
(15)
In case of cylindrical pressure vessels with cross-bores, the point of
extreme stress and strain values moves during the plastic process
along the hole generator in outside direction of the reactor.
However, the rst reverse plasticity occurs in the same point as the
Table 2
Development of plastic zone and values of equivalent strains at point P
1
(Fig. 3), b
0:8; j 0:02; l 0:99; 3
Re
3:42 10
3
e see Fig. 1; r
y
; r
z
e see Fig. 2; b R
i
/
R
o
ecylinder radius ratio, j r
i
/R
i
erelative hole radius, g p/R
e
erelative pressure
load.
g r
y
r
z
3
t 10
3
3
pl
10
3
4
3
3
A
el
10
3
d3%
0.130 0 0 3.282 0.00 0.959 3.282 e
0.140 0.035 0.03 3.466 0.045 1.01 3.458 0.02
0.160 0.039 0.20 4.094 0.667 1.20 3.443 0.20
0.180 0.045 0.35 4.868 1.433 1.42 3.443 0.44
0.200 0.049 0.56 5.743 2.300 1.68 3.446 0.67
0.220 0.056 0.80 6.737 3.283 1.97 3.453 0.99
0.240 0.063 1.00 7.877 4.412 2.30 3.465 1.30
0.260 0.070 1.00 9.118 5.641 2.66 3.477 1.60
0.300 0.098 1.00 12.02 8.514 3.51 3.510 2.51
Fig. 5. Relative total strain 4
3
(see Fig. 1) in point P
1
(broken line) and moving point P
m
(solid line) e (see Fig. 2) - for smaller (j 0:02 e (a)) and larger (j 0:05 e (b))
radial holes; b R
i
/R
o
e cylinder radius ratio; j r
i
=R
i
e relative hole radius.
S. aczek et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 433e439 437
rst plastic effect for g
e
because the unloading process is in this
case elastic.
Fig. 6 shows hoop and equivalent stresses in a thick-walled
cylinder b 0:6 after loading and unloading. In this case, the
load g leads, after unloading, to high residual negative hoop
stresses in the vicinity of the internal edge of the hole (Fig. 6c),
which result in reverse plasticity (i.e. g > g
sh
, Fig. 6d). Table 3
presents values of g
sh
for various dimensions of the pressure
vessels. Case I describes reverse plasticity with the ideal Bau-
schinger effect (kinematic hardening), while Case II means the
elastic shakedown limit for stabilization of the yield stress (reverse
plasticity begins for s
0
R
e
e Fig. 7, [17]). The real behaviour of
steels is situated between Cases I and II, but the difference between
themin the results of Table 3 is very small. The shakedown pressure
g
sh
in case of the full Bauschinger effect is about twice as large as
the elastic load g
e
(compare Tables 1 and 3). The values 3
sh
and 4
sh
3
shown in Table 3 suggest the choice 4
lim
3
3:0, which is the lower
limit from the rough estimation (4b) given in the rst part of the
paper. It is characteristic that the coefcients 4
sh
3
are similar for
different dimensions of the investigated cylinders.
Recent modications of the code EN 13445-3, Unred Pressure
Vessels [7] introduce the notion of the technical shakedown. It
means, that the pressure vessel can work in the low-cycle load
history (up to ca. 500 cycles) when the reverse plasticity zone does
not cross 20% of the cylinder thickness. This allows for considerable
increase of the acceptable shakedown equivalent strain 3
sh2
and the
admissible non-dimensional pressure g
sh2
(see Table 3 and
compare the upper limit of the intuitive engineering capacity limit
(4b)). In Table 3 it can be observed, that 4
sh
3
is not sensitive on the
relative cylinder thickness while 4
sh2
3
strongly depends on it. It can
be stated, that, inside the range of the investigated pressure vessels,
the limits 4
lim
3
3:0 for thinner cylinders and 4
lim
3
3:8 for
Fig. 6. Effect of reverse plasticity. Hoop stress s
w
(a, c) and equivalent stress s
0
(b, d) after loading and unloading, respectively; local system of coordinates r; w; z;
g 0:37 > g
sh
; b 0:6; j 0:05. (a) loading s
min
w
258; s
max
w
790 MPa. (b) loading s
min
o
205; s
max
o
711 MPa. (c) unloading
s
min
w
769; s
max
w
150 MPa. (d) unloading s
min
o
0:19; s
max
o
715 MPa.
S. aczek et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 433e439 438
thicker vessels ensure safe reactor work in case of low-cycle load
history in the sense of the technical shakedown.
5. Conclusions and nal remarks
The paper has analysed loading and unloading of a cylindrical
thick-walled pressure vessel with a small hole. This analysis shows
a very characteristic stress distribution near the hole, which results
in a specic failure of the pressure vessel. A plastic zone appears in
the reactor very early in comparison to a cylinder without hole.
Then the zone quickly propagates along the hole reaching the outer
side of the vessel. This is dangerous in case of high-cycle pulsating
loading, in which the fatigue micro-cracks can appear in this zone.
In case of lower number of similar cycles (estimated for steel by the
range 10
3
e10
6
[20]) the failure of the reactor occurs when each
time after unloading reverse plasticity begins. It leads to local
plastic shakedown in a small zone and then to progressive ductile
fracture in this zone. This shakedown (failure) pressure is twice as
large as the elastic load capacity g
e
and the corresponding relative
strain 4
sh
3
oscillates around 4
sh
3
3:0. It is characteristic, that the
above relations do not depend essentially on the cylinder
dimensions.
According to the recent modication of the EN standards, the
small effect of plastic shakedown with the repeating plastic zone is
not dangerous if the number of cycles does not exceed ca. 500.
However, the admissible relative total strain strongly depends on
the reactor thickness in this case.
Acknowledgement
Grant of Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education Nr
1353/T02/2007/32 is gratefully acknowledged.
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Table 3
Shakedown load capacity of thick-walled cylinder with hole 4
sh
3
3
sh
3
Re

b R
i
/R
o
e cylinder radius ratio, j r
i
/R
i
e relative hole radius, g p/R
e
e relative
pressure load, l (E E
t
)/E.
I e case of ideal Bauschinger effect (initiation of reverse plasticity)
b j l g
sh
3
sh
4
sh
3
0.6 0.02 0.99 0.2725 0.01008 2.950
0.6 0.02 0.97 0.2724 0.00984 2.879
0.8 0.05 0.99 0.1543 0.01016 2.972
0.8 0.05 0.97 0.1542 0.00990 2.895
I e case of ideal Bauschinger effect (engineering shakedown limit)
b j l g
sh2
3
sh2
4
sh2
3
0.6 0.02 0.99 0.3138 0.01334 3.903
0.6 0.02 0.97 0.3206 0.01343 3.927
0.8 0.05 0.99 0.1621 0.01114 3.259
0.8 0.05 0.97 0.1621 0.01082 3.166
II e case of stabilization of yield stress
b j l g
sh2
3
sh2
4
sh2
3
0.6 0.02 0.99 0.2752 0.01027 3.004
0.6 0.02 0.97 0.2808 0.01038 3.011
0.8 0.05 0.99 0.1559 0.01035 3.027
0.8 0.05 0.97 0.1589 0.01044 3.053
Fig. 7. Pictorial scheme of stressestrain curve for reverse plastication: I e ideal
Bauschinger effect (kinematic hardening); II e stabilization of the yield stress;
III e isotropic hardening.
S. aczek et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 87 (2010) 433e439 439